This document discusses efficient use of water in home landscapes and gardens. It notes that during 1984, an estimated 1.25 million acre feet of water were used by Texans for residential landscapes, and that water needs are expected to increase 75% by 2000 due to population growth. The document then provides information on water sources, efficient water use techniques, plant water requirements, water quality, irrigation timing, watering techniques such as deep watering and mulching, and irrigation methods including sprinklers, flooding, and drip irrigation.
Watering Vegetable and Flower Gardens: Water-Wise Gardening and Landscape Mai...Kaila694m
This document provides guidelines for watering vegetable gardens, flower beds, and perennials. It recommends watering when the top several inches of soil are dry, and thoroughly moistening the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. The amount and frequency of watering needed depends on soil type, plant population, temperature, wind, and slopes. Overhead watering during the hottest part of the day can cool plants and moderate heat stress. Water should be cool and free of salts to avoid damaging plants.
Watering Habits examines proper watering techniques for landscapes, including watering deeply but less frequently, checking soil moisture, and observing irrigation systems. It discusses soil types and the benefits of compost and mulch. The document provides planting guidelines and identifies low-water plants suited for the Modesto climate, grouping them by type (annuals, perennials, shrubs, etc.) and listing their features, height, sunlight needs and care tips. It aims to educate homeowners on water-wise gardening practices.
Mulches for the Home Landscape - University of NebraskaFaizah68w
This document discusses different types of mulches that can be used in home landscapes. It provides details on organic mulches like woodchips, bark, and leaves as well as inorganic mulches like rock, landscape fabric, and shredded rubber. The summary discusses the benefits of mulches, including conserving soil moisture, reducing weeds, and enhancing plant health. Organic mulches are generally preferred as they break down over time and add organic matter to soils. When selecting and applying mulches properly, homeowners can improve their landscape in many positive ways.
ND: Bismarck: Rain Garden Information GuideSotirakou964
A rain garden is a shallow depression planted with native plants that captures and filters rainwater runoff. It reduces flooding, provides habitat, and requires little watering once established. To create a rain garden, choose a site that receives runoff, mark its outline, dig a basin, amend soil if needed, and plant a diversity of native species suited to the site. Ongoing maintenance is minimal after establishment.
Coping with Drought in the Landscape - University of FloridaKardatou54a
This document discusses guidelines for managing landscapes during drought conditions. It recommends prioritizing irrigation of highly visible areas first, then trees and shrubs over turf. Watering early in the morning reduces evaporation. Deep, infrequent watering promotes deeper root growth compared to shallow, frequent watering. Mulching and hand watering beds can reduce water loss. Allowing lawns to go dormant and pruning plants back severely can help landscapes survive extreme drought.
Mulch and Your Garden - Waterwise, Queensland, AustraliaFaizah68w
Mulch is any material spread over soil to act as a protective cover. It saves water by protecting soil from sun and wind, improves plant growth by stabilizing soil temperature, and reduces weeds by preventing light from reaching seeds. There are two main types - organic mulches from plant materials that break down over time improving soil, and inorganic mulches like rock that require less maintenance. Applying a 2-5cm layer of mulch around plants, being careful not to bury stems, helps retain water and suppress weeds.
You don't have to Loose Your Green During a Drought - Sustainable Landscape C...Kaila694m
This document provides guidance for homeowners on caring for their landscape during a drought. It recommends reducing or eliminating nitrogen fertilizer, avoiding weed killers, reducing thatch and compaction, watering deeply and infrequently, and following local watering restrictions. Proper watering involves applying 3/4-1 inch of water per week, either through rain or irrigation, and allowing the soil to fully dry between waterings. The best times to water are early morning or evening.
This document discusses strategies for developing drought resistant soil through effective water management. It describes how organic matter, soil aggregation, and ground cover can work together to 1) maximize the amount of rainfall absorbed by the soil (infiltration), 2) increase the soil's water storage capacity for plant use, and 3) allow for deep root growth to access stored water. Specifically, it notes that each 1% increase in soil organic matter can store an additional 16,000 gallons of water per acre foot of soil. Well aggregated soil structures and ground cover also promote infiltration and water retention while reducing evaporation. Together, these factors can greatly reduce the need for irrigation during drought.
Watering Vegetable and Flower Gardens: Water-Wise Gardening and Landscape Mai...Kaila694m
This document provides guidelines for watering vegetable gardens, flower beds, and perennials. It recommends watering when the top several inches of soil are dry, and thoroughly moistening the soil to a depth of 6 to 8 inches. The amount and frequency of watering needed depends on soil type, plant population, temperature, wind, and slopes. Overhead watering during the hottest part of the day can cool plants and moderate heat stress. Water should be cool and free of salts to avoid damaging plants.
Watering Habits examines proper watering techniques for landscapes, including watering deeply but less frequently, checking soil moisture, and observing irrigation systems. It discusses soil types and the benefits of compost and mulch. The document provides planting guidelines and identifies low-water plants suited for the Modesto climate, grouping them by type (annuals, perennials, shrubs, etc.) and listing their features, height, sunlight needs and care tips. It aims to educate homeowners on water-wise gardening practices.
Mulches for the Home Landscape - University of NebraskaFaizah68w
This document discusses different types of mulches that can be used in home landscapes. It provides details on organic mulches like woodchips, bark, and leaves as well as inorganic mulches like rock, landscape fabric, and shredded rubber. The summary discusses the benefits of mulches, including conserving soil moisture, reducing weeds, and enhancing plant health. Organic mulches are generally preferred as they break down over time and add organic matter to soils. When selecting and applying mulches properly, homeowners can improve their landscape in many positive ways.
ND: Bismarck: Rain Garden Information GuideSotirakou964
A rain garden is a shallow depression planted with native plants that captures and filters rainwater runoff. It reduces flooding, provides habitat, and requires little watering once established. To create a rain garden, choose a site that receives runoff, mark its outline, dig a basin, amend soil if needed, and plant a diversity of native species suited to the site. Ongoing maintenance is minimal after establishment.
Coping with Drought in the Landscape - University of FloridaKardatou54a
This document discusses guidelines for managing landscapes during drought conditions. It recommends prioritizing irrigation of highly visible areas first, then trees and shrubs over turf. Watering early in the morning reduces evaporation. Deep, infrequent watering promotes deeper root growth compared to shallow, frequent watering. Mulching and hand watering beds can reduce water loss. Allowing lawns to go dormant and pruning plants back severely can help landscapes survive extreme drought.
Mulch and Your Garden - Waterwise, Queensland, AustraliaFaizah68w
Mulch is any material spread over soil to act as a protective cover. It saves water by protecting soil from sun and wind, improves plant growth by stabilizing soil temperature, and reduces weeds by preventing light from reaching seeds. There are two main types - organic mulches from plant materials that break down over time improving soil, and inorganic mulches like rock that require less maintenance. Applying a 2-5cm layer of mulch around plants, being careful not to bury stems, helps retain water and suppress weeds.
You don't have to Loose Your Green During a Drought - Sustainable Landscape C...Kaila694m
This document provides guidance for homeowners on caring for their landscape during a drought. It recommends reducing or eliminating nitrogen fertilizer, avoiding weed killers, reducing thatch and compaction, watering deeply and infrequently, and following local watering restrictions. Proper watering involves applying 3/4-1 inch of water per week, either through rain or irrigation, and allowing the soil to fully dry between waterings. The best times to water are early morning or evening.
This document discusses strategies for developing drought resistant soil through effective water management. It describes how organic matter, soil aggregation, and ground cover can work together to 1) maximize the amount of rainfall absorbed by the soil (infiltration), 2) increase the soil's water storage capacity for plant use, and 3) allow for deep root growth to access stored water. Specifically, it notes that each 1% increase in soil organic matter can store an additional 16,000 gallons of water per acre foot of soil. Well aggregated soil structures and ground cover also promote infiltration and water retention while reducing evaporation. Together, these factors can greatly reduce the need for irrigation during drought.
This document provides instructions for building a rain garden to capture stormwater runoff. It discusses why rain gardens are useful in reducing pollution in waterways and flooding. The summary provides the key steps for creating a successful rain garden:
1. Find the best location near a downspout or other source of stormwater runoff on a gently sloping area.
2. Evaluate the soil texture and drainage to ensure good infiltration.
3. Plan the size and layout of the garden bed, choosing native plants appropriate for the site conditions.
This document provides an overview of sustainable soil management. Part I discusses the characteristics of living soil, including the importance of soil texture, structure, organisms, and organic matter. Soil is a living ecosystem containing billions of organisms per acre that cycle nutrients. Practices like no-till and cover crops help build soil quality by supporting earthworms and other beneficial soil life. Part II will cover specific management steps to improve soil, and Part III profiles farmers successfully building soil.
Drought-Tolerant Landscapes for Alabama - Alabama A&M UniversityFabienne22Q
This document provides guidelines for designing drought-tolerant landscapes in Alabama. It discusses hydrozoning plants according to their water needs, improving soil quality, and selecting plants adapted to the local climate to reduce outdoor water usage. The key recommendations are to zone at least 60% of the landscape for low water use plants, amend soil with organic matter, and space plants appropriately to limit the need for supplemental irrigation.
This document provides information on identifying drought stress in lawns and plants and recommendations for watering during drought. It describes signs that a lawn is thirsty, such as footprints remaining or leaves wilting. It recommends watering lawns about 1 inch at a time in the early morning. For trees and shrubs, it suggests watering newly planted and stressed plants and using mulch. Watering should penetrate 6 inches of soil and avoid wetting leaves and stems.
Start New Plants of Right: Smart Watering Will Make A Big DifferenceDanousis85z
Deeper, less frequent watering will help establish healthier plant roots and make plants more resilient to stress. When first planting, water deeply daily or every other day for the first week to establish new roots in the soil. Week two onward, water two to three times per week unless conditions are very hot and dry. After the first year, water deeply once or twice per week depending on soil and conditions, allowing the top soil to dry between waterings to encourage deep root growth. Proper planting and watering should make plants self-sufficient after three years in most cases.
This document provides guidance on designing and installing small-scale stormwater management practices known as rain gardens. It discusses how rain gardens capture and infiltrate rainwater runoff from rooftops and other impervious surfaces, filtering out pollutants through soil and plant uptake. Homeowners are encouraged to implement multiple small-scale practices and meet Maryland's Environmental Site Design criteria to maximize on-site management of stormwater runoff. The document provides instructions on properly locating, sizing, constructing, planting, and maintaining residential rain gardens.
Thatch is a layer of organic material between grass and soil composed mainly of stems and roots. Factors like certain grass species, soil pH, aeration, and nitrogen levels can increase thatch buildup. Dethatching mechanically or biologically can help control thatch. Biological control uses microbes and other organisms to decompose thatch. Key processes include macrofauna ingesting thatch to increase surface area for microbes, microbes secreting enzymes to break down polymers, and secondary microbes further decomposing partially digested material.
PA: Philadelphia: Landscaping with waterSotirakou964
The Dwyers transformed their soggy yard into a vibrant wetland sanctuary by working with a landscape architect to address water flow issues. The design included contouring the land to channel rainwater into a natural low spot, adding plants native to wetlands, and incorporating small design elements like a footbridge. The result is a peaceful garden that provides habitat for wildlife and is filled with the sights and sounds of nature.
This document provides advice on growing lawns in shaded areas. It discusses the challenges of shade, including reduced photosynthesis, competition from tree roots, and debris accumulation from trees. Certain grasses like fine fescues and colonial bentgrass can tolerate partial shade better than Kentucky bluegrass. The document recommends shade-tolerant grass mixes and strategies like tree pruning to increase sunlight. The key is accepting that lawns in heavy shade will be thin and may need to be supplemented with other groundcovers. Overall shade tolerance for lawns depends on the grass species and amount of sunlight received.
La Plaza Garden CA: Water Efficient GardeningSotirakou964
This document provides information about La Plaza Garden, a water-efficient demonstration garden in Cotati, California. The garden uses various techniques like drought-tolerant plants, water harvesting, and habitat creation to conserve water and other resources. It includes seven distinct garden areas showcasing different techniques, plants, and habitats. The document also provides additional resources for water-efficient and native plant gardening.
Maine: Adding a Rain Garden to Your LandscapeSotirakou964
This document provides instructions for installing a rain garden to help manage stormwater runoff. Some key points:
1) Rain gardens are depressions planted with water-loving native plants that allow rainwater runoff from rooftops or driveways to soak into the ground rather than flowing into nearby streams.
2) When designing a rain garden, homeowners should choose a location at least 10 feet from their foundation, avoid placing over septic systems or drinking water wells, and check for underground utilities.
