The document discusses the International Psychometric Evaluation Certification (IPEC) and its goal of endorsing empirically based assessment methods, ethical standards, competency of evaluators, and legally defensible work. IPEC aims to improve methodology, competency, ethics, efficiency, and legally defensible work in forensic evaluations. The certification was created to strengthen the trust between psychometric evaluators and the courts through developing validated standards for competency.
Evidence based medicine what it is and what it is notDr. Jiri Pazdirek
This document discusses evidence-based medicine and related concepts. It defines evidence-based medicine as the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about patient care. It involves integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research. Medicine draws on both scientific knowledge and clinical expertise. While randomized controlled trials provide the strongest evidence, not all clinical questions can be answered through RCTs alone.
The document discusses psychological research methods. It begins by defining research and its goals, which include describing behavior, establishing relationships between causes and effects, and developing theories about human behavior. It then describes the empirical research cycle and different research methods, both primary like experiments and secondary like meta-analyses. It discusses variables, research designs, qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis, and drawing conclusions. Finally, it covers ethical issues in research and challenges in determining causality.
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
The document discusses critical thinking instruction and assessment. It notes that while critical thinking skills can be taught, studies demonstrating their efficacy face practical challenges. It advocates teaching thinking as specific skills like evaluating assumptions and analyzing relationships. When skills are taught for transfer across domains with feedback, they do transfer. The document also discusses developing valid, meaningful and cost-effective ways to assess critical thinking skills. Large randomized controlled trials are needed but also present difficulties; alternative evidence like meta-analyses should also be considered. Strong causal evidence of thinking skills instruction improving performance does exist from some large trials.
The document discusses various types of validity in psychometrics and research. It defines validity as the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure. The main types of validity discussed are content validity, criterion-related validity (including concurrent and predictive validity), construct validity, and face validity. Content validity refers to how well a test represents the domain it is intended to measure. Criterion-related validity compares test scores to external outcomes. Construct validity examines if a test aligns with theoretical constructs. Face validity is simply whether a test appears valid at face value.
The document discusses several ethical issues that can arise in psychological assessment. It provides 7 potential guidelines or considerations for ethical clinical assessment, including ensuring assessment goes beyond just testing, using assessment to formulate goals, and actively considering research support and independent judgments when making interpretive statements. It also lists some common dilemmas around assessment, such as basing conclusions on inadequate data or the availability of tests to those without proper training. Finally, it discusses some cognitive biases and logical fallacies to avoid in assessment, such as confirmation bias, confusing retrospective and predictive accuracy, unstandardizing standardized tests, and ignoring low base rates.
The document discusses the use of psychological tests by counselors. It notes that counselors use tests to:
1) Keep records of each student's needs, interests, abilities, and adjustment problems.
2) Help students make choices about courses and careers by assessing their interests and abilities.
3) Provide objective data to help counselors identify each student's strengths and opportunities.
The document discusses clinical assessment and diagnosis in psychopathology. It describes the goals of assessment as understanding how and why a person is behaving abnormally and how they can be helped. Assessment tools should be standardized, reliable, and valid. Clinical interviews and psychological tests are common forms of assessment. Treatment decisions are based on assessment and diagnosis to determine an appropriate treatment plan. Research shows that therapy is generally effective compared to no treatment, and certain therapies are effective for specific disorders.
Testing for conscientiousness. Programming Personality Factors Jacob Stotler
The document describes a study that developed and tested a 23-item inventory to measure the personality trait of conscientiousness. 62 college students completed the inventory, which assessed conscientiousness using four facets: achievement, deliberation, order, and self-discipline. Cronbach's alpha reliability was .77 and test-retest reliability over one week was .966, indicating good reliability. Validity analyses found moderate correlations between conscientiousness scores and GPA/life satisfaction but no correlation with extroversion. While reliability was good, validity analyses suggested the measure may not be suitable for clinical use. The study provided statistical information that could help improve measures of conscientiousness.
Evidence based medicine what it is and what it is notDr. Jiri Pazdirek
This document discusses evidence-based medicine and related concepts. It defines evidence-based medicine as the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about patient care. It involves integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research. Medicine draws on both scientific knowledge and clinical expertise. While randomized controlled trials provide the strongest evidence, not all clinical questions can be answered through RCTs alone.
The document discusses psychological research methods. It begins by defining research and its goals, which include describing behavior, establishing relationships between causes and effects, and developing theories about human behavior. It then describes the empirical research cycle and different research methods, both primary like experiments and secondary like meta-analyses. It discusses variables, research designs, qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis, and drawing conclusions. Finally, it covers ethical issues in research and challenges in determining causality.
Essential Skills: Critical Thinking For College Studentsnoblex1
The document discusses critical thinking instruction and assessment. It notes that while critical thinking skills can be taught, studies demonstrating their efficacy face practical challenges. It advocates teaching thinking as specific skills like evaluating assumptions and analyzing relationships. When skills are taught for transfer across domains with feedback, they do transfer. The document also discusses developing valid, meaningful and cost-effective ways to assess critical thinking skills. Large randomized controlled trials are needed but also present difficulties; alternative evidence like meta-analyses should also be considered. Strong causal evidence of thinking skills instruction improving performance does exist from some large trials.
The document discusses various types of validity in psychometrics and research. It defines validity as the degree to which a test measures what it claims to measure. The main types of validity discussed are content validity, criterion-related validity (including concurrent and predictive validity), construct validity, and face validity. Content validity refers to how well a test represents the domain it is intended to measure. Criterion-related validity compares test scores to external outcomes. Construct validity examines if a test aligns with theoretical constructs. Face validity is simply whether a test appears valid at face value.
The document discusses several ethical issues that can arise in psychological assessment. It provides 7 potential guidelines or considerations for ethical clinical assessment, including ensuring assessment goes beyond just testing, using assessment to formulate goals, and actively considering research support and independent judgments when making interpretive statements. It also lists some common dilemmas around assessment, such as basing conclusions on inadequate data or the availability of tests to those without proper training. Finally, it discusses some cognitive biases and logical fallacies to avoid in assessment, such as confirmation bias, confusing retrospective and predictive accuracy, unstandardizing standardized tests, and ignoring low base rates.
The document discusses the use of psychological tests by counselors. It notes that counselors use tests to:
1) Keep records of each student's needs, interests, abilities, and adjustment problems.
2) Help students make choices about courses and careers by assessing their interests and abilities.
3) Provide objective data to help counselors identify each student's strengths and opportunities.
The document discusses clinical assessment and diagnosis in psychopathology. It describes the goals of assessment as understanding how and why a person is behaving abnormally and how they can be helped. Assessment tools should be standardized, reliable, and valid. Clinical interviews and psychological tests are common forms of assessment. Treatment decisions are based on assessment and diagnosis to determine an appropriate treatment plan. Research shows that therapy is generally effective compared to no treatment, and certain therapies are effective for specific disorders.
Testing for conscientiousness. Programming Personality Factors Jacob Stotler
The document describes a study that developed and tested a 23-item inventory to measure the personality trait of conscientiousness. 62 college students completed the inventory, which assessed conscientiousness using four facets: achievement, deliberation, order, and self-discipline. Cronbach's alpha reliability was .77 and test-retest reliability over one week was .966, indicating good reliability. Validity analyses found moderate correlations between conscientiousness scores and GPA/life satisfaction but no correlation with extroversion. While reliability was good, validity analyses suggested the measure may not be suitable for clinical use. The study provided statistical information that could help improve measures of conscientiousness.
Clinical interviews and psychological tests are important tools used by psychologists to assess patients. The clinical interview involves a conversation between psychologist and patient to diagnose issues and plan treatment, and can be structured or unstructured. Common psychological tests include intelligence tests like WAIS and WISC, personality tests like MMPI and Rorschach, and achievement and aptitude tests. Psychological assessment also involves behavioral observation, mental status exams, and collecting demographic and medical history information.
The document summarizes a study that examined the effectiveness of incorporating cognitive-behavioral techniques within a short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy model. The study measured clients' perceptions of the early therapeutic alliance when therapists used either psychodynamic-interpersonal or cognitive-behavioral techniques. Results showed that greater use of cognitive-behavioral techniques, like providing information about the client's diagnosis, led to higher client ratings of collaboration and agreement on treatment goals. However, overall client satisfaction with the alliance did not differ based on treatment approach. The study had some limitations but offers insights into how combining therapeutic techniques may strengthen the therapeutic alliance.
The document discusses the parties, settings, purposes, and reference sources for psychological testing and assessment. It identifies the main parties as test developers/publishers, test users, test takers, and society. Assessments are commonly conducted in educational, geriatric, counseling, clinical, business, military, and other settings to evaluate individuals' abilities, diagnose issues, inform treatment, and make organizational decisions. Authoritative information on specific tests can be found in test manuals, reference books, journal articles, online databases, and test publishers' catalogs.
This document discusses the rational for using theories, frameworks, and models in implementation science. It provides examples of commonly used theories like the Diffusion of Innovation Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Frameworks like PARIHS and CFIR are also explained. The document emphasizes that theories can help guide research, identify important factors, and explain outcomes. Choosing a theory involves considering its origins, concepts, logical structure, generalizability, testability, and usefulness. Theories can inform implementation planning and tailoring of strategies.
This document summarizes the methodology used in a descriptive research study. It describes the variables measured in the study's survey, including frequency of buying food at gas stations, key factors for choosing a gas station, attitudes toward gas station food, and demographic information. Scaling techniques like comparative and non-comparative scales were used to measure variables. A questionnaire with 14 questions employing different scale types was developed and pretested on a small sample. Non-probability convenience sampling was used to collect data through an online survey from a sample of 68 foreign individuals living in Slovenia. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS, including univariate and bivariate analyses along with parametric and non-parametric tests to describe the sample and test hypotheses.
The document summarizes two objective personality tests: the MMPI/MMPI-2 and the NEO-PI-R. It describes the development and components of each test, including their scales, norms, reliability, validity, applications, and limitations. The MMPI/MMPI-2 was developed using empirical criterion keying and assesses various symptoms of psychopathology. The NEO-PI-R measures the five factor model of personality and was developed using rational-empirical construction to emphasize construct validity. Both tests have demonstrated reliability and validity but also have limitations such as lack of validity scales for the NEO-PI-R.