3) The garden should be sized to hold the water from a one-inch rainstorm, about 30% of the drainage area. Water is directed into the garden through gutters, pipes,
Smart Watering - the Natural Lawn and GardenFinola87v
Smart watering means applying the right amount of water for plant health while conserving water resources. It promotes healthier plants that are less susceptible to pests and disease. Smart watering also helps protect the environment by decreasing the need for pesticides and reducing fertilizer and pesticide runoff. From May to September, outdoor water use in the region nearly doubles for lawns and gardens, with experts estimating that 50% or more of this water is wasted through evaporation, runoff, or overwatering. The document provides tips for smart watering through proper soil preparation, plant selection, irrigation methods like drip systems and soakers hoses, and best practices for watering amounts and schedules.
Residential rain gardens are shallow depressions planted with native species that allow stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces like roofs and driveways to naturally infiltrate into the ground. They remove pollutants from runoff and add landscape value. Proper siting and installation is important, considering factors like soil drainage and slope. The document outlines steps for sizing, excavating, amending soil, planting, and maintaining a rain garden to maximize stormwater infiltration and pollution removal.
Prairier Rivers Network: Rain Gardens for IllinoisSotirakou964
Rain gardens are shallow depressions planted with native plants that are designed to capture, filter, and infiltrate stormwater runoff from rooftops, driveways, and other impervious surfaces. They provide multiple benefits by reducing flooding, improving water quality by filtering out pollutants, and providing habitat for wildlife like birds and butterflies. Proper site selection and planting of native species suited to the soil and moisture conditions are essential to establishing an effective and attractive rain garden.
This document provides resources and information for xeriscaping and water-wise gardening in climates similar to southern Alberta. It lists books available at the Medicine Hat College Brooks Campus library on topics like creating prairie xeriscapes and trees and shrubs for the prairies. Online resources on native plant selection and xeriscape design are also included. The document provides tips for soil preparation, plant selection, irrigation, and maintaining mulch to conserve water in landscaping. It highlights the Brooks Environmental Advisory Committee's demonstration of xeriscaping with native and drought-resistant plants.
Puddling involves saturating soil and breaking up aggregates through plowing and harrowing when the soil is flooded or saturated. This process is important for rice cultivation as it controls weeds, conserves water, and makes transplanting easier. However, puddling also destroys the soil structure, reduces pore space, increases compaction, and can lead to issues like waterlogging over the long term. Puddling decreases hydraulic conductivity and permeability while increasing bulk density, moisture retention, and causing changes to the soil thermal properties. Overall, puddling improves conditions for rice growth but degrades the soil physical properties.
Wise Ways to Water Your Lawn - Lincoln, NebraskaFiorella58v
Wise use of water conservation is important for both environmental and financial reasons. It preserves our water resources and saves individuals money on their water bills. Using water efficiently also helps reduce stress on water delivery systems and lengthens their lifespan. There are many simple ways homeowners can conserve water in their landscapes, such as watering lawns efficiently, choosing drought-tolerant plants, and adjusting sprinklers for soil type and weather conditions. The Lincoln Water Conservation Task Force provides tips to help residents be water wise.
Conserving Water on Home Lawns and Landscapes in New JerseyKardatou54a
The document provides tips for conserving water on home lawns and landscapes in New Jersey. It recommends watering only when needed, improving soil water retention, using drought-tolerant plants, and applying mulches. Specific tips include watering early in the morning, checking soil moisture before watering, gradually adapting plants to infrequent deep watering, reducing lawn size, and topdressing soil with compost to improve water retention.
This document discusses soil cultivation and water management techniques. It describes the purposes and benefits and limitations of primary cultivation methods like digging, ploughing, and rotavation. Secondary cultivation techniques like forking, raking, and harrowing are meant to further improve soil structure. No-dig systems provide benefits but have limitations without large amounts of organic matter. Poor drainage can be identified by symptoms like standing water and indicator plants, and may be addressed through techniques like double digging or installing tile drains. Maintaining proper soil moisture involves irrigation practices that add enough water to replenish the root zone without excess evaporation.
Xeriscape: Seven Steps to a Water-Wise Landscape, Make Every Drop Count - Geo...Simm846q
The document provides seven steps for creating a water-wise landscape called Xeriscape. Step 5 recommends designing an efficient irrigation system according to plant water needs and using drip irrigation which uses 30-50% less water than sprinklers. Step 6 recommends using mulches to retain soil moisture and minimize water evaporation. Step 7 notes that a Xeriscape requires less maintenance through water, fertilizer and pruning which encourages new growth and increased water needs.
The document summarizes the process of creating a movie poster for a film titled "Séance". It describes how the student found an image of an eye online and took a photo of a friend's eye to use. In Photoshop, the eyes were edited to look darker and more ominous. Skin was added underneath to make it look more realistic. Candles were included as a reference to scenes in the movie. Text was added for the title, quote, and cast names using drop shadows to make it look scarier. A rating and release date were also included to finish the poster.
The document discusses the benefits of using native plants in gardening and landscaping. It notes that native plants are adapted to the local environment, require less maintenance, and provide habitat and benefits for wildlife. It then describes several demonstration gardens in Pittsfield Charter Township that showcase the use of native plants, including butterfly, prairie, rain, and bog gardens. The gardens provide examples of different native plant communities and seasons of interest. The document encourages community involvement in ongoing native plant projects.
This document provides instructions for building a rain garden to capture stormwater runoff. It discusses why rain gardens are useful in reducing pollution in waterways and flooding. The summary provides the key steps for creating a successful rain garden:
1. Find the best location near a downspout or other source of stormwater runoff on a gently sloping area.
2. Evaluate the soil texture and drainage to ensure good infiltration.
3. Plan the size and layout of the garden bed, choosing native plants appropriate for the site conditions.
This document provides an overview of sustainable soil management. Part I discusses the characteristics of living soil, including the importance of soil texture, structure, organisms, and organic matter. Soil is a living ecosystem containing billions of organisms per acre that cycle nutrients. Practices like no-till and cover crops help build soil quality by supporting earthworms and other beneficial soil life. Part II will cover specific management steps to improve soil, and Part III profiles farmers successfully building soil.
Drought-Tolerant Landscapes for Alabama - Alabama A&M UniversityFabienne22Q
This document provides guidelines for designing drought-tolerant landscapes in Alabama. It discusses hydrozoning plants according to their water needs, improving soil quality, and selecting plants adapted to the local climate to reduce outdoor water usage. The key recommendations are to zone at least 60% of the landscape for low water use plants, amend soil with organic matter, and space plants appropriately to limit the need for supplemental irrigation.
This document provides information on identifying drought stress in lawns and plants and recommendations for watering during drought. It describes signs that a lawn is thirsty, such as footprints remaining or leaves wilting. It recommends watering lawns about 1 inch at a time in the early morning. For trees and shrubs, it suggests watering newly planted and stressed plants and using mulch. Watering should penetrate 6 inches of soil and avoid wetting leaves and stems.
Start New Plants of Right: Smart Watering Will Make A Big DifferenceDanousis85z
Deeper, less frequent watering will help establish healthier plant roots and make plants more resilient to stress. When first planting, water deeply daily or every other day for the first week to establish new roots in the soil. Week two onward, water two to three times per week unless conditions are very hot and dry. After the first year, water deeply once or twice per week depending on soil and conditions, allowing the top soil to dry between waterings to encourage deep root growth. Proper planting and watering should make plants self-sufficient after three years in most cases.
This document provides guidance on designing and installing small-scale stormwater management practices known as rain gardens. It discusses how rain gardens capture and infiltrate rainwater runoff from rooftops and other impervious surfaces, filtering out pollutants through soil and plant uptake. Homeowners are encouraged to implement multiple small-scale practices and meet Maryland's Environmental Site Design criteria to maximize on-site management of stormwater runoff. The document provides instructions on properly locating, sizing, constructing, planting, and maintaining residential rain gardens.
Thatch is a layer of organic material between grass and soil composed mainly of stems and roots. Factors like certain grass species, soil pH, aeration, and nitrogen levels can increase thatch buildup. Dethatching mechanically or biologically can help control thatch. Biological control uses microbes and other organisms to decompose thatch. Key processes include macrofauna ingesting thatch to increase surface area for microbes, microbes secreting enzymes to break down polymers, and secondary microbes further decomposing partially digested material.
PA: Philadelphia: Landscaping with waterSotirakou964
The Dwyers transformed their soggy yard into a vibrant wetland sanctuary by working with a landscape architect to address water flow issues. The design included contouring the land to channel rainwater into a natural low spot, adding plants native to wetlands, and incorporating small design elements like a footbridge. The result is a peaceful garden that provides habitat for wildlife and is filled with the sights and sounds of nature.
This document provides advice on growing lawns in shaded areas. It discusses the challenges of shade, including reduced photosynthesis, competition from tree roots, and debris accumulation from trees. Certain grasses like fine fescues and colonial bentgrass can tolerate partial shade better than Kentucky bluegrass. The document recommends shade-tolerant grass mixes and strategies like tree pruning to increase sunlight. The key is accepting that lawns in heavy shade will be thin and may need to be supplemented with other groundcovers. Overall shade tolerance for lawns depends on the grass species and amount of sunlight received.
La Plaza Garden CA: Water Efficient GardeningSotirakou964
This document provides information about La Plaza Garden, a water-efficient demonstration garden in Cotati, California. The garden uses various techniques like drought-tolerant plants, water harvesting, and habitat creation to conserve water and other resources. It includes seven distinct garden areas showcasing different techniques, plants, and habitats. The document also provides additional resources for water-efficient and native plant gardening.
Maine: Adding a Rain Garden to Your LandscapeSotirakou964
This document provides instructions for installing a rain garden to help manage stormwater runoff. Some key points:
1) Rain gardens are depressions planted with water-loving native plants that allow rainwater runoff from rooftops or driveways to soak into the ground rather than flowing into nearby streams.
2) When designing a rain garden, homeowners should choose a location at least 10 feet from their foundation, avoid placing over septic systems or drinking water wells, and check for underground utilities.
3) The garden should be sized to hold the water from a one-inch rainstorm, about 30% of the drainage area. Water is directed into the garden through gutters, pipes,
Smart Watering - the Natural Lawn and GardenFinola87v
Smart watering means applying the right amount of water for plant health while conserving water resources. It promotes healthier plants that are less susceptible to pests and disease. Smart watering also helps protect the environment by decreasing the need for pesticides and reducing fertilizer and pesticide runoff. From May to September, outdoor water use in the region nearly doubles for lawns and gardens, with experts estimating that 50% or more of this water is wasted through evaporation, runoff, or overwatering. The document provides tips for smart watering through proper soil preparation, plant selection, irrigation methods like drip systems and soakers hoses, and best practices for watering amounts and schedules.
Residential rain gardens are shallow depressions planted with native species that allow stormwater runoff from impervious surfaces like roofs and driveways to naturally infiltrate into the ground. They remove pollutants from runoff and add landscape value. Proper siting and installation is important, considering factors like soil drainage and slope. The document outlines steps for sizing, excavating, amending soil, planting, and maintaining a rain garden to maximize stormwater infiltration and pollution removal.
Prairier Rivers Network: Rain Gardens for IllinoisSotirakou964
Rain gardens are shallow depressions planted with native plants that are designed to capture, filter, and infiltrate stormwater runoff from rooftops, driveways, and other impervious surfaces. They provide multiple benefits by reducing flooding, improving water quality by filtering out pollutants, and providing habitat for wildlife like birds and butterflies. Proper site selection and planting of native species suited to the soil and moisture conditions are essential to establishing an effective and attractive rain garden.
This document provides resources and information for xeriscaping and water-wise gardening in climates similar to southern Alberta. It lists books available at the Medicine Hat College Brooks Campus library on topics like creating prairie xeriscapes and trees and shrubs for the prairies. Online resources on native plant selection and xeriscape design are also included. The document provides tips for soil preparation, plant selection, irrigation, and maintaining mulch to conserve water in landscaping. It highlights the Brooks Environmental Advisory Committee's demonstration of xeriscaping with native and drought-resistant plants.
Puddling involves saturating soil and breaking up aggregates through plowing and harrowing when the soil is flooded or saturated. This process is important for rice cultivation as it controls weeds, conserves water, and makes transplanting easier. However, puddling also destroys the soil structure, reduces pore space, increases compaction, and can lead to issues like waterlogging over the long term. Puddling decreases hydraulic conductivity and permeability while increasing bulk density, moisture retention, and causing changes to the soil thermal properties. Overall, puddling improves conditions for rice growth but degrades the soil physical properties.
Wise Ways to Water Your Lawn - Lincoln, NebraskaFiorella58v
Wise use of water conservation is important for both environmental and financial reasons. It preserves our water resources and saves individuals money on their water bills. Using water efficiently also helps reduce stress on water delivery systems and lengthens their lifespan. There are many simple ways homeowners can conserve water in their landscapes, such as watering lawns efficiently, choosing drought-tolerant plants, and adjusting sprinklers for soil type and weather conditions. The Lincoln Water Conservation Task Force provides tips to help residents be water wise.
Conserving Water on Home Lawns and Landscapes in New JerseyKardatou54a
The document provides tips for conserving water on home lawns and landscapes in New Jersey. It recommends watering only when needed, improving soil water retention, using drought-tolerant plants, and applying mulches. Specific tips include watering early in the morning, checking soil moisture before watering, gradually adapting plants to infrequent deep watering, reducing lawn size, and topdressing soil with compost to improve water retention.
This document discusses soil cultivation and water management techniques. It describes the purposes and benefits and limitations of primary cultivation methods like digging, ploughing, and rotavation. Secondary cultivation techniques like forking, raking, and harrowing are meant to further improve soil structure. No-dig systems provide benefits but have limitations without large amounts of organic matter. Poor drainage can be identified by symptoms like standing water and indicator plants, and may be addressed through techniques like double digging or installing tile drains. Maintaining proper soil moisture involves irrigation practices that add enough water to replenish the root zone without excess evaporation.
Xeriscape: Seven Steps to a Water-Wise Landscape, Make Every Drop Count - Geo...Simm846q
The document provides seven steps for creating a water-wise landscape called Xeriscape. Step 5 recommends designing an efficient irrigation system according to plant water needs and using drip irrigation which uses 30-50% less water than sprinklers. Step 6 recommends using mulches to retain soil moisture and minimize water evaporation. Step 7 notes that a Xeriscape requires less maintenance through water, fertilizer and pruning which encourages new growth and increased water needs.
The document summarizes the process of creating a movie poster for a film titled "Séance". It describes how the student found an image of an eye online and took a photo of a friend's eye to use. In Photoshop, the eyes were edited to look darker and more ominous. Skin was added underneath to make it look more realistic. Candles were included as a reference to scenes in the movie. Text was added for the title, quote, and cast names using drop shadows to make it look scarier. A rating and release date were also included to finish the poster.
The document discusses the benefits of using native plants in gardening and landscaping. It notes that native plants are adapted to the local environment, require less maintenance, and provide habitat and benefits for wildlife. It then describes several demonstration gardens in Pittsfield Charter Township that showcase the use of native plants, including butterfly, prairie, rain, and bog gardens. The gardens provide examples of different native plant communities and seasons of interest. The document encourages community involvement in ongoing native plant projects.
Establishing Native Habitats for Mississippi's Native PollinatorsRetiz16x
This document provides lessons on establishing native pollinator habitats in Mississippi. Lesson 1 introduces 15 of Mississippi's most common native pollinators, including bumble bees. Bumble bees are important pollinators that form small annual colonies. Recent research suggests some southeastern bumble bee species may be declining. More data is still needed on pollinator populations in Mississippi.
This document contains summaries of magazine covers featuring Britney Spears, Lily Allen, and Madonna:
1) The Britney Spears cover suggests she has a sweet nature but also a dark side, as her purple clothing implies royalty but black hints imply rebelliousness.
2) The Lily Allen cover uses her rebellious red shirt and messy makeup to portray her as depressed, mysterious, and having gotten into trouble.
3) The Madonna cover shows her in a black hood to respect her age, with a close-up capturing her mysterious and hostile expression matching the magazine's dark theme.
This document lists parts of the human body including the head and limbs in one sentence paragraphs: the mouth, tongue, ear, nose, eye, hair, arm, and leg.
How Dry Seasons Affect Landscape Plants - University of KentuckyFarica46m
This document summarizes how different types of landscape plants respond to drought conditions and provides recommendations for keeping plants alive during extended drought periods. It describes how plants can be categorized as water spenders, drought evaders, or water conservers based on their ability to obtain and conserve moisture. Prolonged drought can cause leaf scorching, wilting, and increased susceptibility to pests and disease. The document recommends reducing plant water stress through practices like mulching, limiting grass competition, and deep watering. It also lists specific plants that typically survive drought well or poorly in Kentucky landscapes.
Yard and Garden Water Management - Montana State UniversityFiorella58v
This document provides tips for efficient water management in yards and gardens. It recommends using native plant species that are adapted to the local climate, knowing your soil type and its water holding capacity, and practicing water conservation techniques like drip irrigation, mulching, and watering early in the morning or evening. Proper watering includes applying water slowly to avoid runoff, watering deeply but less frequently, and observing plants for signs they need water like wilting or dull colors.
The document discusses strategies for developing drought resistant soil through organic matter management and maintaining ground cover. It states that organic matter can increase water storage capacity by 16,000 gallons per acre-foot for each 1% increase in organic matter. Well-aggregated soil from organic matter promotes better water infiltration and storage. Ground cover also reduces evaporation and increases infiltration, with no-till providing the most cover and highest infiltration rates. Developing organic matter, aggregation, and ground cover can greatly reduce the need for irrigation during droughts.
This document provides information about soil, including its composition, formation, types, and importance. Some key points:
- Soil is formed through weathering of rocks and decomposition of organic materials over time. It is composed of minerals, organic matter, water, and air.
- Soil type is determined by factors like parent material, climate, plants and animals, and time. The longer soil has been forming, the thicker it becomes.
- Important soil types include sandy soil, clay soil, silty soil, and loam soil. Loam soil contains a balanced mix of components and is very fertile.
- Soil provides an interface between the living and non-living parts of the Earth
This document provides an overview of sustainable soil management. It discusses the importance of soil organisms like earthworms, arthropods, fungi and bacteria in building and maintaining healthy soil. Soil organisms decompose organic matter, cycle nutrients, and improve soil structure similar to how native ecosystems function without tillage or fertilizers. Management practices that minimize tillage and maximize organic matter, like cover crops and manure application, help optimize the functions of soil organisms and lead to more productive, nutrient-rich soils over the long term.
Soil texture and color are two important physical properties of soil. Texture, determined by particle size, affects water holding capacity and drainage. Color provides clues to nutrient levels, with darker soils generally more fertile. The three main soil types formed from weathered rock are sand, silt and clay. Sand has large pores and drains quickly but holds few nutrients. Clay has small pores, drains slowly but retains water and nutrients well. Loam, an ideal soil for growing plants, is a mixture of sand, silt, clay and decomposed organic matter called humus.
Exposes the elementary science student to the idea there are three major kinds of soil found on earth as well as the very important remains of dead plants and animals called humus. Discusses soil and humus along with as some of the properties of each.
This document provides an overview of sustainable soil management. Part I discusses the characteristics of living soil, including the importance of soil texture, structure, organisms, and organic matter. Soil is a living ecosystem containing billions of organisms per acre that cycle nutrients. Practices like no-till and cover crops help build soil quality by supporting earthworms and other beneficial soil life. Part II will cover specific management steps to improve soil, and Part III profiles farmers successfully building soil.
This document discusses various techniques for soil moisture conservation. It explains that soil moisture conservation aims to minimize water loss from soil through evaporation and transpiration. It then discusses different agronomic measures like conservation tillage, deep tillage, contour farming, mulching, crop rotation, and use of cover crops and anti-transpirants to conserve soil moisture. The document also discusses mechanical measures like bunding, terracing, trenching etc. that are used for soil moisture conservation, especially on lands with slopes greater than 2%.
Conserving Water in the Garden: Designing and Installing a New Landscape - Or...Kardatou54a
To conserve water in a new landscape:
1. Start with a plan that groups plants by water needs and uses permeable surfaces.
2. Improve the soil by adding compost or other organic matter to increase water retention.
3. Select drought-tolerant native or Mediterranean plants and water-efficient turf.
4. Use drip irrigation, water deeply and infrequently, and repair any issues with sprinkler systems to avoid overwatering.
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymerssukhjinder mann
Soil moisture conservation role of mulching and hydrophilic polymers; Methods to conserve moisture, mulch types, polymer types, importance, advantages and disadvantages
The document discusses soil water plant relationships and provides details on various topics related to soil properties, water movement and plant water needs. It discusses how soil properties like texture, structure and organic matter determine water holding capacity and infiltration rates. It describes the different types of water in soil like gravitational, capillary and hygroscopic water. Key soil water constants like field capacity, permanent wilting point and available water are explained. Factors affecting water movement like infiltration and factors influencing plant water uptake like rooting characteristics are also summarized.
This document discusses different types of soil including sandy soil, clay soil, silty soil, loamy soil, chalky soil, and peaty soil. It describes the characteristics of each soil type and some of the problems associated with each. For example, it notes that sandy soil does not hold water well and nutrients drain quickly through it, while clay soil is difficult for air and water to penetrate, creating problems for plant growth. The document also discusses soil conservation and its importance.
SOIL EROSION AND CONSERVATION Copy.pptxDAMINI SAHA
It is my very fast ppt presentation. I gathered all the information from internet. Hope this will helps you to understand the whole topic in simple manner.
Here is the presentation of Water.This presentation also contains some brief description on Water and its availability for plants, Precipitation and its importance, Distribution of vegetation in relation to moisture,
This document discusses the key properties and components of soil. It notes that soil acts as a key resource for crop production by supporting physical, chemical, and biological processes. Soils can be classified based on their particle size and amount of organic matter. Different soil types like sandy, loamy, and clay soils are described along with their characteristics. Organic matter, soil fertility, drainage, pH, and microbes are also discussed as important factors that influence soil quality and plant growth. Maintaining healthy soil through proper management is emphasized.
This document provides a summary of key concepts about sustainable soil management from a publication by the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. It discusses the importance of soil organisms in maintaining healthy soil and explains how native ecosystems function without tillage or fertilizers by recycling nutrients through soil food webs and plant litter. Maintaining high levels of organic matter and diverse soil life through appropriate management practices helps soils remain productive over the long term in a sustainable manner.
Soil is formed by the weathering of rocks at Earth's surface. It is composed of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and microbes. A soil profile shows the different layers or horizons of soil, including the topsoil, subsoil, parent material, and bedrock. Topsoil is soft and holds water and nutrients, while subsoil is more compact. Percolation is the process by which water filters through soil, replenishing groundwater. The percolation rate is calculated by dividing the amount of water by the time taken for percolation. Soil type is determined by the sizes of particles, and can be sandy, clayey, or loamy.
Identifying Your Soil for Rain GardensSotirakou964
Determining the soil type at a proposed rain garden location is important for sizing the garden properly. The document describes how to identify soil type using a simple feel test to classify soils as sand, silt, or clay based on texture. Soil type influences the drainage rate and size of an effective rain garden. Students will learn to classify soil samples collected from their school grounds by texture using this feel test method.
To minimize the impact of drought, a soil needs to capture rainfall, store water for plant use, and allow for deep plant root growth. These conditions can be achieved by managing organic matter, aggregation, and ground cover. Organic matter increases water storage capacity by 16,000 gallons per acre-foot for each 1% increase in organic matter. It also improves aggregation and water infiltration. Maintaining ground cover increases infiltration while lowering evaporation. Together, these factors can greatly reduce the need for irrigation during drought by enhancing the soil's ability to store water and make it available to plants.
Similar to Efficient Use of Water in the Home Landscape and Garden - Texas A&M (20)
The document provides a list of 57 drought-tolerant plant varieties suitable for planting in the Shire of Campaspe. It includes the plant name, features, growing conditions, and suitable areas. The purpose is to promote water-wise gardening by providing options for plants that require less watering and are adapted to the local climate conditions. Good gardening practices like mulching and selecting appropriate varieties are also recommended to maintain a healthy garden that reduces water usage.
The African Market Garden uses gravity-based drip irrigation for successful cultivation of a mix of vegetables interspersed between date palms. It has been adopted by about 4000 farmers across the Sudano-Sahel region, more than doubling growing seasons. By using low-cost drip irrigation and other techniques, the Market Garden reduces labor needs, increases yields and income, and improves food security and living standards for farmers.
Easy Gardening with California Native Plants ManualRetiz16x
This document provides an overview of gardening with California native plants. It discusses California's Mediterranean climate of hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters and how plants are adapted to this. It provides tips for plant selection based on the site conditions and guidance on soils, watering, pruning, mulching, and pest and disease management. The goal is to help gardeners understand how to care for native plants based on their needs and the local climate and grow them with minimal effort.