Unit 09 psychological testing Course code 0840 Educational psychology from ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD.
prepared by Ms. SAMAN BIBI & Mariam Rafique
This document discusses methods of collecting data and developing research instruments. It describes various primary and secondary methods of data collection, including observation, interviews, questionnaires, tests, and case studies. It emphasizes that the quality of the data collected depends on the quality of the instrument. The document provides steps for developing a high-quality instrument, such as identifying variables to measure, developing construct definitions, operationalizing definitions, choosing or creating instruments, and writing operational definitions. Developing a valid and reliable instrument requires thorough preparation, including reviewing literature and pilot testing before administering the instrument for an actual study.
This document provides an overview of psychological assessment presented by Dr. Rhea Fiser. It discusses why psychological assessment is important, including that it can help make companies successful, save lives, and earn money. The document also notes that psychological assessment is included in licensure exams for psychometricians and psychologists. It reviews basic principles of psychometrics and assessment, types of psychological tests and their administration, characteristics of instruments, and behaviors that can be measured. Limitations and dangers of testing are also addressed.
Improving Engagement and Enrollment in Research Studies by MYSUBJECTMATTERS.CAemendWELL Inc.
A white paper on strategies to improve enrollment of and engagement with study participants in human-oriented research studies. It serves as a guide to aspiring and established researchers alike.
https://www.mysubjectmatters.ca
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
This document discusses psychodiagnostic assessment. It begins by defining psychodiagnostics as the science of making a personality evaluation and diagnosing mental disorders. It describes the aims of psychodiagnostic techniques as answering diagnostic questions, ascertaining difficulties, and making predictions and evaluations about an individual's functioning. It then lists and briefly describes common types of psychodiagnostic tests and their scopes. Finally, it outlines the stages of the clinical assessment process, including planning, data collection, data processing, and communicating results.
This document discusses issues related to developing competency in psychological assessment. It outlines eight core competencies deemed important for assessment competency and four guidelines for training. Evaluation of competencies should use a collaborative model. Future directions include strengthening academic prerequisites, increasing training in culturally sensitive measures, incorporating new technologies, and addressing discontinuities between training and practice environments. Ensuring competency in psychological assessment is important for graduate training, internships, clinical practice, and credentialing.
251109 rm-c.s.-assessing measurement quality in quantitative studiesVivek Vasan
This document discusses assessing measurement quality in quantitative studies. It defines key terms like quantitative data, quantitative research, and quantitative analysis. It also discusses principles of measurement, advantages and errors of measurement, and criteria for assessing instrument quality including reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity. Reliability refers to consistency and includes stability, internal consistency, and equivalence. Validity refers to measuring what is intended and includes face, content, criterion-related, and construct validity. Sensitivity and specificity refer to instruments' ability to correctly identify cases and non-cases.
This document describes collaborative therapeutic neuropsychological assessment (CTNA), a method for providing client-centered feedback on neuropsychological test results. CTNA was developed based on therapeutic assessment and individualized assessment approaches. It uses a framework based on motivational interviewing principles. The basic CTNA process involves an initial interview, neuropsychological testing, and a feedback session where test results are discussed collaboratively. Interpersonal skills like empathy, open-ended questions, affirmations and summaries are emphasized. Outcome studies have looked at the psychological and clinical benefits of CTNA feedback. The document discusses applications of CTNA and lessons learned from using this approach in clinical practice.
This document discusses simple classroom-based research techniques that teachers can use to evaluate what works in their lessons. It begins by defining several terms for classroom-based research such as participatory research, action learning, and teacher research. The document then explains that classroom-based research involves reflective teaching as well as systematically planning an intervention, observing its impact, reflecting on the results, and revising the approach. It provides examples of researching a classroom issue using this cyclical process and emphasizes the importance of collaboration and sharing results. In the latter half, it discusses using item analysis of student assessments to help evaluate teaching effectiveness.
La voluntaria pasó la semana ayudando en una escuela infantil. El martes ayudó a los niños con una actividad numérica y mantener el orden durante el recreo. El miércoles empacó galletas y ayudó a vigilar a los niños y limpiar. Se frustró por la falta de escucha de los niños y el cambio rápido de su comportamiento. Encontró soluciones como dejar que un niño baje solo del banco y tomar de la mano a una niña enojada para regresar a su asiento. Sus metas para la pró
Una red de Petri es parcialmente repetitiva si existe un marcado inicial finito y una secuencia de disparo que causa que alguna o toda transición ocurra un número infinito de veces. Una red es parcialmente consistente si existe un marcado inicial finito y una secuencia de disparo cíclica que causa que alguna o toda transición ocurra al menos una vez. Las redes repetitivas permiten que cualquier transición se dispare indefinidamente manteniendo el mismo estado, mientras que las redes consistentes garantizan que toda transición ocurra
The document discusses Assumption University's blended learning initiative which focuses on a hybrid model that strikes a balance between face-to-face teaching and online learning. It provides statistics on usage of the university's learning management system which show high usage during and after class times. The initiative aims to promote meaningful learning experiences by mixing different active online activities to enhance student learning.
Clinical interviews and psychological tests are important tools used by psychologists to assess patients. The clinical interview involves a conversation between psychologist and patient to diagnose issues and plan treatment, and can be structured or unstructured. Common psychological tests include intelligence tests like WAIS and WISC, personality tests like MMPI and Rorschach, and achievement and aptitude tests. Psychological assessment also involves behavioral observation, mental status exams, and collecting demographic and medical history information.
The document summarizes a study that examined the effectiveness of incorporating cognitive-behavioral techniques within a short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy model. The study measured clients' perceptions of the early therapeutic alliance when therapists used either psychodynamic-interpersonal or cognitive-behavioral techniques. Results showed that greater use of cognitive-behavioral techniques, like providing information about the client's diagnosis, led to higher client ratings of collaboration and agreement on treatment goals. However, overall client satisfaction with the alliance did not differ based on treatment approach. The study had some limitations but offers insights into how combining therapeutic techniques may strengthen the therapeutic alliance.
The document discusses the parties, settings, purposes, and reference sources for psychological testing and assessment. It identifies the main parties as test developers/publishers, test users, test takers, and society. Assessments are commonly conducted in educational, geriatric, counseling, clinical, business, military, and other settings to evaluate individuals' abilities, diagnose issues, inform treatment, and make organizational decisions. Authoritative information on specific tests can be found in test manuals, reference books, journal articles, online databases, and test publishers' catalogs.
This document discusses the rational for using theories, frameworks, and models in implementation science. It provides examples of commonly used theories like the Diffusion of Innovation Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior. Frameworks like PARIHS and CFIR are also explained. The document emphasizes that theories can help guide research, identify important factors, and explain outcomes. Choosing a theory involves considering its origins, concepts, logical structure, generalizability, testability, and usefulness. Theories can inform implementation planning and tailoring of strategies.
This document summarizes the methodology used in a descriptive research study. It describes the variables measured in the study's survey, including frequency of buying food at gas stations, key factors for choosing a gas station, attitudes toward gas station food, and demographic information. Scaling techniques like comparative and non-comparative scales were used to measure variables. A questionnaire with 14 questions employing different scale types was developed and pretested on a small sample. Non-probability convenience sampling was used to collect data through an online survey from a sample of 68 foreign individuals living in Slovenia. Statistical analysis of the data was conducted using SPSS, including univariate and bivariate analyses along with parametric and non-parametric tests to describe the sample and test hypotheses.
The document summarizes two objective personality tests: the MMPI/MMPI-2 and the NEO-PI-R. It describes the development and components of each test, including their scales, norms, reliability, validity, applications, and limitations. The MMPI/MMPI-2 was developed using empirical criterion keying and assesses various symptoms of psychopathology. The NEO-PI-R measures the five factor model of personality and was developed using rational-empirical construction to emphasize construct validity. Both tests have demonstrated reliability and validity but also have limitations such as lack of validity scales for the NEO-PI-R.
Unit 09 psychological testing Course code 0840 Educational psychology from ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD.
prepared by Ms. SAMAN BIBI & Mariam Rafique
This document discusses methods of collecting data and developing research instruments. It describes various primary and secondary methods of data collection, including observation, interviews, questionnaires, tests, and case studies. It emphasizes that the quality of the data collected depends on the quality of the instrument. The document provides steps for developing a high-quality instrument, such as identifying variables to measure, developing construct definitions, operationalizing definitions, choosing or creating instruments, and writing operational definitions. Developing a valid and reliable instrument requires thorough preparation, including reviewing literature and pilot testing before administering the instrument for an actual study.
This document provides an overview of psychological assessment presented by Dr. Rhea Fiser. It discusses why psychological assessment is important, including that it can help make companies successful, save lives, and earn money. The document also notes that psychological assessment is included in licensure exams for psychometricians and psychologists. It reviews basic principles of psychometrics and assessment, types of psychological tests and their administration, characteristics of instruments, and behaviors that can be measured. Limitations and dangers of testing are also addressed.
Improving Engagement and Enrollment in Research Studies by MYSUBJECTMATTERS.CAemendWELL Inc.
A white paper on strategies to improve enrollment of and engagement with study participants in human-oriented research studies. It serves as a guide to aspiring and established researchers alike.
https://www.mysubjectmatters.ca
This document provides an overview of hypothesis formulation in research methods in psychology. It defines a hypothesis as a tentative and testable statement about the possible relationship between two or more variables. It discusses the importance of formulating clear and testable hypotheses to guide research. The main types of hypotheses are the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis. The document outlines considerations for formulating good hypotheses, such as operationalizing variables and reviewing relevant literature. Challenges in hypothesis formulation include a lack of theoretical frameworks or evidence. Errors in hypothesis testing can occur through faulty sampling, measurement, study design, or statistical analysis.