Easy Water-Wise Gardening - San Diego, CaliforniaRetiz16x
This document provides resources and advice for designing a water-conserving landscape, including:
- Speaking with landscape architects, contractors, designers, and irrigation consultants who can help design and install water-efficient landscapes.
- Checking local water district websites for plant recommendations, watering guidelines, and conservation tips.
- Viewing recommended websites that offer low-water landscape ideas, irrigation advice, and links to water agencies.
- Consulting local nurseries, which can offer plant selection and irrigation design assistance.
Eco-Landscaping Guide - Northern Cook County, IllinoisRetiz16x
The document provides guidance on establishing a natural lawn through eco-landscaping methods. It discusses determining the appropriate uses for different areas of the lawn and selecting grass varieties suited to site conditions. Key considerations include soil characteristics, climate, water needs, and diversity. The goal is to cultivate a healthy, low-maintenance ecosystem through organic practices that reduce chemical dependency and environmental impacts.
Human-induced climate change is resulting in less and more erratic rainfall, especially in food insecure regions. Adaptation strategies are needed to help farmers cope with drought and increased weather variability. Ecological farming approaches that build soil health and biodiversity can increase the resilience and stability of agriculture under a changing climate. Practices like cover crops, intercropping, and adding organic matter help soils hold more moisture while reducing erosion. This helps ensure more reliable yields during drought. Continued breeding of drought-tolerant varieties is also important, though genetic engineering is not well-suited due to the complexity of drought tolerance.
Ecological Landscaping: for Communities, Small to Large - Ontario, CanadaRetiz16x
The document discusses principles and applications of ecological landscaping. It provides examples of how ecological landscaping techniques like green roofs, meadows, xeriscapes, urban forests, and rain gardens can be implemented in communities of various sizes. These techniques aim to solve environmental problems, require minimal maintenance resources, help create healthy ecosystems, and add beauty while respecting local conditions.
Efficient and Effective Gardening Made Easy - Concordia CollegeRetiz16x
The document discusses the benefits and instructions for building a basic 4x4 foot raised bed garden with an integrated trellis system. It recommends constructing the frame from 2x8 wood boards, using rebar to secure the trellis posts, and a mix of compost, peat moss and vermiculite for soil. Additional materials include conduit piping, brackets and netting to form the trellis structure for vines.
Efficient Irrigation for Water Conservation Guideline - Queensland, AustraliaRetiz16x
This document provides guidelines for efficient irrigation in Queensland to conserve water. It outlines requirements for efficient irrigation systems and sprinklers, including maximum flow rates and timer controls. It also gives guidance on efficient gardening practices like understanding plant water needs, soil types, and choosing drought-tolerant plants. The guidelines help homeowners calculate appropriate watering times to meet water restrictions and consumption targets while still maintaining gardens and lawns.
Efficient Irrigation of Trees and Shrubs - Utah State UniversityRetiz16x
This document provides guidance on efficiently irrigating trees and shrubs. It notes that over-watering in Utah's landscapes wastes water and damages structures. Proper irrigation encourages deeper roots and drought tolerance. The document recommends watering trees and shrubs less frequently than turf but for longer, using a soil moisture test to determine when to water. It also provides tips on determining plant water needs and selecting drought tolerant tree species.
Approximately 25% of domestic water is used in gardens. Water can be conserved through efficient irrigation methods, soil treatment to allow water penetration, using mulch to reduce evaporation, and good garden design with fewer lawns. Proper watering techniques like watering infrequently but deeply, targeting the root zone, and using soaker hoses or drippers can save water.
Native plants provide a low-maintenance, drought-resistant landscape while benefiting the environment. They require less water, fertilizer, and pesticides than traditional lawns. A rain garden is a shallow depression planted with native plants that filters pollutants from stormwater runoff and returns moisture to the water cycle. Xeriscaping uses native and drought-tolerant plants to reduce water usage through proper plant placement. The seven principles of xeriscaping are planning, soil improvement, efficient irrigation, plant zoning, mulching, turf alternatives, and appropriate maintenance.
Establishing Native Plants Along West Virginia HighwaysRetiz16x
This document summarizes two studies that assessed establishing native plant species along West Virginia highways. In the first study, native species were seeded alone or combined with non-native species on newly constructed highway sites. Native species established slowly and only reached 25% cover after 3 years. In the second study, native species were seeded after disturbing existing vegetation through mowing, herbicide, or tillage on older highway sites. Native cover increased to 45% by the second year in tilled plots, showing disturbance was needed for natives. Only a few native species were observed in both studies.
Evaluating Options for Water Sensitive Urban Design: A National GuideRetiz16x
The document provides case studies of various Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) projects across Australia. The Pimpama Coomera Water Futures Project case study describes a master plan for a growing region that provides water and wastewater services more sustainably, including supplying houses from three water sources and improving stormwater management. The Springfield Development case study outlines a new residential development featuring dual reticulation for non-potable water reuse and surface irrigation with stormwater and recycled water. The Ascot Waters case study describes a redevelopment that converted degraded land into an estate divided into zones applying a 'treatment train' approach to water management, including vegetated swales and detention basins.
Extreme Weather, Climate and Preparedness in the American MindRetiz16x
The document summarizes the results of a survey about Americans' experiences with and views on extreme weather. Some key findings:
- 82% of Americans report experiencing an extreme weather event in the past year like high winds, rainstorms, heat waves or drought.
- Over half say the weather in the US has gotten worse in recent years and extreme events like heat waves and heavy rains have increased where they live.
- Large majorities believe global warming made recent extreme weather events like heat waves and storms worse.
- However, only about a third have an emergency plan or supplies despite most thinking about preparing for disasters.
Fair Oaks Horticulture Center Water Efficient Landscape Plant ListRetiz16x
The document describes the California Native Garden at the Fair Oaks Horticulture Center, which uses native plants that require little water once established. It lists the trees, shrubs, perennials, grasses, and bulbs currently included in the garden. The garden also demonstrates water-efficient landscaping techniques such as drip irrigation and mulch.
This document provides a list of fire-resistant plant species that can be used for landscaping to reduce wildfire risk. It notes that these plants should be separated and properly maintained with watering and pruning. Using these species replaces highly flammable vegetation and significantly improves home survivability from wildfires. The list is compiled from several authoritative sources and includes ground covers, perennials, shrubs, and trees suitable for the local area that have fire-resistant traits.
Forest gardening mimics natural forest ecosystems by planting edible and useful perennial species in multiple layers. Inspired by tropical examples, forest gardening pioneer Robert Hart created the first temperate forest garden in the UK. Forest gardens have many benefits, including being resilient, maintaining soil fertility, and providing diverse, nutrient-rich food. To start a forest garden, one should transform part of their garden, research suitable plant species, and install plants in mutually beneficial guilds. Ongoing care mostly involves harvesting the sustainable yield.
THE SACRIFICE HOW PRO-PALESTINE PROTESTS STUDENTS ARE SACRIFICING TO CHANGE T...indexPub
The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
Level 3 NCEA - NZ: A Nation In the Making 1872 - 1900 SML.pptHenry Hollis
The History of NZ 1870-1900.
Making of a Nation.
From the NZ Wars to Liberals,
Richard Seddon, George Grey,
Social Laboratory, New Zealand,
Confiscations, Kotahitanga, Kingitanga, Parliament, Suffrage, Repudiation, Economic Change, Agriculture, Gold Mining, Timber, Flax, Sheep, Dairying,
Elevate Your Nonprofit's Online Presence_ A Guide to Effective SEO Strategies...TechSoup
Whether you're new to SEO or looking to refine your existing strategies, this webinar will provide you with actionable insights and practical tips to elevate your nonprofit's online presence.
How Barcodes Can Be Leveraged Within Odoo 17Celine George
In this presentation, we will explore how barcodes can be leveraged within Odoo 17 to streamline our manufacturing processes. We will cover the configuration steps, how to utilize barcodes in different manufacturing scenarios, and the overall benefits of implementing this technology.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
spot a liar (Haiqa 146).pptx Technical writhing and presentation skills
Efficient Use of Water in the Home Landscape and Garden - Texas A&M
1. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Efficient Use of Water in the Home Landscape and Garden:
Jerry Parsons, Extension Horticulturist
Sam Cotner, Head of Horticulture Department
Roland Roberts, Extension Horticulturist
Calvin Finch, County Extension Agent - Horticulturist
Doug Welsh, Extension Horticulturist
During 1984, an estimated 1.25 million acre feet of water were used by Texans in the care and maintenance and residential
landscapes. Texas is expected to soon become the second most popular state in the U.S. with two-thirds of the population
located in urban/suburban areas. With this growth, conservative estimates indicate water needs will increase 75 percent by
the year 2000. Thus, conservation, reclamation and efficient use of water resources will become increasingly important.
Essentially all water used in Texas is derived from precipitation. Part of the precipitation flows into streams, ponds, lakes
and reservoirs, and some of this eventually reaches the Gulf; another portion infiltrates the soil to the rooting zone of
plants; a third portion percolates below the rooting zone and becomes groundwater.
Surface water sources are recharged rapidly, but groundwater reservoirs such as the Ogallala Aquifer, are recharged very
slowly. The Ogallala Aquifer is slowly being exhausted in some areas of heavy pumping. The proportion of precipitation
received in Texas that is returned to the atmosphere as water vapor is estimated to be 70 percent from non-irrigated land
areas and 2 percent from irrigated areas. Most of this loss represents evaporation or transpiration from plant surfaces.
Efficient, Responsible Water Use:
The danger of exhausting valuable aquifers by excessive pumping is
paralleled by the threat of polluting the groundwater with industrial,
agricultural and home landscape contaminants. Nitrates from excessive and
untimely fertilization are especially threatening.
Plants, Soils and Water:
When water is applied to the soil it seeps down through the root zone very
gradually. Each layer of soil must be filled to "field capacity" before water
descends to the next layer. This water movement is referred to as the
wetting front. Water moves downward through a sandy coarse soil much
faster then through a fine-textured soil such as clay or silt.
If only one-half the amount of water required for healthy growth of your
garden or landscape is applied at a given time, it only penetrates the top
half of the root zone; the area below the point where the wetting front stops
remains dry as if no irrigation has been applied at all.
Once enough water is applied to move the wetting front into the root zone,
moisture is absorbed by plant roots and moves up through the stem to the leaves and fruits. Leaves have thousands of
microscopic openings, called stomates, through which water vapor is lost from the plant. This continual loss of water
called transpiration, causes the plant to wilt unless a constant supply of soil water is provided by absorption through the
roots.
The total water requirement is the amount of water lost from the plant plus the amount evaporated from the soil. These two
processes are called evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration rates vary and are influenced by day length, temperature, cloud
cover, wind, relative humidity, mulching, and the type, size and number of plants growing in a given area.
1 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
2. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Water is required for the normal physiological processes of all plants. It is the primary medium for chemical reactions and
movement of substances through the various plant parts. Water is an essential component in photosynthesis and plant
metabolism, including cell division and enlargement. It is important also in cooling the surfaces of land plants by
transpiration.
Water is a primary yield-determining factor in crop production. Plants with insufficient water respond by closing the
stomata, leaf rolling, changing leaf orientation and reducing leaf and stem growth and fruit yield.
Water Quality:
Not all water is suitable for use as an irrigation source. Prior to implementing an irrigation system, the water source should
be tested for water quality. The instructions for testing and the testing results may be obtained from the Texas Agricultural
Extension Service or an independent water lab. The results of the test will determine if the water is suitable for irrigation
or reveal if any special tactics will be required to overcome quality deficiencies.
Major factors in determining water quality are its salinity and sodium contents. Salinity levels are expressed as categories
based on conductivity.
Category C-1 represents a low salinity hazard. Water in this category has a conductivity of less than 2.5 millimhos/cm. It
can be used for most crops without any special tactics.
Category C-2 reflects salinity that results in a conductivity of 2.5 - 7.5 millimhos/cm. The water in this category can be
used for tolerant plants if adequate leaching occurs.
Category C-3 is high salinity water that has conductivity in the 7.5-22.5 millimhos/cm range. It can not be used effectively
on poorly drained soils. On well drained, low salt soils the water can be used for salt tolerant plants if it is well managed.
Category C-4 water is very high salinity and cannot be used for irrigation on a regular basis.
Sodium is a major component of the salts in most saline waters but its impact can be detrimental to soil structure and plant
growth beyond its status as a component of salinity. The level of sodium (Na) in irrigation water is another important
factor of quality.
Table 1. Determination of soil moisture content.