This document discusses psychodiagnostic assessment. It begins by defining psychodiagnostics as the science of making a personality evaluation and diagnosing mental disorders. It describes the aims of psychodiagnostic techniques as answering diagnostic questions, ascertaining difficulties, and making predictions and evaluations about an individual's functioning. It then lists and briefly describes common types of psychodiagnostic tests and their scopes. Finally, it outlines the stages of the clinical assessment process, including planning, data collection, data processing, and communicating results.
This document discusses issues related to developing competency in psychological assessment. It outlines eight core competencies deemed important for assessment competency and four guidelines for training. Evaluation of competencies should use a collaborative model. Future directions include strengthening academic prerequisites, increasing training in culturally sensitive measures, incorporating new technologies, and addressing discontinuities between training and practice environments. Ensuring competency in psychological assessment is important for graduate training, internships, clinical practice, and credentialing.
251109 rm-c.s.-assessing measurement quality in quantitative studiesVivek Vasan
This document discusses assessing measurement quality in quantitative studies. It defines key terms like quantitative data, quantitative research, and quantitative analysis. It also discusses principles of measurement, advantages and errors of measurement, and criteria for assessing instrument quality including reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity. Reliability refers to consistency and includes stability, internal consistency, and equivalence. Validity refers to measuring what is intended and includes face, content, criterion-related, and construct validity. Sensitivity and specificity refer to instruments' ability to correctly identify cases and non-cases.
This document describes collaborative therapeutic neuropsychological assessment (CTNA), a method for providing client-centered feedback on neuropsychological test results. CTNA was developed based on therapeutic assessment and individualized assessment approaches. It uses a framework based on motivational interviewing principles. The basic CTNA process involves an initial interview, neuropsychological testing, and a feedback session where test results are discussed collaboratively. Interpersonal skills like empathy, open-ended questions, affirmations and summaries are emphasized. Outcome studies have looked at the psychological and clinical benefits of CTNA feedback. The document discusses applications of CTNA and lessons learned from using this approach in clinical practice.
This document discusses simple classroom-based research techniques that teachers can use to evaluate what works in their lessons. It begins by defining several terms for classroom-based research such as participatory research, action learning, and teacher research. The document then explains that classroom-based research involves reflective teaching as well as systematically planning an intervention, observing its impact, reflecting on the results, and revising the approach. It provides examples of researching a classroom issue using this cyclical process and emphasizes the importance of collaboration and sharing results. In the latter half, it discusses using item analysis of student assessments to help evaluate teaching effectiveness.
La voluntaria pasó la semana ayudando en una escuela infantil. El martes ayudó a los niños con una actividad numérica y mantener el orden durante el recreo. El miércoles empacó galletas y ayudó a vigilar a los niños y limpiar. Se frustró por la falta de escucha de los niños y el cambio rápido de su comportamiento. Encontró soluciones como dejar que un niño baje solo del banco y tomar de la mano a una niña enojada para regresar a su asiento. Sus metas para la pró
Una red de Petri es parcialmente repetitiva si existe un marcado inicial finito y una secuencia de disparo que causa que alguna o toda transición ocurra un número infinito de veces. Una red es parcialmente consistente si existe un marcado inicial finito y una secuencia de disparo cíclica que causa que alguna o toda transición ocurra al menos una vez. Las redes repetitivas permiten que cualquier transición se dispare indefinidamente manteniendo el mismo estado, mientras que las redes consistentes garantizan que toda transición ocurra
The document discusses Assumption University's blended learning initiative which focuses on a hybrid model that strikes a balance between face-to-face teaching and online learning. It provides statistics on usage of the university's learning management system which show high usage during and after class times. The initiative aims to promote meaningful learning experiences by mixing different active online activities to enhance student learning.
Ple(entorno personal de aprendizaje)ple para aula virtualmarinaoooo
El documento describe las teorías pedagógicas del constructivismo y el colectivismo que sustentan el Entorno Personal de Aprendizaje y menciona herramientas como Scoop.it, Pinterest y Delicious para curar contenidos, así como recursos educativos como blogs, wikis y redes sociales como Twitter y Facebook que pueden usarse en un PLE.
This document provides an orientation for business information systems. It outlines key topics that will be covered including organizational issues and information systems, application technologies, software methods and technologies, systems infrastructure, computer hardware and architecture, and theory, principle, innovation, application deployment and configuration. These topics are based on standards from organizations like ACM. It also discusses the concept of a startup, defining it as the early stage of a business where the entrepreneur moves from an idea to securing financing and establishing the basic business structure. Finally, it discusses the concept of pivoting a business, which means changing the overall strategy while still maintaining aspects of the original strategy.
Los mapas conceptuales son diagramas que muestran las relaciones entre conceptos clave de un tema usando palabras enlazadas con líneas y flechas. Ellos ayudan a organizar y representar el conocimiento de una manera visual, permitiendo comprender un tema de una forma más clara y retener la información de mejor manera.
This document outlines an agenda for a session on using action research to improve teaching practice. It will teach educators how to design and conduct classroom-based research using action research methodology. The agenda covers defining reflective practice, explaining action research principles and processes, formulating research questions, selecting appropriate data sources, and completing the research cycle. Attendees will have an opportunity to develop their own action research project focused on improving instructional strategies or addressing a classroom challenge. The goal is to help teachers engage in an ongoing, self-reflective process of inquiry to enhance their teaching practice.
Doritos Jacked_presented at DML2014_Michael WillemsMichael Willems
This document outlines a marketing strategy for a brand called Doritos. It discusses three key elements:
1) Context - Understanding what interests the target audience of 16-24 year olds, such as driving games.
2) Contacts - Recognizing that most consumers are indifferent, so the strategy aims to engage enthusiasts while also acquiring new buyers.
3) Content - The proposed idea is a "Doritos Jacked Driving School" featuring entertaining video episodes and a personal driving experience event, with the goal of adding value to consumers' lives.
This curriculum vitae is for Hlonela Zandile, who was born on July 20, 1993. She has experience working in reception, housekeeping, and food and beverage roles at Hotel Verde and Hungry Lion. She has strong communication, customer service, and problem-solving skills. Her education includes matriculating from Masibambisane High School in 2012 and completing supplementary courses in business and mathematics at Stonefountain College in 2014. She lists three references from her past employers and lecturers.
1. Evidence-based policy and practice aims to objectively assess the quality of social research evidence to inform decisions. However, some argue that claiming evidence can be isolated from political influences and that it should be privileged in policymaking are "brave claims".
2. All observation is theory-laden, so the quest for objective truths is questionable. Quality assessment depends on judgments and values, not just methods.
3. Evidence-based practice aims to minimize gaps between research evidence and practice/policy to improve outcomes. However, drawing on research findings in practice is still limited. Assessing alternative practices requires consideration of clients' values and informed consent.
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite wk 2 .docxcherishwinsland
Notes for question please no plag use references to cite
wk 2 1. Briefly summary of the comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor MI, Retrieved from http://www4.wccnet.edu/departments/curriculum/assessment.php?levelone=tools
Strong words or moderate words: A comparison of the reliability and validity of responses on attitude scales
A common assumption in attitude measurement is that items should be composed of strongly worded statements. The presumed benefit of strongly worded statements is that they produce more reliable and valid scores than statements with moderate or weak wording. This study tested this assumption using commonly accepted criteria for reliability and validity. Two forms of attitude scales were created—a strongly worded form and a moderately worded form—measuring two attitude objects—attitude towards animal experimentation and attitude towards going to the movies. Different formats were randomly administered to samples of graduate students. There was no superiority found for strongly worded statements over moderately worded statements. The only statistically significant difference was found between one pair of validity coefficients ( r = 0.69; r = 0.15; Z = 2.60, p ≤ 0.01) and that was in the direction opposite from expected, favoring moderately worded items over strongly worded items (total scores correlated with a general behavioral item). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved) (Source: journal abstract)
wk 2 2. What are Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics?
Organizing Quantitative Data
Organizing quantitative data [Video file]. (2005). Retrieved January 20, 2017, from http://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=18566&xtid=36200
http://fod.infobase.com/p_ViewVideo.aspx?xtid=36200
Effective ways to understand and organize data using descriptive statistics. Analyzing data collected from studies of young music students, the video helps viewers sort through basic data-interpretation concepts: measures of central tendency, levels of measurement, measures of dispersion, and graphs. A wide range of organization principles are covered, including mode, median, and mean; discrete and continuous data; nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio data; standard deviation; and normal distribution. Animation and graphics clarify and reinforce each concept. The video concludes with a quick quiz to assess understanding and focus on key areas. A viewable/printable instructor’s guide is available online. WE DISCUSSED HOW TO DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT AND CONTROL VARIABLES IN OUR FIRST VIDEO. AND NOW WE'RE GOING TO LOOK AT WHAT TO DO WITH ALL THE DATA THAT HAS BEEN COLLECTED. AN EXPERIMENT IS ONE OF THE MOST POWERFUL WAYS TO SHOW THE CAUSE OF AN EVENT AND ITS EFFECT ON OTHER THINGS. BUT REMEMBER THAT AN INVESTIGATION CAN ONLY BE A SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENT IF IT HAS AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE WHICH IS MANIPULATED .
The document discusses the methodology used for research on a topic in sociology. The researcher will use a structured questionnaire as their method. They will first create a pilot questionnaire and test it on a small group to ensure it collects relevant information. If successful, they will distribute a larger-scale version to gather data from a broader sample. Using a questionnaire allows the researcher to efficiently obtain information from many participants and cover a wide range of topics through a small set of focused questions.
Rorschach Measures Of Cognition And Social Functioning EssayKatherine Alexander
Here are the key differences between the qualitative and quantitative research paradigms described in the passage:
Qualitative Paradigm:
- Relativist ontology that believes there are multiple subjective realities/perspectives
- Inductive analysis focused on experiences and perceptions
- Subjective and interested in lived experiences
- Methods include phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory
- Researchers interpret reality constructed by social interactions
Quantitative Paradigm:
- Positivist ontology that believes there is an objective singular reality
- Deductive testing of hypotheses using measurable observations
- Objective and focuses on measuring and analyzing causal relationships
- Methods include experiments and surveys
- Researchers are independent from what is being researched
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LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3LASA 1.docxDIPESH30
LASA 1 Final Project Early Methods Section3
LASA 1: FINAL PROJECT EARLY METHODS SECTION
THE ROLE OF INTROVERSION AND EXTRAVERSION
PERSONALITY TRAITS ON MARITAL BLISS
STUDENT
_______ UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 15, 2015
Author Note:
This research was carried out as a partial fulfillment towards research methods course by.
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to
1. What is your research question?
What is the significance of extroversion and introversion in marriage?
1. What is your hypothesis or hypotheses? What is the null hypothesis?
Null Hypothesis: Extroversion brings along successful family institution and marital bliss.
Alternate hypothesis: Extroversion does not bring along successful family institution and marital bliss.
1. How many participants would you like to use and why? What are the inclusion characteristics, i.e., what must they have in order to be included in your study (for example, gender, diagnosis, age, personality traits, etc.)? Are there any exclusion characteristics, i.e. are there certain characteristics that would exclude them from being in your study? Does the sample need to be diverse? Why or why not?
20 participants will be engaged in the research study. This is a small number that is easier to manage as well as coordinate their activities during the data collection exercise. Ideally, participants are required and are normally sampled from a large population to be a representative. The nature of the study will require the researcher to get participants who have experiences in marriage. On gender, I will sample equal number of men and women to act as the representative of the general population. The approach is guided by the population in the community where the number of women and men is at par. On age, I will pick individuals from across ages although the highest percentage will constitute of married individuals between the age of 30 and 40 years. Further, I will also pick four individuals who have divorced with the aim of understanding whether introversion or extroversion contributed to their divorce. I will also look at the personal traits of individuals; hence will both social and anti-social individuals. The target participants will precise, representative and homogeneous. They will then be divided into different sets or strata that are mutually exclusive in order to aid it obtaining a systematic process of research.
1. What sampling technique will be used to collect your sample? What population does yoursample generalize to?
Being a qualitative research, the research will utilize the sampling method in the collection of data. Surveying and questionnaire are the main data collection methods that are normally used in quantitative research. The methods aids in understanding the behavior and effects from different members of the focus groups. The approach helps to reduce biases that may emerge when using a bigger population size while at the same time gu ...
This document discusses sources for developing nursing research problems and provides an example of using a critical appraisal of literature as a source. It summarizes a research study that found no significant difference in pressure ulcer incidents between turning patients every two hours versus every four hours. However, more research is needed on timing for patients not on pressure-reducing bedding. The document also discusses the process of rapid critical appraisal and evaluating research studies.
300 words agree or disagree to each question Q1There are .docxpriestmanmable
300 words agree or disagree to each question
Q1
There are various types of methods when conducting research that we’ve learned thus far in the course. There is quantitative, which consists of numerical summations and facts for summary purposes and “emphasize data that cannot be disputed because it can be objectively measured” (APUS, 2016, 1). Then there is the qualitative method, which is contrary to quantitative methods. Qualitative observations are unstructured and broad, focusing on anything the researcher deems credible to a study (Ellis, et all, 2009). Finally, there is the mixed method, which is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods.
There are many different types of data collections instruments that researchers use for their studies. There are: self-defined instruments, qualitative instruments, published instruments and modified instruments. Self-Defined instruments require extensive knowledge of the subject being study, including developing the steps and testing (possibly multiple) to ensure the validity of results (APUS, 2016, 2). This type of instrument is not recommended for first-time researchers. Qualitative instruments can include interview questions because the researcher has based their questions on others. Results are typically shared with experts to determine the validity of the results as well as making recommendations for change. Published instruments are data collection instruments developed by others, however these should be used cautiously because just because an instrument has been published, doesn’t necessarily equate to it being reliable. (APUS, 2016, 2). Modified instruments are simply published instruments where modifications have been made. To ensure these instruments are efficient, it is vital to ensure their validity and reliability. There are two types of validity: construct and content. Construct validity consist of whether the items align with concepts or constructs (APUS, 2016, 2). Content validity is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure.
For my research proposal: Terrorism in Prison: Addressing Islamic Radicalism and Combating Recruitment, I utilized a mixed approach. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods were necessary due to the difficulty when utilizing a quantitative method of determining radicalism in a prison setting. I intend to use two instruments for my research: ERG22+ (Extremism Risk Guidelines) as well as interviewing and surveying convicted terrorists. The ERG22+ was the first risk assessment tool for violent extremism (Heide, et. all, 2019). It was created in the U.K. and the structure is based on 22 factors organized into three different domains: Engagement, Intent, and Capability. The ERG22+ is based on a Structured Professional Judgment (SPJ) that consists of empirical knowledge of extremists and terrorists (Powis et. all, 2019). The participants of this tool are convicted terrorists in the U.K. Next, the ERG22+ was.
Running Head Evidence based Practice, Step by Step Asking the Cl.docxtodd271
This document provides a PICOT statement proposed by a student to address the effects of hypertension. The PICOT statement asks: What are the effects of acquiring lifestyle advice about healthy meals versus using medication to treat high blood pressure in adult males aged 40-70 with hypertension over 6 months? The population is adult males aged 40-70 with hypertension. The intervention is acquiring lifestyle advice about healthy meals. The comparison is using medication to treat high blood pressure. The outcomes are managing blood pressure and reducing risks of cardiovascular disease. The time period is 6 months.
Fb11001 reliability and_validity_in_qualitative_research_summaryDr. Akshay S. Bhat
The document discusses reliability and validity in qualitative research. It begins by explaining quantitative research and how reliability and validity are defined and ensured in quantitative methods. It then explores how reliability and validity are approached differently in qualitative research since the goals of qualitative research are understanding rather than generalization. Specifically:
Reliability in qualitative research focuses on dependability and quality of explanation rather than replicability. Validity is more contingent on the research methodology and aims for understanding rather than truth. Researchers ensure validity in qualitative work through approaches like triangulation of data sources and analysis methods. Overall the document calls for refining definitions of reliability and validity for qualitative research.
There are key differences between qualitative and quantitative research. Quantitative research generates numerical/statistical data through tools like questionnaires and focuses on measuring and analyzing target concepts precisely. Qualitative research generates non-numerical data like words through interviews and focuses on understanding human behavior and reasons for it through a subjective approach. While quantitative research aims to generalize findings, qualitative research provides in-depth descriptions and explores phenomena. The choice depends on the research question - qualitative is used for exploratory studies, while quantitative is used for conclusive studies later in the research process.
The document discusses ethical issues in psychological assessment in South Africa. It states that psychological tests are only to be administered, interpreted, and managed by registered psychologists. Because these tests assess private client information, it is important for psychologists to follow ethical practices to ensure tests are fair and do not cause harm. The document also provides definitions of psychological tests and acts under South African law. It notes the history of South Africa has impacted psychological testing in the country and discusses some ethical issues psychologists should consider.
Difference Between Quantitative And Qualitative ResearchMelanie Smith
The document discusses the differences between quantitative and qualitative research methods. It notes that while there may seem to be little difference to those new to research, scholars see vast differences between the two models. It describes how quantitative research relies on empirical data and statistics while qualitative research is more subjective and naturalistic. The document also discusses how qualitative research has become more rigorous over time in its data collection and analysis, and that a combined or integrated approach using both methods can provide a more comprehensive way to study phenomena.
This document summarizes a research article that discusses qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. It provides an overview of the key differences between the two approaches, including their philosophical underpinnings and data collection and analysis processes. It then gives examples of specific methodologies, including a qualitative collective case study and quantitative survey research. The document emphasizes that while the approaches differ, they both aim to further scientific understanding and can inform one another when used sequentially or together in a mixed methods design.
A Qualitative Methodological Approach Through Field ResearchDiana Oliva
Article 1 takes a social constructionist perspective to examine how gender myths are appropriated into development policies and programs. It uses a qualitative methodological approach involving discourse analysis to critically analyze the language and narratives around gender in development.
Article 2 adopts a feminist standpoint theory framework to explore women's lived experiences of domestic violence. It employs an ethnographic methodology, using in-depth interviews and focus groups to generate rich qualitative data from the perspectives of abused women themselves.
Both articles adopt a critical theoretical lens to challenge dominant power structures. While Article 1 focuses on deconstructing development discourse, Article 2 centers women's voices to
1
Methods and Statistical Analysis
Name xxx
United State University
Course xxx
Professor xxxx
Date xxx
The Evaluative Criteria
The process of analyzing a healthcare plan to see if it meets its goals takes some time. Because it promotes an evidence-based approach, assessment is crucial in practice consignment. Evaluation can be used to assess the effectiveness of the research. It helps determine what changes could be recommended to improve service delivery and the study's persuasiveness. An impact evaluation analyzes the intervention's direct and indirect, positive and negative, planned and unplanned consequences. If an evaluation fails to deliver fresh recognition regularly, it may result in inaccurate results and conclusions. A healthcare practitioner can utilize the indicators or variables to evaluate programs and determine whether they are legal or not (Dash et al., 2019). The variables are also used to assess if the mediation is on track to meet its objectives and obligations. Participation rates, prevalence, and individual behaviors are among the measures to be addressed.
Individual behaviors are actions taken by individuals to improve their health. People have been denied the assistance and resources they seek because of ethics and plans. In addition, different people have varied perspectives about pressure ulcers treatment. Relevance refers to how the study may contribute to a worthwhile cause (Li et al., 2019). Quality variables give statistics on the precariously rising service consignment while also attempting to provide information on the part of the care that may be changed. The participation rate refers to the total number of people participating in the study.
On the other hand, individuals may be unable to engage in the study due to a lack of cultural knowledge and ineffective consent processes. The overall number of persons in a population who have a health disease at a given time is referred to as prevalence (Li et al., 2019). Although prevalence shows the rate at which new facts arrive, it aids in determining the suitable, complete outcome-positive prestige of people.