How Soil Feels and Looks
2 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
3. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Soil Moisture Coarse (sand) Light (loamy Medium (fine Heavy (clay loam,
Level sand, sandy sandy loan, silt clay)
loam) loam
No available Dry, loose, Dry, loose, clods Crumbly, dry, Hard, firm baked,
soil moisture. single grained, easily crushed powder, barely cracked usually
Plants wilt. flows through and flows maintains shape. too stiff or tough
Irrigation fingers. No stain through fingers. Clods break down to work or ribbon*
required. (First or smear on No stain or smear easily. May leave by squeezing
Range) fingers. on fingers slight smear or between thumb or
stain when forefinger. May
worked with leave slight smear
hands or fingers. or stain.
Moisture is Appears dry; Appears dry; may May form a weak Pliable, forms a
available, but will not retain make a cast when ball** under ball; ribbons but
level is low. shape when squeezed in hand pressure but is usually breaks or
Irrigation squeezed in hand but seldom holds still crumbly. is crumbly. May
needed. (Second together. Color is pale with leave slight stain
Range) no obvious or smear.
moisture.
Moisture is Color is dark Color is dark Color is dark Color is dark with
available. Level with obvious with obvious from obvious obvious moisture.
is high. moisture Soil moisture. Soil moisture. Forms a Forms good ball.
Irrigation not may stick forms weak ball ball. Works Ribbons easily,
yet needed together in very or cast under easily, clods are has slick feel.
(Third Range) weak cast or pressure. Slight soft with mellow Leaves stain on
ball. finger stain but feel. Stains finger fingers.
no ribbon when and has slick feel
squeezed when squeezed.
between thumb
and fore finger.
Soil moisture Appears and Appears and feels Appears and feels Color is dark.
level following feels moist. moist. Color is moist. Color is Appears moist;
an irrigation. Color is dark. dark. Forms cast dark. Has a may feel sticky.
(Fourth Range) May form weak or ball. Will not smooth, mellow Ribbons out
cast or ball. ribbon but shows feel. Forms ball easily; smears and
Leaves wet smear or stain and ribbons when stains hand; leaves
outline or slight and leaves wet squeezed. Stains wet outline. Forms
smear on hand. outline on hand. and smears. good ball.
Leaves wet
outline on hand.
*Ribbon is formed by squeezing and working soil between thumb and forefinger.
**Cast or ball is formed by squeezing soil in hand.
Sodium levels are expressed as categories based on concentration and impact on soils.
The S-1 category denotes low-sodium water. Water in this category can be used for most plants without any special
tactics.
S-2 water has a medium level of sodium. Its use may be a problem on some fine textured soils.
S-3 water has high levels of sodium and will produce harmful effects in most situations. Sometimes it is useful on soils
3 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
4. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
with high gypsum levels and in low salinity situations where it can be chemically treated.
S-4 water has very high sodium levels and is generally unsatisfactory as irrigation water.
Irrigation Timing:
There are critical growth periods when water stress is most detrimental. It is imperative that a good moisture supply be
maintained during seed germination and seedling emergence from the soil. Water transplants immediately. Many
shallow-rooted plants and newly planted trees and shrubs suffer water stress. Wilting followed by browning leaf tips and
edges are signs of water stress.
To determine if irrigation is needed, feel the soil in the soil zone where most roots are located. Table 1 explains how to
determine the soil's moisture by feel. As you gain experience feeling the soil and observing plant symptoms, it will help
you time irrigations.
Watering Techniques:
Proper watering methods are seldom practiced by most gardeners. They either under- or over water when irrigating.
The person who under-waters usually doesn't realize the time needed to adequately water an area; instead he applies light,
daily sprinklings. It is actually harmful to lightly sprinkle plants every day. Frequent light applications wet the soil to a
depth of less than 1 inch. Most plant roots go much deeper. Light sprinkling only settles the dust and does little to alleviate
drought stress of plants growing in hot, dry soil. Instead of light daily waterings, give plants a weekly soaking. When
watering, allow the soil to become wet to a depth of 5 to 6 inches.
This type of watering allows moisture to penetrate into the soil area where roots can readily absorb it. A soil watered
deeply retains moisture for several days, while one wet only an inch or so is dry within a day.
In contrast, there are those who water so often and heavily that they drown plants. Symptoms of too much water are the
same as for too little. Leaves turn brown at the tips and edges, then brown all over and drop from the plant. These
symptoms should be the same, since they result from insufficient water in the plant tissue.
Too much water is a soil causes oxygen deficiency, resulting in damage to the root system. Plant roots need oxygen to
live. When a soil remains soggy little oxygen is present in the soil. When this condition exists roots die and no longer
absorb water. Then leaves begin to show signs of insufficient water. Often gardeners think these signs signal lack of water,
so they add more. This further aggravates the situation and the plant usually dies quickly.
Thoroughly moisten the soil at each watering, and then allow plants to extract most of the available water from the soil.
Mulching:
A mulch is a layer of material covering the soil surface around plants. This covering befriends plants in a number of ways.
It moderates soil temperature, thus promoting greater root development. Roots prefer to be cool in summer and warm in
winter. This is possible under a year-round blanket of mulch.
Mulch conserves moisture by reducing evaporation of water vapor from the soil surface. This reduces water requirements.
Mulching prevents compaction by reducing soil crusting during natural rainfall or irrigation. Falling drops of water can
pound the upper 1/4 inch of soil, especially a clay soil, into a tight, brick-like mass that retards necessary air and water
movement to the root zone.
4 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
5. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Mulching also reduces disease problems. Certain types of diseases live in the
soil and spread when water splashes bits of infested soil onto a plant's lower
leaves. Mulching and careful watering reduce the spread of these diseases.
Mulching also keeps fruit clean while reducing rot disease by preventing
soil-fruit contact.
Most weed seeds require light to germinate so thick mulch layer shades them
and reduces weed problems by 90 percent or more.
Any plant material that is free of weed seed and not diseased is suitable for
mulch. Weed-free hay or straw, leaves, grass clippings, compost, etc., are all
great. Fresh grass clippings are fine for use around well-established plants, but
cure them for a week or so before placing them around young seedlings.
Mulch vegetable and flower gardens the same way. First get plants established,
then mulch the entire bed with a layer 3 to 4 inches thick. Work the mulch material up around plant stems.
Organic mulches decompose or sometimes wash away, so check the depth of mulches frequently and replace when
necessary.
Recent research indicates that mulching does more to help newly planted trees and shrubs become established than any
other factor except regular watering. Grasses and weeds, especially bermuda grass, which grow around new plants rob
them of moisture and nutrients. Mulch the entire shrub bed and mulch new trees in a 4-foot circle.
Irrigation Methods:
Four distinct methods of irrigating are sprinkling, flooding, furrow-irrigation and drip irrigation. Consider the equipment
and technique involved in each method before selecting the "right" system. Select a system that will give plants sufficient
moisture without wasting water.
Hose-end Sprinkling
Sprinkler irrigation, or "hose-end overhead sprinkling" as it is sometimes called, is the most popular and most common
watering method. Sprinkler units can be set up and moved about quickly and easily. They are inexpensive to buy, but if
used incorrectly they can be extremely wasteful of water.
Sprinkler equipment varies in cost from a few dollars for a small stationary unit to $50 or more for units that move
themselves. A solid-set sprinkler system for a small garden could cost more than $100, although it is not necessary to
spend that much. The best investment is an impact-driving sprinkler than can be set to water either a full or partial circle.
Sprinkler irrigation has its advantages. The system can be used on sloping as well as level areas. Salt does not accumulate
because water percolates downward from the surface carrying salts with it. Different amounts of water can be applied to
separate plantings to match plant requirements.
However, there are some drawbacks. Use sprinkler irrigation early in the day to allow time for the soil surface to dry
before nightfall. Irrigation in a wind of more than 5 miles per hour distributes the water unevenly. If you have poor quality
water, the mist which dries on leaves may deposit enough salt to injure them. Strong winds may carry the water away to
neighbors' yards. Some water also is wasted by attempting to cover a square or rectangular area with a circular pattern.
Move the sprinkler unit at regular intervals if the garden is larger than the sprinkler pattern. With caged tomatoes or
trellised crops, set the sprinkler on a stand to allow the spray to arch up and over the top of the leaf canopy. Improper
timing and operating in wind or at night can damage plants and waste water.
Flood Irrigation
Flooding is one of the oldest irrigation methods. It is often used in areas with extreme summer heat, especially in large
farming operations. It can also be used in the home garden.
First, a shallow dam is raised around the entire perimeter of the area to be watered. Then, water is allowed to flow over the
5 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
6. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
soil until the dammed area is completely covered. Beneficial flooding is possible only if the area is level and the soil
contains enough clay to cause the water to spread out over the surface and penetrate slowly and evenly. The soil must not
remain flooded with water for more than a few hours.
Flood irrigation is useful where alkaline water causes a buildup of salts to toxic levels in the soil. Flooding leaches
(flushes down) these excess soluble salts out of the soil. It is best to do this type of flooding before spring fertilizing,
tilling and planting.
However, flood irrigation has its drawbacks. It can waste water because it is easy to apply much more water than is
required to meet normal plant needs. Runoff is hard to avoid. Also, rapidly growing plants are injured by the low oxygen
level present (oxygen starvation) in flooded soil, and fruits resting on flooded soil stay wet, often rotting as a result.
Furrow Irrigation
Furrow irrigation is a popular method of applying water, primarily to vegetable gardens. Successful furrow irrigation
requires soil with enough clay so that water flows along shallow ditches between the rows and sinks in slowly. The water
must reach the low end of the rows before much has soaked in at the high end. Many sandy or open soils are so porous that
water seeps in too quickly, never reaching the end of the row. To solve this problem, use short rows in gardens with sandy
soil.
Most gardens can be irrigated easily with the furrow method by using a hoe or shovel to make shallow ditches. To test
furrow irrigation, make one shallow ditch from end to end and run water down it. If the water runs 20 to 30 feet in a few
minutes, that's fine. If the water sinks in too fast at the high end, divide the garden lengthwise into two or more runs and
irrigate each run separately. Make a serpentine ditch to guide the water up and down short rows in small gardens on level
ground. The number of rows which can be irrigated at the same time depends on the volume of water available and your
ingenuity.
Leaves and fruit of erect plants such as beans and peppers will stay dry during furrow irrigation. New seedlings can be
watered by running water as often as needed to keep the seedbed moist. The surface soil of a raised bed does not pack as
with sprinkler irrigation, so there is less crusting. Only a hoe or shovel and a length of hose are needed to get the water
from the house faucet to the garden.
But, furrow irrigation does have some disadvantages. Mature fruits of vine and tomato crops usually rest on the soil. Some
will become affected with a soil rot after repeated wetting. And it is difficult, if not impossible, to protect them with
mulch. Train vining plants away from furrows even though it is not an easy
task. In areas with salty water, salts accumulate near the center of the row and
can injure plants. If only a small volume of water is available, water a few
rows at a time and then change to a new set. This can be time consuming and
wasting water at the ends of the rows is a common problem.
Drip Irrigation
Trickle or drip irrigation is an improvement over all the above as a watering
technique. It applies a small amount of water over a long period of time,
usually several hours. This is discussed in detail later in this publication.
Using Water Around Trees and Shrubs:
Grass and/or weeds growing under and around trees and shrubs compete for
the same nutrients and water. When summer rainfall is low and less than
adequate watering occurs, competition for water and nutrients imposed by
weeds or grass substantially reduced tree growth, bud development and fruit
size. When competition from grass is eliminated, roots are more evenly distributed, root numbers increase and they utilize
a larger volume of soil. Effective soil utilization by a large root system means that fertilizer and moisture will be used
more efficiently.
Remove grass and/or weeds from beneath newly planted trees and shrubs as soon as possible. The longer turfgrass grows
under trees and shrubs, the greater the reduction of new growth. There is also a cumulative effect which may decrease tree
growth for several years. For instance, if the growth of a tree is reduced by 20 percent for one year because of grass
6 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
7. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
competition, the growth automatically is 20 percent less during the second year's growth. Grass competition reduces
growth by as much as 50 percent.
If trees and shrubs are surrounded closely by tenacious grasses such as bermuda, remove or kill the turf. The safest grass
killer for use near young trees and shrubs is glyphosate, which is sold as Roundup, Kleenup, Doomsday or Weed and
Grass Killer.
This herbicide totally eliminates grasses and roots, yet is inactivated upon soil contact. Use a piece of wood, cardboard,
etc, as a shield to prevent spray droplets from touching trunks or foliage of desirable plants. Use only the amount of
glyphosate suggested on the product label.
Liberal watering offsets the retarding effect of grass. If the competition of
grass for water can be overcome by extra watering, plants will grow much
better.