Research Approaches
The word "research approaches" refers to techniques and procedures to draw general conclusions concerning data collection, analysis, and explanation methods. In my research, I'll employ both quantitative and qualitative methods. A qualitative research technique will reveal deterrents and hindrances to practicing change by rationalizing the reasons behind specific demeanors (Li et al., 2019). Qualitative research will collect and evaluate non-numerical data to comprehend perspectives or opinions. It will also be utilized to learn everything there is to know about a subject or to develop new research ideologies.
The quantitative method focuses on goal data and statistical or numerical analysis of data collected through a questionnaire. In the healthcare field, quantitative research may develop and execute new or enhanced work meas ...
Contents1.0Introduction11.1 Research Objectives11.docxbobbywlane695641
Contents
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Research Objectives 1
1.2 Research Question 2
1.3 Research Hypothesis 2
2.0 Methodology 3
2.1 Research Design 3
2.2 Quantitative Research Methods 3
2.3 Qualitative Research Methods 4
3.0 Sampling Size and Design 4
3.1 Sampling Size 4
3.2 Sampling Design 5
4.0 Ethical Considerations 6
5.0 Data Collection and Analysis 7
5.1 Qualitative Research 7
5.2 Quantitative Research 7
6.0 Research Limitations 7
7.0 References 9
8.0 Appendices 11
Appendix 1 11
Appendix 2 18
Appendix 3 19
Appendix 4 20
Appendix 5 23
1.0 Introduction
This study aims in providing adequate descriptive research methods with the combination of exploratory interventions to measure the antecedents and its impact on consumer ethical behaviours, relating to ethical product consumption which facilitates strategic and decision making implementations for ShopHere. This study too, studies the viability of the ‘ethical consumers’ segment.
ShopHere prides themselves in selling quality products, having a unique proposition of being ethical traded and produced. ShopHere has this consistent value throughout all their various product offerings in a multi-channel, and e-commerce distribution channel across Australia.
Ethical products are referred to as products that exhibit one or more social or environmental principles which can affect a consumer purchase decision, or attributes that are positively perceived (Bezencon and Bilili 2015). The purchase intention towards ethical products will be the focus of this research.
In this research, we also investigate consumer ethics. Which is defined as the moral principles and standards that direct behaviours of individuals of the obtains, usage and disposal of goods and services (Vitell 2015). The overall aims are to identify ethical consumers and their motivations and attitudes toward ethical products. Attitudes and motivations, coupling up with demographic variables converge into the notion of involvement (Bezencon and Bilili 2015).
The three main themes identified in this study on consumer’s Purchase Intentions towards ethical products are based on the emerging themes from the systematic literature review, referring to Cost, Social-Cultural, and Ease of Purchasing factors.
1.1 Research Objectives
Research for this study looks into the assessment of workability, and to justify the investor’s decisions in ShopHere’s business strategy by determining what are the driving factors towards the purchase intention of ethical products.
1.2 Research Question
Ethical Consumers - What are motivating factor(s) driving the purchase of ethical products?
1.3 Research Hypothesis
Chart 1A
Research Framework
With the following variables, the following hypothesis was derived:
H1: Cost is a driving factor towards the purchase intention of ethical products.
H2: Social-Cultural Factors are driving factors towards the purchase intention of ethical products.
H3: The ease of Purchasing is a driving factor towards the pu.
Similar to JFVA_Vol15No2_WhitmerGrimley_PsychometricEvaluationCompetency (18)
1. Psychometric Evaluation Competency: The
International Psychometric Evaluation Certification
(IPEC) in the Era of Evidenced Based Assessment
Within the Forensic Environment
Scott Whitmer
Whitmer & Associates
Cynthia P. Grimley
Cynthia P. Grimley & Associates
Abstract. This article will draw upon relevant clinical, psychometric, forensic methodology, and empiri-
cal data to illustrate the utility of a certification for competency in psychometric evaluation. The Interna-
tional Psychometric Evaluation Certification (IPEC) was conceptualized by the American Board of
Vocational Experts (ABVE) in 2014 after two years of research and membership collaboration. The
IPEC mission is to endorse and support qualitative and quantitative empirically based methods, ethi-
cally driven standards, efficiency of evaluation, competency of experts/evaluators, and legally defensible
work. Evidence Based Assessment (EBA) criteria share these common goals that underlie the IPEC mis-
sion and will serve to align with the EBA national mandate. In the tradition of collaboration and trans-
parency, the ABVE wishes to call upon all evaluators from all corners of the evaluation industry to come
forward to share in the vision that will not only improve methodology, competency, ethics, efficiency, and
legally defensible work but align with EBA goals. This article will also serve to highlight methodology
that is emerging within the discipline of Forensic Vocational Evaluation that will build upon research
and broaden methodology associated with psychometric theories, methods and applications. Our disci-
pline and related specialties wish to build upon this important element of empirical work to demonstrate
to future legislative leaders that regardless of differences in mission and vision within the counseling and
expert communities, we as psychometric evaluators stand united in endorsing a methodology, standards
and purpose that will continue to effectively serve the courts and general public.
Whitmer & GrimleyThe eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophy’s core was “theory
of knowledge,” a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation…Without this idea of a “theory of knowl-
edge,” it is hard to imagine what “philosophy” could have been in the age of modern science.
— Richard Rorty, in Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature (1979, p. 132).
The above quotation by Richard Rorty (1979) illustrates an
important point in our quest as evaluators to understand
where our roots lie most deeply. The theory of knowledge
(epistemology) and the nature of being (ontology) indeed lie
at the foundation of philosophy. Philosophy is at the founda-
tion of psychology and therefore we are rooted in the study of
knowledge and measurement of being. Forensic vocational
expert work is rooted in theory and application of psychol-
ogy and psychometric evaluation and hence a social science.
Psychological measurement is a critical and contemporary
scientific method to accurately understand human behavior,
cognition, affect, perception and conscious awareness that is
included in our assessments. In regard to ontological explo-
ration of psychology, notwithstanding its psychometric
methods, researchers believe that a Kuhnian “scientific revo-
lution” preparadigmatic state is at hand. The paradigm shift
is moving to a unifying psychological theoretical assumption
that exists on a continuum of theoretical perspectives that in-
clude situational realism (Empiricism), developmental evo-
lutionary psychology (Piagetian) and the Tree of Knowledge
(ToK) unified theory (matter, life, mind and culture corre-
sponding to four classes of science: physical, biological, psy-
chological and social). The scientific revolution exists within
the dialectic of metaphysical and practical experimental pre-
13
Journal of Forensic Vocational Analysis, Vol. 15, No. 2
Printed in the U.S.A. All rights reserved. Ó2014 American Board of Vocational Experts
2. dictions (Marsh & Boag, 2014). This pre-paradigmatic posi-
tion claims that the three aforementioned theories have an
empiricist thread that will serve to unite psychology (and its
sub-specialties in counseling) and to provide a meta-theoret-
ical framework to explain the level of complexity that fur-
ther frames the ontological and epistemological foundations
of psychology and measurement. This is important for the
history and future of psychometric testing because the foun-
dation of evaluation of psychological human measurement
rests on such theoretical framework, differing schools of
thought and various methodologies. We must be aware not
only of the weaknesses and strengths of psychometric test-
ing but also the weaknesses and strengths of our theoretical
foundations so that we do not dogmatically attach to a single
outdated paradigm of scientific inquiry, thereby impeaching
the science or our measurement methodologies. On the prag-
matic and reality end of the continuum, the Association of
Test Publishers (Harris, 2006), makes it known that the Stan-
dards for Educational and Psychological Testing (hereafter
called the Standards) are critical not only for evaluators but
also publishers in building high quality, legally defensible,
valid and reliable tests. Ultimately publishers state that too
many standards divorced from the reality of test construction
make it difficult to keep the tests aligned with such Stan-
dards.
In our quest for valid and reliable measurement we acknowl-
edge that social science deals with the measurement of hu-
man cognition, behavior, affect, perception, and spirituality.
Such constructs cannot always be quantifiable in perfectly
predictable patterns because humans do not follow a pre-
scribed or predictable set of behaviors all of the time. There-
fore, social science relies upon statistically quantifiable and
empirically based methods to define what is more probable
within a standardized and norm referenced sample. In the
discipline of evaluation and psychometrics, we also rely
upon qualitative methods to provide incremental validity to
psychometric measurement or in other words use of other
relevant and technical data that support one’s hypothesis or
predicted outcome. We also utilize triangulation of data to
validate measurements both quantitatively and qualitatively
(Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2007). Incremental validity and tri-
angulation are methods that when combined with
psychometric measurement of some psychological construct
or set of constructs, add validity because of the different
multiple sources that add credibility to the question at hand
(Hunsely, 2003). A psychometric instrument or test that pro-
vides a strong coefficient correlation between a construct
and a predicted behavior or outcome may indeed be worth-
less to the evaluator and stakeholders without sound qualita-
tive methods of inquiry such as a structured interview, ques-
tionnaire, projective test, or consultative interaction. In our
work as evaluators, counselors and forensic experts, we typi-
cally work within the confines of the case study method or N
of 1 sample (Field & Choppa, 2005). It is posited that since
our sample size is N of 1, the psychometric measurement be-
comes exponentially important and predictive when we can
rely upon a reliable and validated instrument that allows us
to infer and generalize with accuracy. We can with a certain
statistical confidence validate that an examinee has a reading
level at the 88th
percentile within his peer age group or a me-
chanical aptitude at the stanine score of 7 within his educa-
tional peer group. In essence we can ascertain a confidence
range and a known error rate to relay to the court that a per-
son has achieved a level of academic achievement, language,
cognitive ability, relevant personality, intelligence, aptitude
or any construct that is measurable. If performed ethically
and with standardization protocol, psychometric measure-
ment can create the parameters of a case for which all other
methodological work is based. If performed with haste, un-
fair selection of instruments, administrator error or any num-
ber of other competency related issues, the forensic evalua-
tor will not only provide invalid psychometric data, but a
number of other evaluation methods within the assessment
that rely upon the psychometric data will be tainted (Kaplan
& Saccuzzo, 2013). With the potential for a forensic assess-
ment to go so wrong and the potential to harm the examinee,
it is with the purpose and mission of the IPEC to create stan-
dards through competency criteria, ethics standards, and em-
pirical research so that the potential for quality, efficiency,
efficacy, reliability and validity are expanded and achieved
in the industry. Psychometric measurement does enjoy a sci-
entific reputation that our courts of law recognize and rely
upon quite regularly (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013). Further-
more, the intent of the IPEC is to strengthen this trust rela-
tionship with the courts and general public from a national
forensic platform through the IPEC mission to develop a val-
idated instrument to measure competency (Grimley &
Whitmer, 2014; Goodwin & Leech, 2003).
A quantitative hypothesis contains a null proposition and an
alternative proposition that is either validated or not through
statistical analysis (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2013). Once a hy-
pothesis is generated, researchers and evaluators can set out
to use a number of methods to test the hypothesis to deter-
mine validity and reliability. The qualitative method investi-
gates the why and how of decision making. The quantitative
method uses a traditional randomized controlled study to af-
firm the hypothesis or refute it with correlative or predictive
power. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are invalu-
able for measuring human constructs (Groth-Marnat, 2009).
Thomas Samuel Kuhn, American physicist and philosopher,
popularized the term “paradigm shift” in reference to scien-
tific knowledge (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2014) in “The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions.” Kuhn believed that sci-
entific fields undergo periodic paradigm shifts that result in a
thesis-antithesis tug of war. Eventually one theory combines
with another, and a synthesis to the dialectic resolves the
14
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
3. competing positions by supporting both positions in proving
a more valid and reliable outcome of measurement. We have
seen this occur numerous times in the field of psychology
and the vocational rehabilitation industry alike. In the voca-
tional evaluation field we have accepted the synthesis of
qualitative and quantitative measures at the research level,
evaluation level and at the legal pragmatic level.
There is little doubt left in the social scientific community
that both clinical judgment and psychometric testing provide
incremental validity, efficiency and outcome efficacy. It is
widely accepted that psychometric testing without method-
ological clinical inquiry is all but useless and probably harm-
ful (APA, 2010) as illustrated in the APA Ethical Principles
of Psychologists and Code of Conduct; Assessment 9.06.
Relative to a qualitative perspective of measurement, quanti-
tative (objective) psychometric testing typically improves
upon what the clinician has drawn out in his/her clinical
methods. However, congruency may not be met if the quali-
tative data do not agree with the quantitative data, at which
point the evaluator must query a new hypothesis, get a new
referral question or question his own methodology (Kaplan
& Saccuzzo, 2013; Groth-Marnat, 2009). The triangulation
of qualitative and quantitative data indeed is a method that
we undertake several times in the evaluation of N-1 through-
out the span of assessment (Robinson, 2014).
Foundational Consideration
Vocational Author/Expert, Mary Barros-Bailey (Robinson,
2014) provided a poignant depiction of the history and fu-
ture of forensic vocational evaluation within the larger con-
text of vocational consulting across many legal venues. She
was right in stating we as a discipline must look to outside
disciplines to help us understand and define the directions
that will provide relevant answers to the question of how to
ensure our place within the legal community and also in his-
tory. Mary Barros-Bailey posits there are many other foren-
sic sciences that have not been in existence as long as foren-
sic vocational consultation (FVC) yet our discipline has
fewer credits in well-known vocational and career public
management venues. This finding is a call for our future
leaders to think more broadly about our future growth (Rob-
inson, 2014) to ensure we are woven deeper into the legal
and legislative fabric of evaluation and overall health care
system.
In the early development of the IPEC many sister disciplines
(clinical and forensic) have been cited and researched to
build upon the framework for standards and excellence. A
few related disciplines researched to help the ABVE and the
IPEC to verify that directions in foundation building include
social work, medical, mental health, life care planning, nurse
case management, school psychology, psychology, sub-
stance abuse, and criminal evaluation professionals. A rele-
vant example of related disciplines is the American Psycho-
logical Association (APA) Specialty Guidelines for Forensic
Psychology (APA, 2013) an ethical guidepost for forensic
psychologists who wish to rely upon established ethical fo-
rensic practices. The ABVE and the IPEC will be looking to
relevant forensic guidelines from organizations such as the
APA and from other disciplines to develop its own special
guidelines for its unique members.
Evaluation Competency of Members
The need for evaluation competency and measurement of
competency was originally conceptualized in the forensic
vocational community through the American Board of Vo-
cational Experts (ABVE, 2014). The ABVE Board of Direc-
tors acknowledged the need to build upon the scientific stan-
dards on which we base our work and to ensure competency
among members for future decades to come. Initially, there
was a call from members to revive the Certified Vocational
Evaluation (CVE). However, after two years of attempted
collaboration with the Board of Certified Vocational Evalu-
ators (BCVE), it became apparent they did not share the
same mission and vision as those of the ABVE Board of Di-
rectors, with regard to competency, a broader concept of
psychometric evaluation and EBA criteria. As the IPEC con-
cept began to gain momentum, it became apparent that many
members and non-members were interested in building a
methodologically based certification that encompasses not
just vocational evaluation methods, but broader
psychometric evaluation methods. Psychometric evaluation
methods are known to emanate from many psychological
theories, methods and applications (AERA, APA & NCME,
1999) that are being used in the forensic and rehabilitation
industry today. Through formal and informal surveying, it
was discovered that many ABVE members are quite compe-
tent in selecting, administering, analyzing, scoring, inter-
preting and synthesizing data that are gleaned from psycho-
logical measures, however many ABVE members are not,
and wish to obtain competency. Moreover, the ABVE
wanted to look to other disciplines to determine if profes-
sional competency in psychometric evaluation was an issue.
Research revealed that sister disciplines have also struggled
with evaluation competency. As the literature demonstrates,
many master’s level graduates lack competency in a broad
use of psychometric instruments (Baker & Ritchey, 2009;
Brodenhorn & Skaggs, 2005). In many instances those grad-
uate level evaluators who were academically trained to ad-
minister, score and interpret psychological measures did not
exercise their qualifications or did not achieve a broader
competency across testing domains due to the nature of work
they were performing in rehabilitation. Moreover, many
business models around the nation relied upon one or two
professionals within their ranks to perform the work as Eval-
uator (Baker & Ritchey, 2009). As a result, many master’s
15
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
4. level experts have the academic preparation, understanding
of theory, standardized administration protocol, scoring,
analysis, synthesis, and report writing abilities but lack a full
current and relevant competency to exercise said skills. The
ABVE Board of Directors further posits that sister disci-
plines at the masters level of counseling and rehabilitation
have the same need for standards building to create compe-
tency in the counseling and forensic settings.
Evidenced-Based Assessment
As made salient in David Barlow’s (2005) article “What’s
New About Evidence-Based Assessment?” the Agency for
Healthcare, Research and Quality has a mission to improve
quality, safety, efficiency, and effectiveness of health care for
all Americans. Barlow points out that the final report of the
President’s New Freedom Commission on Mental Health
commits to a private-public partnership in guiding evi-
dence-based assessment/evidence-based practice (EBA/EBP)
and to expand it to the work-force in providing evi-
dence-based practice. Other researchers note seven interre-
lated steps in the operational definition of EBP including
commitment to apply EBP, translating needs into treatment
questions, obtaining and critically appraising evidence, apply-
ing results, evaluating outcomes, examining the role of the cli-
ent (examinee), and emphasizing the mindful and systematic
evaluation of intervention to clients (Baker & Ritchey, 2009;
Hunsley & Mash, 2005). Such EBP steps can be easily trans-
ferred to EBA outcomes and measures. Other research inves-
tigating EBA practices and psychometric test use among mas-
ter’s level clinicians versus doctoral level clinicians
(Jensen-Doss & Hawley, 2010) found that master’s level cli-
nicians held attitudes towards psychometric instruments that
were based on concerns of practicality and their benefit over
clinical judgment alone. Jensen-Doss & Hawley (2010) es-
sentially explained that such attitudes from master’s level cli-
nicians were related to lack of training. Researchers suggest
that front line clinicians/evaluators receive training to over-
come misconceptions and attitudes about psychometric test
use to meet EBA goals.
The meaning and intent of Evidence-Based Assessment
(EBA) is rooted in the national movement to practice and as-
sess based on evidence outcome effectiveness. What drives
evidenced based outcomes is managed health care goals to
obtain empirically based, effective, efficient, safe, cost ef-
fective and quality care services (Barlow, 2005). EBA/EBP
began with the focus on treatment and then moved into as-
sessment, realizing that it was just as important to link treat-
ment outcomes to what works, as it was to determine if as-
sessment methodology was adding to what works (Hunsely
& Mash, 2005). Regardless, EBA is a world health care phe-
nomenon that will continue to grow in its effort to ensure that
the most current science is congruent with effective out-
comes, consistent with treatment quality, and equating cost
effectiveness to all other measures within the EBA model.
The IPEC is viewed as an industry beacon that will align the
discipline of assessment within the parameters of EBA while
at the same time honoring empirically based methods that
rely upon quantitative and qualitative evaluation.
In the process of defining The Council in Rehabilitation Ed-
ucation (CORE) accreditation standards for Research and
Program Evaluation courses (Schultz & O’Brien, 2008), re-
searchers made salient the relevance of EBP. EBP’s roots
take hold from the Hippocratic Oath in regard to principles
of beneficence and the potential to inflict harm to patients.
The Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification
(CRCC) embodies many of the EBP tenants that include
methods grounded in relevant theory, empirical foundation,
and efficacy of treatment or intervention. EBP is also quali-
fied by efficiency or what works, methodologies that have a
scientific foundation, and implications that qualified coun-
selors will be a critical part of the EBP formula. Further,
Schultz & O’Brien (2008) posit that evidence for effective-
ness should not only include randomized controlled trials
but also mixed methods research, quasi-experiments with
equating, regression discontinuity designs and single case
(N-1) designs. They further elaborate there is a dearth of
EPA and EBP literature within the rehabilitation counseling
discipline. The absence of research with regard to EBP prac-
tice standards is likely because of the diversity of rehabilita-
tion research (subspecialties) and lack of experimentally
controlled research within the field.