Trees need a deep, thorough soaking once a week in the growing season,
either from natural rainfall or supplemental irrigation. When irrigating, be
thorough and allow the water to penetrate deeply. To water large trees let
water flow slowly onto an area under the dripline of the tree for several hours.
Professionals indicate that large trees require more deep watering than
homeowners can imagine. Remember that watering which is adequate for
lawn grasses growing under trees is not adequate for actively growing trees.
Young and mature pecans, which are popular lawn trees in many areas, respond positively to irrigation. Irrigation can be
very beneficial if not necessary, in June, July, and August. Irrigation often means the difference between a marketable and
unmarketable product. A dry June and July may cause many or all nutlets to drop. Drought during July and early August
can decrease nut size. Pecans fill during August and September. Drought during three months may cause nuts that are
poorly filled. A dry September and October may prevent shuck opening and cause a high proportion of "sticktights".
Drought-induced sticktights can be a serious problem.
Growth of young, nonbearing pecan trees depends on a regular supply of
water from April bud break to mid-August. The frequency of irrigation varies
with the system used. However, avoid applying too much water. An
understanding of internal soil drainage prevents overwatering. When too much
water is supplied, oxygen is forced out of the root zone and many serious
problems result, including the following:
Growth stops.
Minerals are not absorbed.
Leaves turn yellow and remain small.
Roots begin to die.
A guide for young tree irrigation is shown in Table 2. If soil drainage is poor, apply 50 percent of this volume.
All bearing pecan trees respond positively to irrigation. In general, pecans in good soil bear with only 32 inches of rainfall
from August to October. However, more water increases tree health and regular production.
Table 2. Average weekly water requirements in gallons per tree.
7 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
8. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Age April May June July August
1-year old trees 7 7 14 28 28
2-year-old trees 14 14 28 54 54
3-year-old trees 28 28 54 112 112
4- to 7- year-old trees 56 56 112 224 224
Pecans require 1 inch of water each week from April to October; the optimum amount is 2 inches per week.
A bearing pecan tree has its greatest water needs during the following periods:
March, immediately before growth begins.
June, when nuts begin to size
Late July, when kernels begin to fall.
Severe drought during one of these four periods can cause complete crop failure or serious loss. If these occur during the
last period, a poor crop results the following year.
Pecan roots can dry out and die if no rain occurs from September to April. Therefore, consider a mid-winter irrigation to
ensure good tree health and regular production.
Lawns:
Water needs vary considerably among the turfgrasses. Consider this when establishing a lawn, for it may significantly
reduce irrigation needs during the summer. Of the common turfgrasses tall fescue requires the most water and
buffalo-grass the least. St. Augustine, hybrid bermuda grass and common bermuda grass have intermediate water needs.
Lightly water newly seeded or sprigged lawns at frequent intervals. Keep the seed or sprigs moist but not saturated during
this initial growth period. This may require watering four or five times on hot, windy days.
The first 10 days to 2 weeks are especially critical. If young plants dry out, they may die. After a couple of weeks root
system development should be well under way and the watering frequency can be slowly reduced. At about 1 month after
seedling or sprigging the lawn it should be treated as an established lawn. Purple or red colored bermuda grass may
indicate seedlings are overwatered. If this occurs, reduce watering and plants usually recover.
Water newly sodded lawns much like established lawns except more frequently. After the sod is applied, soak it with
enough water so that the soil under the sod is wet to a depth of 2 to 3 inches. Each time the sod begins to dry out, resoak it.
Roots develop fairly rapidly and within 2 weeks or so the sod can be treated like an established lawn.
Ideally, a lawn should be watered just before it begins to wilt. Most grasses take on a dull purplish cast and leaf blades
begin to fold or roll. Grass under drought stress also shows evidence of tracks after someone walks across the lawn. These
are the first signs of wilt. With careful observation and experience, one can determine the correct number of days between
waterings. Common bermuda grass lawns can go 5 to 7 days or longer between waterings without loss of quality.
Early morning is considered the best time to water. The wind is usually calm and the temperature is low so less water is
lost to evaporation. The worst time to water is late evening because the lawn stays wet all night, making it more
susceptible to disease.
When watering a lawn, wet the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches. Soil type affects the amount of water needed to wet soil to
the desired depth.
8 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
9. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
It takes about 1/2 inch of water to achieve the desired wetting depth if the soil is high in sand, and about 3/4 inch of water
if the soil is a loam. For soils high in clay, an inch of water is usually necessary to wet the soil to the desired depth.
If waterings are too light or too frequent the lawn may become weak and shallow-rooted, which in turn makes it more
susceptible to stress injury.
Use the following steps to determine the amount of water your sprinkler or sprinkler system puts out and check its
distribution pattern at the same time.
Determine the rate at which your sprinkler applies water to the lawn.
Set out three to five empty cans in a straight line going away from the sprinkler. Set the last can
near the edge of the sprinkler's coverage.
Run the sprinkler for a set time such as 1/2 hour.
Measure the amount of water in each can.
Each can will contain a different amount of water. Usually, the can closest to the
sprinkle will have the most water. The sprinkler pattern must overlap to get an even
wetness of the soil. Use this information to find out how long it takes your sprinkler to
apply 1 inch of water. For example, if you find that most cans contain about 1/4 inch of
water after the sprinkler runs 1/2 hour, it would take 4 x 1/2 or 2 hours to apply 1 inch.
Run the sprinkler or sprinkler system long enough to apply at least 1 inch of water or until runoff
occurs. If runoff occurs first:
Stop sprinkler and note running time.
Allow water to soak in for 1/2 hour.
Start sprinkler.
If runoff occurs, repeat above steps until at least 1 inch of water has been applied and
allowed to soak into the soil.
Do not water again until the lawn has completely dried out. (This usually takes 5 or 6 days.)
Apply enough water to wet the soil to a depth of 4 to 6 inches.
Avoid frequent light applications of water.
Water in early daylight hours.
Select a turfgrass with a low water requirement.
Avoid using soluble nitrogen fertilizers. (They promote high growth rates which, in
turn, increase water requirements of the plant.)
Many soils will not take an inch of water before runoff occurs. If this is a problem with your lawn, try using a wetting
agent, also called a surfactant, which reduces the surface tension of water making it "wetter." This "wetter" water runs into
the soil at a faster rate and goes deeper than water in a non-treated soil.
There are a number of wetting agents available; apply them according to directions on their labels.
9 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
10. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Vegetable Gardens:
Generally speaking, if you keep your tomatoes happy, the rest of the vegetables will receive enough water. Obviously,
irrigating a garden containing many kinds of vegetables is not simple. Early in the season when plants are young and have
small root systems, they remove water from the soil near the center of the row. As the plants grow larger, roots penetrate
into more soil volume and withdraw greater quantities of water faster.
In sandy loam soils, broccoli, cabbage, celery, sweet corn, lettuce, potatoes and radishes have most of their roots in the top
6 to 12 inches of soil (even though some roots go down 2 feet) and require frequent irrigation of about 3/4 to 1 inch of
water. Vegetables which have most of their root systems in the top 18 inches of soil including beans, beets, carrots,
cucumbers, muskmelons, peppers and summer squash. These vegetables withdraw water from the top foot of soil as they
approach maturity and can profit from 1 to 2 inches of water per irrigation.
A few vegetables, including the tomato, cantaloupe, watermelon and okra, root deeper. As these plants grow they profit
from irrigations of up to 2 inches of water.
For fruiting crops, the most critical growth stage regarding water deficit is at flowering and fruit set. Moisture shortage at
this stage may cause abscission of flowers or young fruits, resulting in insufficient fruit for maximum yield.
The longer the flowering period, the less sensitive a species is to moisture deficits. For example, the relative drought
resistance of beans during flowering and early pod formation is the result of the lengthy flowering period --30 to 35 days
with most varieties. Slight deficits during part of this period can be partially compensated for by subsequent fruit set when
the water supply is adequate. More determinate crops such as corn or processing tomatoes are highly sensitive to drought
during the flowering period.
In terms of food production, the period of yield formation or enlargement of the edible product (fruit, head, root, tuber,
etc.) is critical for all vegetables and is the most critical for non-fruiting crops. Moisture deficits at the enlargement stage
normally result in a smaller edible portion because nutrient uptake and photosynthesis are impaired.
Irrigation, especially over irrigation during the ripening period may reduce fruit quality. Ample water during fruit ripening
reduces the sugar content and adversely affects the flavor of such crops as tomatoes, sweet corn and melons. Moisture
deficits at ripening do not significantly reduce yield of most fruit crops, irrigate at this time with extreme caution.
Drip Irrigation for the Home Landscape, Orchard and Garden:
One of the best techniques to use in applying water to home landscapes, gardens and orchards is drip irrigation. This is the
controlled, slow application of water to soil. The water flows under low pressure through plastic pipe or hose laid along
each row of plants. The water drops out into the soil from tiny holes called orifices which are either precisely formed in
the hose wall or in fittings called emitters that are plugged into the hose wall at a proper spacing.
Use drip irrigation for watering vegetables, ornamental and fruit trees, shrubs, vines and container grown plants outdoors.
Drip irrigation is not well suited for solid plantings of shallow-rooted plants such as grass and some ground covers.
The basic concepts behind the successful use of drip irrigation are that soil moisture remains relatively constant, and air, as
essential as water is the plant root system, is always available. In other watering methods there is an extreme fluctuation in
soil water content, temperature and aeration of the soil.
Soil, when flooded or watered by sprinkler, is filled to capacity. It is then left to dry out, and often it is not until the plant
begins to show signs of stress that it is watered again. When the soil is saturated in this way, there is little or no available
oxygen; at the end of the cycle there is insufficient water. Drip irrigation overcomes this traditional watering problem by
keeping water and oxygen levels within absorption limits of the plants. It frequently (even daily) replaces the water lost
through evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration). In addition to maintaining ideal water levels in the soil, this
also prevents extreme temperature fluctuations which result from wet-dry cycles associated with other watering methods.
With proper management, drip irrigation reduces water loss by up to 60 percent or more as compared to traditional
watering methods. These methods deliver water at a faster rate than most soils can absorb. Water applied in excess of this
10 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
11. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
penetration rate can only run off the surface, removing valuable topsoil and nutrients. With drip irrigation the water soaks
in immediately when the flow is adjusted correctly. There is neither flooding nor run-off, so water is not wasted. With a
properly used drip irrigation system, all of the water is accessible to the roots. Watering weed patches, walkways and other
areas between plants and row is avoided. Wind does not carry water away as it can with sprinkler systems, and water lost
to evaporation is negligible.
Drip irrigation requires little or no time for changing irrigation sets and only about half as much water as furrow or
sprinkler irrigation because water is delivered drop by drop at the base of the plants.
Water shortage and high energy costs motivate gardeners to harvest the greatest possible yield from every precious drop of
water. If you have shied away from installing a drip irrigation system because it looked too complicated or too costly, this
publication explains how to have one easily and economically.
The financial investment is reasonably small if you are willing to spend a few hours to plan, assemble and install the
system. Savings in water combined with increased yield and quality of vegetables and flowers more than pays for the cost
of parts to maintain a drip system.
The life of a drip system is extended by proper design, proper filtering, avoiding puncture with tillage tools, mulching over
plastic lateral driplines to shield them from sunlight, and flushing and draining lines and storing system components inside
a warm building before hard freezing temperatures arrive.
The 3- to 5-gallons-per-minute flow from a typical house faucet limits the area which can be adequately irrigated to
usually not more than 1,500 to 2,000 square feet.
From $15 to more than $30 per 100 feet of row can be spent for equipment in an average sized home garden, depending on
whether it is simple or has fancy automatic controls, pressure regulators and fertilizer injectors. As with most tools and
machines, the simpler the better.
The two basic kinds of drip irrigation systems which have worked best for Texas growers are the two-channel plastic
tubing represented by IRS Bi-Wall and Chapin Twin-Wall, and the plastic pipe with insert emitters represented by
Submatic, Melnor Tirosh, Spot, Microjet and many others. The emitters are made by cutting 1-foot lengths of microtubing
(0.40 inch inside diameter and 0.125 inch outside diameter).
When planning a drip system, consider your needs, one at a time:
A source of clear water which flows at a rate of at least 2 to 5
gallons per minute with at least 30 to 40 pounds pressure is needed.
Clean water is essential for successful drip irrigation because sand, silt,
organic material and other foreign material can easily clog small
emitter openings. Most city water sources do not require a filter;
however, some gardeners add a filter to avoid clogging. The filtration
system required depends on the type and quantity of foreign materials
in the water and/or emitter characteristics.