Research in the clinical psychology discipline suggests there
are 12 steps that can be implemented in EBA and research
ranging from identifying most common diagnoses to solicit-
ing and integrating patient preferences (Youngstrom, 2013),
many of which already exist in the field of vocational evalu-
ation. EBA or EB medicine in this case, suggests that much
of what is compiled in the prediction, prescription and pro-
cess can be reformulated to measure what is most important
to the patient and clinical outcome. Youngstrom (2013) pos-
its, as do these authors, that much of what we need to align
with EBA is available; we just need to be creative, organized
and mindful to implement efficiency, efficacy, scientific
rigor and client outcome preference. It is hoped that the
IPEC and its EBA focus will generate the interest and moti-
vation of many practitioners and researchers alike to write,
research and apply psychometric methods that seem to bind
together our industry through theory and application. Re-
searchers in the disability and rehabilitation industries
(Leahy & Arokiasamy, 2010; Tarvydas, Addy, & Fleming,
2010) acknowledge EBP/EBA and testing standards will ef-
fect and inform practice and policy on a national level.
16
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
5. Legal Competencies and Psychometric Methods
There are five primary aspects of forensic evaluation and
testifying that define most of what we do as forensic evalua-
tors with the acknowledgement that there are many more
subparts to each that are not mentioned here:
1. The clinical/qualitative interview.
2. Psychometric Testing/Evaluation.
3. Analysis-synthesisofmedical/vocational/historical/claimsfacts.
4. Analysis and reporting of the findings/opinions and rec-
ommendations.
5. Testifying in court.
Psychometric Evaluation of the examinee is an integral part
of forensic evaluation (Robinson, 2014; AERA/APA/
NCME, 1999) and without psychometric evaluation, experts
in many instances will not be able to make scientifically
based inferences upon which experts and the court so impor-
tantly rely. In the role of forensic testing there have been six
factors identified that make up a model of legal competen-
cies and they include (Heilbrun, 1992): 1. Functional abili-
ties relevant to legal competency; 2. The context in which
competency must be demonstrated; 3. Causal inference be-
tween observed deficits and legal ability; 4. Interaction be-
tween ability and specific demands of situation; 5. Judgment
by decision maker to determine person-situation incongru-
ence to warrant a finding of incompetence; 6. Disposition of
legal response to decision maker’s finding. While the six le-
gal competencies appear to be most relevant to criminal
cases, they can apply to civil cases. Heilbrun (1992) points
out the Trier of Fact has the right to consider political, moral,
and environmental values in the final influence of his/her de-
cision in reference to civil and criminal cases. In the case
where testing is known or suspected to have a racial or cul-
tural bias even with the evidence of rigorous empirical struc-
ture, the courts may depend more upon the racial, cultural or
political factors that may confound the test results. Forensic
evaluators need to be aware of the legal context in which the
tests will be viewed and be able to provide an explanation of
the biases, potential errors and results that the lay person can
understand.
Psychometric evaluation is the one aspect of our work about
which we can say with empirical degree of certainty, that the
theory from which we apply our findings has a known error
rate (Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 1993).
Much of the rest of our work is process and product that can
be summed up in the Daubert rubric of tested technique/the-
ory, subjected to peer review or publication and theory or
technique generally accepted in the industry. At a closer
look, psychometric evaluation and methods may be refuted
under all four of the Daubert criteria if the psychometric
evaluation cannot be upheld. With regard to psychometric
evaluation, it is hypothesized that if the theory and technique
that is relied upon have no error rate, have unknown norma-
tive characteristics, or lack sufficient strength, then the re-
maining three criteria under Daubert open the door for
inquiry and probable legal challenge that may result in im-
peachment of the expert and his or her opinions to the re-
maining portions of the assessment (Wise, 2006). Federal
Rules of Evidence based on the Daubert ruling is cited be-
low.
The US Supreme Court (1993) case of Daubert v. Merrell
Down Pharmaceuticals ruled under Federal Rules of Evi-
dence (FRE Rule 702) that there are four primary consider-
ations or questions that are relevant for admissibility of sci-
entific testimony (Field & Stein, 2002; Sackett, 2011):
1. Has a theory or technique been tested?
2. Has a theory or technique been subjected to peer review
and or publication?
3. Does a theory or technique have a known error rate or
standards?
4. Has a theory or technique been generally accepted in the
industry?
In our pursuit to provide objective data through empirical
means we must remember what are considered empirically
supported measures. Much can go wrong resulting in false
positives, administrator error, interpretive errors, cultural er-
ror, and a number of other errors and biases that can spoil the
data (Feuer, 2011; Wise, 2006). It is further noted that re-
gardless of empirical validity and rigorous methodology, the
Trier of Fact may choose to rely upon ecological, political,
cultural or clinical explanations of the case for final decision
making. The potential for this disconnect between the court
and empirical findings should prepare Forensic Evaluators
to ensure psychometric testing results make sense in the light
of the overall story of the case and its fact pattern (Borum,
Otto, & Wiener, 2000). We must be careful not to divorce
psychometric findings from other parts of the assessment
that might not have relevant and reasonable explanations
and may be as equally damaging as unattended administra-
tion errors and biases of testing that taint the validity of
psychometric findings. In addition we must be careful not to
confuse standards for expert testimony with the standards on
psychometric testing (Sackett, 2011) because while they
converge to support validity and methodology, each has its
divergent and differing tenants for standard setting. Courts
do take a more practical and less theoretical view on validity
and tend to focus on evidence of test content and conse-
quences while the Standards emphasize sound test develop-
ment and ethical testing practices (Sireci & Parker, 2006).
17
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
6. Psychometric Empirical Assumptions
Cohen and Swerdlik as cited by Robinson and Drew (2014)
identified seven basic assumptions with regard to testing and
assessment:
(1) Psychological traits and states exist; (2) Psychologi-
cal traits and states can be quantified; (3) Test-related be-
havior predicts non-test-related behavior; (4) Tests and
measurement techniques have strengths and weaknesses;
(5) Various sources of error are part of the assessment
process; (6) Testing and assessment can be conducted in
a fair and unbiased manner; and (7) Testing and assess-
ment benefits society” (p. 132).
The authors contend that all seven of these testing assump-
tions can benefit society, in addition to three more that could
be added: (8) Testing and assessment exist within a qualita-
tive clinical context; (9) must be done with practiced and
known standards and ethics; (10) should attempt to conform
to EBA principles. The three additional assumptions help us
tie together what the mission of the IPEC has in mind for the
forensic vocational evaluator and related counseling disci-
plines. Within the entire assessment process of vocational
rehabilitation and forensic vocational evaluation, research in
our discipline looks to discover or perhaps just acknowledge
validating methods that can be EBA supported, are consid-
ered sound qualitative empirical methodology and are cur-
rently being practiced in single case, N-1 studies. Such
methodologies that are currently used in the evaluation dis-
ciplines include incremental validity and triangulation
validity.
A thorough definition of validity that connects scientific
rigor to assessment outcomes is taken from Downing’s
(2003) explanation of meaningful interpretation of assess-
ment data:
Validity refers to the impartial, scientific collection of
data, from multiple sources, to provide more or less sup-
port for validity hypothesis and relates to logical argu-
ments, based on theory and data, which are formed to as-
sign meaningful interpretations to assessment data.
Incremental Validity
Incremental validity is indeed a method that is used in foren-
sic vocational assessment and other assessment disciplines.
Incremental validity in part is defined by the assumption that
other verifiable sources enhance the validity of an empirical
instrument’s psychometric characteristics. We see incre-
mental validity in use by way of multiple uses of qualitative
measures, multiple use of psychometric instruments, and
multiple use of informants (Hunsely, 2003). Incremental va-
lidity has a research definition but also an assessment and
evaluation meaning. Essentially, incremental validity in
evaluation of a single case study would rely upon the method
in the following way: The evaluator may use a structured in-
terview, a functional capacity checklist inventory and a
psychometrically validated instrument to measure pain.
Each evaluation method has its merits and weaknesses. The
structured interview allows the evaluator to observe behav-
ior and determine if the reported behavior is consistent with
records. The inventory may reveal that the examinee is con-
sistent or inconsistent with the structured interview on a set
of known physical or mental barriers. And thirdly, the vali-
dated empirical instrument may affirm the first two mea-
sures or not, with a known error rate that can either be cor-
roborated or refuted. The evaluator then can proceed with
the remainder of the assessment with confidence that the de-
gree of methodology of measurement is more comprehen-
sive, than if just one technique, method or instrument were
used. Hunsely (2003) calls for more research and literature
analysis in the assessment disciplines and by doing so, we
can further affirm the utility of incremental validity and en-
hance the scientific community regarding the applied value
of assessment.
Triangulation Validity
Triangulation validity may or may not use a psychometric test
in verifying across or within data sources to verify accuracy.
Khagram and Thomas (2010), in their article “Toward a Plati-
num Standard for Evidence-Based Assessment by 2020,”
would include two gold standards to define the platinum stan-
dard for EBA in the twenty-first century. Gold Standard I is
derived from experimental methods, counterfactuals and av-
erage causal effects while Gold Standard II derives from case
studies, comparative methods, triangulation and causal mech-
anisms. It is proposed that both Gold Standards (GS) will be
prominent in defining the Platinum Standard and will under-
pin EBA standards. Both GS I & II have strengths and weak-
nesses but if combined and organized well in pursuing EBA,
will ask pertinent questions such as: What is the primary focus
of the assessment? What ontological premises are assumed?
Finding out what works is one of the primary premises of
EBA. Triangulation and comparison (counterfactual assess-
ment) is one method within the Platinum Standard that evalu-
ators will identify as an effective tool to define what works
and is focused on outcomes rather than outputs. Triangulation
and comparison assume that not just the experiment or
psychometric evaluation identify the measureables, but objec-
tive measureables are defined within the context of clinical
judgment and stakeholder engagement (Khagram & Thomas,
2010).
Researchers define triangulation (Guba, as cited by Leech
and Onwuegbuzie, 2007) as a means of improving rigor or
analysis and methodology by assessing the integrity of the
inferences that one draws from more than one source. Trian-
gulation can involve the use of multiple theories, methods,
18
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
7. and sources for the purpose of representation and legitima-
tion. Representation refers to the ability to extract accurate
meaning from underlying data. Legitimation refers to trust-
worthiness, credibility, dependability, confirmability and
transferability of inferences made.
Choppa, Johnson and Neulicht (2014) make salient six
forms of triangulation methods or subparts of methods that
are relevant to Forensic Vocational Evaluators’ (FVE) pro-
cess of case conceptualization and clinical judgment. Trian-
gulation methods 2, 3 and 5 are given operational terms by
these authors for purposes of delineation and elaborated on
based on Guba (1985), Leech and Onwuegbuzie, (2007) and
Khagram and Thomas’ (2010) conceptualizations of trian-
gulation. The six forms of triangulation are listed in Table 1,
with examples provided by the authors.
Blaikie (1991) stated that triangulation is consistent with on-
tological and epistemological assumptions made in qualita-
tive methodology and that we should be clear in our use of
the definition and to what methodologies we are applying it.
In conclusion we do not want to misconceive quantitative
methodologies with qualitative methodologies as each has
different meanings and implications. It is recommended that
further research on methods of Triangulation be undertaken
in the discipline of forensic evaluation and psychometric
evaluation.
Ethically Based Evaluation Methods
The ABVE wishes to join the membership organizations,
credentialing bodies, government agencies, test publishers
and academic institutions that uphold and follow the Stan-
dards of Educational and Psychological Testing (AERA,
APA & NCME, 1999). The American Psychological Asso-
ciation, the American Education Research Association and
the National Council on Measurement in Education collabo-
rated in 1974 to publish the Standards of Educational and
Psychological Testing (AERA, APA & NCME, 1999). In
1985 and then again 1999 significant revisions were made
followed by more updated editions to include the sixth edi-
tion published in 2011. The term “Standards” will be used
throughout this paper in reference to the Standards of Educa-
tional and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA & NCME,
1999). It is noteworthy that a number of other well-known
credentialing bodies were involved in revising the Standards
of Educational and Psychological Testing to include Com-
mission of Rehabilitation Counselor Certification (CRCC),
National Organization for Competency Assurance (NOCA),
National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC), Society for
Human Resource Management (SHRM), numerous Ameri-
19
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
Table 1
Six Forms of Triangulation Relevant to FVEs
Investigator Triangulation
Example: Analysis of multiple medical opinions that triangulate functional capacity to corroborate or refute its transfer-
ability of inference
Examinee/Client-Evaluator Triangulation
Example: Analysis of examinee subjective account of pain experience that is relevant in comparison to the medical eval-
uator or other non-medical evaluator account of measured response
Collateral Informant Triangulation
Example: Analysis of data collected from employers, employees, professional organizations, labor market data, family
members, etc. obtained through casework and fieldwork
Theoretical Triangulation
Example: Analysis of one or more validated instruments that is founded on the same theory such as personality trait the-
ory to match trait characteristics to occupational best-fit; or theory of vocational interest using two qualitative methods
and a quantitative method to verify interest
Peer Review Triangulation
Example: Analysis of opinions, methods, technique amongst FVE peers to confirm technique, method, error rate or gen-
eral acceptance
Data Triangulation
Example: Analysis of earnings records from Social Security Administration, Employment Security and pay stubs to ar-
rive at actual earnings; Analysis of USDOL wage data, professional industry data, and local wage data to project earn-
ing capacity
8. can Psychological Association divisions, American Coun-
seling Association (ACA) and Association of Test Publish-
ers (ATP) to name a few. The Standards have basic tenants
and guidelines that are widely acceptable across numerous
counseling disciplines that set standards in selection, admin-
istering, scoring, interpreting, analyzing and synthesizing
psychometric tests (Eignor, 2013). The Standards guide
evaluators in psychometric use that is consistent with the
APA code of ethics and with legal consideration for forensic
evaluators. The Standards make transparent the intent to
promote the sound and ethical use of tests for the purpose to
guide valid, reliable, efficacious, fair, efficient and quality
psychometric methods. Some basic principles from the Stan-
dards of Educational and Psychological Testing (APA,
AERA, NCME, 2011) are selected and paraphrased below:
• The Standards are to provide criteria for the evaluation of
tests, testing practices, and effect of test use although the
test selection, use and appropriateness relying upon pro-
fessional judgment.
• The Standards advocates that within feasible limits, the
relevant technical information be made available so that
those involved in policy debate be fully informed but do
not dictate public policy regarding the use of tests.
• Assessment is a broader term, commonly referring to a
process that integrates test information with information
from other sources such as social, educational, employ-
ment and psychological data.
• Evaluation is a more narrow term that may describe a
subset of tests or part of an assessment but the Standards
are still applied.
• The Standards applies most directly to standardized mea-
sures generally recognized as tests or instruments that
measure ability, aptitude, achievement, attitudes, inter-
ests, personality, cognitive function, and mental health.
• It is useful to distinguish between devices that lay claim
to concepts and techniques of the field of educational and
psychological testing and those that represent non-stan-
dardized or less standardized aids.
• When tests are at issue in legal proceedings requiring ex-
pert witness testimony it is essential that professional
clinical judgment be based on the accepted corpus of
knowledge in determining the relevance of particular
standards in a given situation. The intent of the Standards
is to offer guidance for such judgments.
• The Standards are concerned with a field that is evolving
and therefore monitoring and revision of the Standards is
expected in the field.
• Prescription of the use of a specific technical method is
not the intent of the Standards, therefore alternative ac-
ceptable methods and statistics may be applied.
The Standards of Educational and Psychological Testing
(AERA, APA & NCME, 1999) constitutes fifteen chapters
that cover the following: Validity, Reliability and Errors of
Measurement, Test Development and Revision, Scales,
Norms, and Score Comparability, Test Administration,
Scoring and Reporting, Supporting Documentation for
Tests, Fairness in Testing and Test Use, The Rights and Re-
sponsibilities of Test Takers, Testing Individuals of Diverse
Linguistic Backgrounds, Testing Individuals and Disabili-
ties, The Responsibilities of Test Users, Psychological Test-
ing and Assessment, Educational Testing and Assessment,
Testing In Employment and Credentialing, and Testing in
Program Evaluation and Public Policy.
There are many segments that are relevant to the Forensic
Evaluation discipline found in Standards of Educational and
Psychological Testing (AERA, APA & NCME, 1999) but a
specific section on page four, the Introduction addresses
testing with regard to expert witness testimony. An excerpt
is illustrated below from the Standards to illustrate the rele-
vance of psychometric standards for forensic evaluators:
When tests are at issue in legal proceedings requiring ex-
pert witness testimony it is essential that professional
clinical judgment be based on the accepted corpus of
knowledge in determining the relevance of particular
standards in a given situation. The intent of the Stan-
dards is to offer guidance for such judgments.
Research shows that many master’s level graduates lack
competency in a broad use of psychometric instruments
(Baker & Ritchey, 2009; Brodenhorn & Skaggs, 2005). In
many instances those graduate level evaluators who were ac-
ademically trained to administer, score and interpret psycho-
logical measures did not exercise their skills or did not
achieve a broader competency across testing domains due to
the nature of work they were performing in rehabilitation.
Further if professional associations and graduate training
programs are not familiar with the Standards with regard to
testing, problems are likely going to be substantially higher
(Camara & Lane, 2006).
In review of the National Organization For Competency As-
surance Guide to Understanding Credentialing Concepts
(NOCA/NCCA, 2005) governed and credentialed by the
National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA), it is
apparent that such a credentialing body exists to lead the
global effort to bring competency, standards, and responsi-
ble governance to the general public, consumers and the
members of multiple disciplines who utilize psychometric
evaluation. The ABVE and the IPEC will be undertaking
steps to explore accreditation to ensure IPEC credentialing
that involves standards set forth by the certification as well
as the development of the IPEC exam.
20
Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC
9. Conclusion
It is time for the International Psychometric Evaluation Cer-
tification to establish ethical standards, competency stan-
dards, training guidelines, and a validated certification exam
to take its rightful place in the psychometric evaluation com-
munity. Vocational visionaries have provided a blueprint for
psychometric evaluation and research by looking to related
disciplines to pursue growth in standards, methodology and
research. Evidence-based assessment is systemic in our
health care system and it will be critical in the forensic voca-
tional evaluation industry and related disciplines, as we
move forward with this certification. Membership of the
ABVE has voted overwhelmingly to adopt the IPEC for the
primary purpose of competency among members and asso-
ciated disciplines. The definition of legally defensible work
is congruent with EBA tenants and the IPEC goals and mis-
sion are aligned with legal competencies and EBA tenants.
Furthermore, literature demonstrates that judges are expand-
ing the pool of forensic evaluators/experts to include mental
health professionals among psychologists and psychiatrists
for court determination of competency (Siegel, 2008). Based
on the Trier of Fact’s view of who can and should be experts
in the court, there is a call for training and competency for
master’s level providers, particularly in the psychometric
evaluation portion of forensic evaluation. The gravity and
magnitude of harming another human being looms large in
the pursuit of psychometric evaluation. The adoption of the
Standards (AERA, APA & NCME, 1999) is paramount in
all underlying principles and development of the IPEC. The
accreditation of the IPEC through a respected credentialing
organization such as NOCA/NCCA will help ensure legal
and ethically defensible psychometric evaluation work.
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Author Notes
Scott Whitmer, Director-at-Large of the American Board of
Vocational Experts, Scott Whitmer & Associates, LLC.
Cynthia P. Grimley, President of the American Board of Vo-
cational Experts, Cynthia P. Grimley & Associates, LLC.
Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed
to Scott Whitmer, 205 N. 4th Avenue, Yakima, WA 98902;
Email: scott@whitmerandassociates.com
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Whitmer & Grimley Psychometric Evaluation Competency and the IPEC