Generally, a screen-type filter is best. A filter system in the main line near
the faucet is much easier to maintain than several filter systems scattered
throughout the irrigation system. Y-type, in-line strainers containing single,
100-mesh, corrosion-resistant screens (such as stainless steel or bronze) are
usually adequate for filtering small amounts of sand, rust particles, etc.
Filters with replaceable cartridges, synthetic-fiber fabric elements or
multi-stage screens such as 100- and 180-mesh are required where water
contains larger amounts of sand. Filters should be equipped with cleanout or flush valves to easily remove trapped
particles. Daily flushing is necessary where water contains moderate amounts of sand or other material. Screens and filter
cartridges need thorough cleaning or replacing periodically, depending upon the amount of foreign material in the water.
11 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
12. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
A decrease in water pressure and volume delivered can signal filter clogging.
A decrease in flow in spite of good pressure in the lines indicates emitter clogging. All water from streams and
underground sources contains dissolved materials known chemically as salts.
Most water does not contain enough salt to be injurious to plants. However, irrigation water adds salt to the soil, where it
remains unless it is removed in drainage water or the harvested crop. When the amount of salt added to the soil exceeds
the amount removed, salt accumulates until the concentration in the soil may become harmful to plants.
The principal effect of salinity is to reduce the availability of water to the plant; however, certain salts or ions may produce
specific toxic effects. Poor quality irrigation water containing moderate amounts of salt often can be used more
successfully with drip irrigation than with sprinkler or surface irrigation. Less total salt is added with drip irrigation since
less water is applied. In addition, a uniformly high soil moisture level is maintained with drip irrigation, which keeps the
salt concentration in the soil at a lower level.
Salts accumulate in the soil around the edges of the west area under drip irrigation emitters, and some leaching (removal of
salts with drainage water) may be required. Sufficient rainfall is received in much of the state to accomplish any required
leaching of salts. However, extra irrigation water may be required in some areas to leach accumulated salts from the root
zone. Operating the system when the crop's water requirement is low can probably accomplish required leaching of salts in
most cases.
Locate the area to be irrigated as closely as possible to a faucet. If the area is more than 100 feet from the
faucet it may be difficult to get enough volume to run the drip system properly in a large area. Use 5/8-inch or
3/4-inch hose from the house faucet to the header in the area to be irrigated. Usually a 5/8-inch hose is a
sufficient line size for normal gardens. Garden rows should be level
or only slightly downhill (not more than 1 to 2 percent grade) even if
it is necessary to run them on the contour (around the hill instead of
up and down it). Place small irrigation pipes (drip hoses) right along
the row; water drips out more uniformly when the rows are level or
slightly downhill. Transport water form the source to the high side of
the area to be irrigated.
If fruit and ornamental trees are to be drip-irrigated, use insert emitters.
The number of emitters per tree or plant depends on plant size. A large
fruit or ornamental tree having a canopy spread of 15 feet or more in
diameter needs six emitters. A smaller tree or shrub needs one emitter for
each 2 1/2 feet of canopy diameter. The number of emitters multiplied by
the rated output per emitter gives the flow rate needed to irrigate all the
trees and shrubs simultaneously. For example, if there are 12 trees on
which 72 emitters will be used, each with a rated output of 1 gallon per
hour at 15 pounds per square inch, the flow rate will be 72 gallons per hour or 1.2 gallons per minute. A 1/2 inch main line
is sufficient according to the following guidelines.
Make a sketch of the area to be irrigated. Use graph or grid paper to draw the area's shape using a scale of 1 inch to 5 to 10
12 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
13. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
feet.
Measure the length and width of the area. The distance from the water source to the edge of the area to be irrigated is the
length of garden hose or plastic pipe needed to connect to the irrigation system.
Draw in the actual lines of drip hose required. If planning a garden, a drip hose will be run down each row. Count the
number of rows and multiply the number of major rows by the row length to get the total length of drip hoses needed. If
you run several rows close together (only a few inches apart) to create a bed culture, consider using one drip hose if it is up
to 18 inches wide and two drip hoses if it is 24 to 36 inches wide. If wide beds are used for planting flowers, use one drip
hose every 18 inches.
Other helpful facts involve the direction of downward slope in the garden and the gallons per minute delivered by your
faucet. Use a container of known volume, such as a 5-gallon pail, and a watch to estimate gallons per minute.
Installing a Drip System:
When buying irrigation equipment avoid mixing brands of fittings, hoses and emitters unless they are compatible. The
design and installation of Bi-Wall and Twin-Wall drip tubing and the design and installation of Submatic, Melnor, Spot
and Microjet emitter systems are discussed separately so that the instructions are easier to understand.
Table 3. Plastic line sizes for lengths less than 100 feet.
Flow rate (gpm) Line size (inches nominal)
1/2 to 2 1/2
2 to 4 3/4
4 to 8 1
When planning a Bi-Wall or Twin-Wall system, use a 1/2-inch (16 millimeter) main water supply plastic hose (header) to
feed the water into the drip tubing which runs alongside each row. Most house faucets supply enough water to run 200 to
300 feet of drip tubing at once. Divide irrigation systems for larger areas into two or more sets when the water volume is
insufficient to cover the whole area at once.
Parts needed for a drip tubing system with a header are a hose long enough to reach from the house faucet to the header, a
1/2-inch female hose connector, a 1/2-inch diameter header long enough to connect all the drip tubes, an ear tee for each
drip tube, a drip tube for every row, a nylon string or strong wire to tie the ends of the drip tubing and a sharp knife.
When a header is used, begin the installation by running a hose from the house faucet to a female hose connector which is
installed in the end of the header closest to the faucet. The other end of the header is plugged or folded back and tied off.
Be sure the header spans the entire width of the area to be irrigated on the high side.
Place the correct lengths of Bi-Wall drip tubing along each row. Plan rows to make the best use of water.
Small plants such as carrots, onions, radishes, lettuce, bush beans, etc., can be double-rowed; that is, seed can be planted
on each side of the drip tubing.
To join the Bi-Wall tubing to the header pipe (the main water supply), use a connecting attachment called an ear tee. At
each row, punch a small hole in the side of the 16-millimeter header tubing facing down the row. Use a blunt eight penny
nail to punch the holes. Push the ear tee into the hole and wrap the two ears around the header. To secure the far end of the
Bi-Wall, fold back 2 inches and tie with a string. If the water contains sand or dirt particles, screw a filter to the hose
connector as sand particles and other trash can clog openings in the Bi-Wall tubing.
All of the drip irrigation fittings are connected to the plastic tubing in the same manner. For the hose connector, push the
16-millimeter header over the shaft and under the locking collar. When the header is as far as you can push it, pull back on
13 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
14. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
the tubing. This binds the tubing under the locking collar. To disassemble, reverse the procedure. For installing Bi-Wall
tubing, push it on the ear tee as far as it will go; push the collar outward, then grasp the Bi-Wall tubing and pull back on it
while holding the ear tee in place with the other hand. This binds the Bi-Wall tubing under the locking collar. Note the
difference in the locking collar for the Bi-Wall and the header. If irrigating only one row with Bi-Wall, put a wide Bi-Wall
collar on the hose connector, install it in the Bi-Wall and fasten it to a water hose or faucet just as for the header. It may be
necessary to twist the locking collar to allow the Bi-Wall to go all the way up.) Work the locking collar down on the
Bi-Wall, then hold the ear tee in one hand and pull on the Bi-Wall tubing with the other hand. If it leaks around the collar
on the ear tee, push the Bi-Wall farther up on the eat tee, twist the locking collar again and pull on the tubing. The notch
on the collar should be over the top of the Bi-Wall.
The second type of drip irrigation system involves the use of insert emitters. When designing a drip system with insert
emitters, strive to have the same amount of water flowing out of all emitters in the system. Secondly, have the flow rate
regulated so that water drips into the soil without puddles forming on the surface. Insert emitter systems are ideally suited
for irrigating trees, which are planted farther apart than garden crops, flowers or shrubs.
Trees previously irrigated by the other methods change their root systems when drip irrigation is used. New feeder roots
concentrate near the emitters and become major suppliers. It is best to start drip irrigation at the beginning of spring
growth to allow time for new roots to develop before hot weather arrives. If drip irrigation is initiated in midsummer, an
occasional supplemental irrigation by the old method is recommended to avoid plant stress.
Soil texture is of primary importance in the design and use of drip irrigation. It directly affects the number of placement of
emitters. In sandy soil where spaces between sand grains are relatively large, gravitational forces affect water movement
more than capillary action. As a result, water moves down rather than laterally through the soil. In finer soils such as clay,
capillary action is much stronger and water spreads laterally before penetrating very deeply. An emitter in sandy soil will
water an area with a diameter of about 15 inches, while in clay soil the same emitter will water an area up to 2 feet in
diameter. Since the same amount of water is released in both cases, the sandy soil obviously receives deeper watering than
the clay.
The following chart on emitter placement suggests a 1-gallon-per-hour emitter at the base of the plant, assuming you have
a low shrub in sandy soil. In fact, placing two 1/2-gallon emitters, each about 9 inches from the base, increases the area of
coverage while using the same amount of water. Increasing the wet area encourages wider development of the root system,
and watering time is reduced somewhat. However, remember that smaller volume emitters clog more easily than larger
volume emitters.
When working with vegetable crops and sandy soil, use closer spacing (12 inches) to ensure that all shallow roots receive
sufficient moisture. With finer soils, use greater distances between emitters while still ensuring proper coverage. To get a
better idea of soil structure experiment with slow water applications to observe lateral movement and depth of water
penetration. Observe the application rate and time so better decisions on emitter placement, as well as watering practices,
can be made. Be sure that a sufficient percentage of the root zone is watered. Shallow root zones require emitters with
closer spacing; deep roots allow wider spacing. The widest spacing to use safely on vegetables and ground cover is closer
than the narrowest required by tree crops. This is shown in the table on the number and placement of emitters.
Water quality may be a factor in emitter location since salts concentrate at the edges of the wet area. It may be necessary
to locate emitters so that wet areas overlap the tree trunk to prevent harmful salt accumulations near the trunk.
A popular emitter arrangement for large trees such as pecans uses a loop which circles the tree between the trunk and the
dripline. The lateral pipeline which carries water along each row of trees is under ground. A 1/2-inch or 3/8-inch
polyethylene pipe connected to the lateral near each tree extends to the soil surface and circles the tree. The tree loop is
usually 6 to 12 feet long initially and contains one or two emitters. Additional lengths of pipe 8 to 12 feet long, each
containing another emitter, are connected to the initial loop as the trees grow and require more water. Large pecan trees
may require tree loops with five to nine emitters.
In-line emitter arrangements have been used satisfactorily for smaller trees such as apples, peaches and citrus. Install two
or four emitters in the lateral so that wet areas overlap in line with the tree row.
Emitter selection and performance are keys to the success of all drip irrigation systems. Some emitters perform
satisfactorily underground while others must be used only above ground. Emitter clogging is still a major problem in drip
14 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
15. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
irrigation. Emitter openings must be small to release small amounts of water, consequently, they clog easily.
Table 4. Selection, number and spacing of emitters and orifices.
Plant Flow rate Number of emitters Placement of emitters or
(gph) or orifices orifices
Low shrubs (2-3 feet) 1.0 1 at plant
Shrubs and trees (3-5 feet) 1.0 2 6-12 inches either side
2 feet from tree equally
Shrubs and trees (5-10 feet) 2.0 2-3
spaced
Shrubs and trees (10-20
2.0 3-4 3 feet apart equally spaced
feet)
Shrubs and trees (20 feet or 4 feet apart equally
2.0 6 or more
higher) spaced/tr>
Containers (Potted plants) 0.5-1.0 1 at plant
Flower beds 1.0 1 at plant
Ground cover 1.0 1 at plant
Vegetables (closely spaced) 0.5-1.0 1 every 16-24 inches
Vegetables (widely spaced) 1.0-2.0 one per plant at plant
Emitters are more easily observed, cleaned and oriented near the tree when they are located on the soil surface, although
drip systems with underground emitters are out of the way. Some emitters can be flushed easily to remove sand or other
particles which cause clogging, while others are more difficult to clean.
Ease of installation and durability are important considerations in
emitter selection. Most emitters are either connected in-line or by
attaching to the lateral. In-line connections are made by cutting the
pipe and connecting the emitter to the pipeline at the cut. Clamps,
which increase costs, are required for connecting emitters in some
pipes. Check the pipe and in-line emitters for correct fit before
purchasing. Emitters which attach to the lateral are either inserted
into the pipe or clamped to it.
The flexibility of a drip irrigation system makes it ideal for most
landscapes. When native plants are transplanted they often require
watering for the first year or so until they establish a root system.
After than they survive on natural rainfall.
As plants grown and watering needs increase, more emitters can be
installed very easily. Or, 1 gallon emitters can be replaced with 2-
or 4-gallon-per-hour emitters.
In landscaping, plants with different watering requirements must frequently be mixed together. Some ornamentals require
occasional deep watering, while others prefer more frequent shallow watering. Differing needs can be satisfied through the
number or size of emitters by placing either a greater number of emitters or by using emitters with a greater flow rate for
plantings requiring extra water. In clay soils it is best to increase the number of emitters rather than the rate of flow since
soil density limits absorption rates.
15 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
16. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Once the system is set up this way, maximum benefit for all plants is achieved by several shallow waterings--leaving the
water on for a short time (20 minutes to 2 hours) with an occasional deep watering (several hours) as needed, depending
on season, plants and soil type.
Burial of the drip system is usually preferred by landscapers and ornamental gardeners. Generally 3 to 4 inches deep is
sufficient. This not only hides the tubing from view but also adds to the system's life expectancy. Most emitters can also
be buried, but check them occasionally. Rodent damage (sometimes they chew through the tubing) and accidental damage
from shovels or tillers are problems associated with buried systems. Repairing cut or punctured laterals is easy with a
couple of connectors and a new section of tubing.
Drip irrigation is the best method for watering landscape trees also. A tree with only 25 percent of its roots wet regularly
will do as well as a tree with 100 percent wetting at 14-day intervals. This saves water in drought situations by wetting
only part of the root zone. Thus a single lateral line is often sufficient for even large trees.
Remember that the root system grows more vigorously in moist soil. If emitters are placed on only one side of a tree, the
root system is not balanced and stability is threatened. In one experiment with drip irrigation, a large crop of trees was
blown over in a storm because the roots had been watered on one side only.
When watering closely spaced plants such as garden crops, flowers or shrubs using insert emitters, a system must have the
capability to maintain uniformly moist soil near the surface along any row where you wish to germinate seeds.
It is not feasible to place an emitter where each plant will grow. You do not use the same spacing for all vegetables and
flowers and you must not grow the same kind of plant in the same spot year after year. All things considered, a spacing of
2 feet between emitters is best for most closely spaced plants and soils; a spacing of 18 inches might be better in very
sandy soil.
Water is not wasted with 2-foot spaces even if plants are set 4 or 5 feet apart. Roots soon penetrate the soil around the
plant in a radius several feet from the stem, and absorb water from every cubic inch of this soil.
Knowing the total length of a drip hose required allows you to buy a ready-made kit with emitters already inserted in the
hose. Usually, hose length in these kits is either 50 or 100 feet. The better kits have a filter and flow control of some sort.
Installing these kits is simple. Lay enough garden hose to reach from the house faucet to the area to be irrigated, attach the
hose end to the coupling on the emitter hose and unroll the hose down the first row. At the end of the row, curve the hose
back up along the second row and so on for remaining rows. If the kit has a Y hose for equal lengths of hose connected to
each leg of the Y, put the Y near the center row at the high end. If there is extra hose, run the excess back over the last
row.
Taking one step at a time in customizing a drip system to fit your planting area is fun and easy. First, select an emitter that
delivers 1 to 2 gallons per hour when operated in a pressure range of 2 to 10 pounds per square inch. One emitter
commonly used in Texas is rated at 2 gallons per hour when operated at a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch. When
operated at 2 pounds per square inch, this same emitter delivers 1 gallon per hour. In actual practice the emitter would be
operating at a pressure somewhere between these two extremes. Emitter systems with insets irrigate most uniformly when
the pressure in the hose along the row is maintained in a range of 3 to 6 pounds per square inch. The lower the pressure,
the greater the effect of elevation changes.
Water flow through a pipe is slowed by the friction it creates. That is why water flows faster from the emitter nearest the
header and slowest from the emitter farthest from the header. Keep this difference as small as possible. Well-designed
small systems can be operated with no more than 10 to 15 percent variation in flow rate. Design your system for a uniform
flow rate by limiting the emitter hose length to less than 50 feet when the emitters are 2 feet apart on 3/8-inch hose.
With row lengths of 60 to 100 feet select 1/2-inch diameter hose. If the 3/8-inch hose is used for runs up to 100 feet, a drop
in flow rate of more than 25 percent from the head to tail of the hose will occur. Water is wasted at the beginning of the
row to get enough water into the soil at the end of the row. If the garden is level, it is easy to shorten the length of run by
placing the header in the center (halfway down the length of the garden). To keep the water volume adequate increase the
diameter of the supply hose or main to 3/4 inch.
16 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
17. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
If the garden slope is only slight and there are only a few rows, put the header on the high end. For steep slopes where
rows must be contoured, run the header down the slope and the emitter hose across the slope with the contour.
Now determine if the water supply is sufficient for the drip system to work properly. Count the number of emitters and
multiply by the rated gallons per hour of the emitter. Divide this number by 60 to get the gallons per minute your water
source must supply to allow the system to irrigate uniformly. For example, 100 emitters multiply by 2 gallons per hour per
emitter equals 200 gallons per hour, 200 gallons per hour divided by 60 equals 3.3 gallons per minute. If your water supply
is 5 gallons per minute, design the header hose to irrigate the garden in one set; if your water supply is only 2 to 3 gallons
per minute, divide the header into two sets using a tee with two shutoffs to permit irrigating each half of the garden
separately.
Selecting the proper size main and submain (header) hoses is next. For flow rate up to 3 gallons per minute, 1/2-inch
diameter hose is adequate for the main hose from the faucet to the header and for the header, too. When a flow of 3 to 6
gallons per minute is required to satisfy the emitter hose, the main hose carrying water to the header should be 3/4 inch in
diameter and the header can be 1/2-inch diameter hose.
For example, here is a hypothetical garden 20 feet wide and 30 feet long, with 25 feet from the hose faucet. It has six drip
emitter hoses with emitters 2 feet apart in the hose. Starting at the house faucet, a drip system would require one 80-mesh
hose strainer, 25 feet of 1/2-inch supply hose with threaded coupling, one 1/2-inch female swivel hose thread poly
compression tee, 20 feet of 1/2-inch header hose, four male hose thread poly compression tees, six 1/2-gallon-per-minute
flow control valves, 180 feet of 3/8-inch male hose compression couplings with caps, 100 emitters which deliver 1 to 2
gallons per hour and one twist punch. Include several repair couplings and a dozen hole or 'goof' plugs to help repair
accidents. Row shutoffs and flow control valves can be omitted, but the system would be less versatile and less uniform in
flow rate.
Installing this emitter hose system requires only a knife to cut the hose and a twist punch or hand punch to install insert
emitters. Some hose comes with emitters already installed, and the cost is only slightly more.
Assemble the system starting at the house faucet. Lay hose from the faucet to the soil at the edge of the garden, leaving it
slack. Sink wooden stakes in the soil to hold the hose and fittings where you place them. Measure pieces of header hose
and push them into the compression fittings (tees) so that the drip hose lines up exactly with a center of the row. Then,
punch a hole with the twist punch along the top side of the drip hose every 2 feet and press an emitter into each hole. Turn
on the water to flush any foreign particles out of the end of the hoses. When the lines are cleaned, stop the water and cap
the end of each drip hose. Now it's ready to irrigate.
Operatin a Drip System:
Operating a drip system is a matter of deciding how often to turn it on and how long to leave it on. The object is to
maintain adequate soil moisture without wasting water by applying too much.
Anyone can turn on a faucet for an hour or two every day, and some drip system manufacturers advise leaving systems on
continuously for the entire growing season. Not all gardens, however, use the same amount of water daily. Knowing how
often and how long to water depends on the system's rate of delivery, soil type, varying weather conditions, kinds of
plants, their growth stage and cultural practices in use. Irrigating trees has the same restrictions. Water requirements are
influenced by tree size and growth as well as rainfall, temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity. Ideal system
operation applies just enough water to replace the amount used by the plants the previous day. Uniform soil moisture
content is maintained and the volume of moistened soil neither increases nor decreases.
Estimate daily operating time in hours by dividing the daily water requirement of each plant in gallons by the application
rate to each plant in gallons per hour. Continuous irrigation may be required for short periods when water use by the plants
is maximum, but continuous operation when it is not required offsets the basic advantage of minimum water application
with drip irrigation.
The object of each watering is to bring the moisture level in the root zone up to a satisfactory level. Any more means
cutting off necessary oxygen along with the loss of water and nutrients below the root zone. The system is then run again
before the satisfactory moisture levels in the soil is lost. If plants are showing signs of insufficient moisture and watering
17 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
18. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
duration is long enough (see Table 5), then shorten intervals between watering.
Table 5. Watering time (in hours) per irrigation.*
Type of plant (height) Coarse soil Medium soil Fine soil
Low shrubs (2-3 feet) 2 3 4
Shrubs and trees (3-5 feet) 3 4 1/2 6
Shrubs and trees (5-10 feet) 4 6 8
Shrubs and trees (10-20 feet) 6 10 10
Shrubs and trees (20 feet or
8 14 18
higher)
Flower beds 1 1/4 2 3
Ground cover 1 1 1/2 2
Vegetables -- close spacing 1 1/4 2 3
Vegetables -- wide spacing 2 2 4
Potted plants
1-gallon 1/8 1/5 1/4
5-gallon 1/3 1/2 2/3
25-gallon 1 1/4 2 2 1/2
* Use this guide, experiment and observe plants and take moisture readings in root zone if possible.
Adapt the guide according to your findings. Remember, the object is to adequately water the root
zone but no more.
Table 6 give the amount of water various plants need under a range of temperature conditions. This is evapotranspiration.
It considers the water used by the plant as well as the water evaporated. Plants need three to four times as much water in
hot weather as they do in cool weather. Both tables are needed to calculate the number of waterings each week.
Table 6. Irrigation time needed each week.*
18 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
19. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
Hours of Watering
Type of plant (height)
Hot weather Warm weather Cool weather
Low shrubs (2-3 feet) 12 8 4
Shrubs and trees (3-5
14 9 5
feet)
Shrubs and trees (5-10
18 12 6
feet)
Shrubs and trees (10-20
32 20 10
feet)
Shrubs and trees (20 feet
36 24 12
or higher)
Containers (Potted plants)
Flower beds 10 6 3
Ground cover 10 6 3
Vegetables -- close
10 6 3
spacing<
Vegetables -- wide
12 8 4
spacing
Potted plants
1-gallon 1/2 1 1/2
5-gallon 3 2 1
25-gallon 14 9 5
* Use this guide, experiment and observe plants and take moisture readings in root zone if possible.
Adapt the guide according to your findings. Remember, the object is to adequately water the root
zone but no more.
Divide the amount of water needed per week by the watering time to determine the number of waterings weekly. For
example, a closely spaced vegetable garden in medium soil needs to be watered for 2 hours at each watering, and with
warm weather the garden needs 6 hours of water each week. Divide six by two and the answer is three waterings per
week. The formula makes it easier to figure weekly waterings.
Most home gardens have plants with various watering needs. This makes it difficult to give each type of planting optimum
watering, but with some care results can be more than satisfactory. Plants with shallow root zones and shorter watering
times benefit from more frequent applications. Other plants requiring deeper watering are satisfied by emitters with greater
outputs, or in the case of clay soils, a greater number of emitters.
Knowing the number of gallons delivered per hour by a drip system is also vitally important. If the delivery rate of a
system is known, one can easily decide how long to leave it on to get the desired amount of water.
For example, a typical system which delivers 15 gallons per hour to each 100 square feet of areairrigates at the rate of 1/4
inch per hour. Thus, you would leave the system on for 4 hours to get a 1-inch irrigation. To apply a 1-inch irrigation to a
garden, run the system long enough to deliver about 60 gallons for each 100 square feet of garden area. Likewise, a system
with a 30-gallon-per hour rate of delivery would do the same job in 2 hours.<
19 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
20. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
To calculate the delivery rate of a particular drip system, read the meter again, subtract the first reading from the second
and divide the total gallons per hour by the approximate number of units of 100 square feet in the garden. Divide the
gallons per hour per 100 square feet by 60 to see what fraction of an inch is applied in 1 hour.
Another method of measuring the volume delivered by one emitter in 1 minute is to use a measuring cup or graduated
cylinder. Repeat this for several emitters and take the average. Multiply this volume by the number of emitters in the
system to get the volume per minute. Multiply this volume by 60 to get volume per hour and convert this to gallons per
hour. Again, divide your gallons per hour by the number of units of 100 square feet in the garden to get gallons per hour
per 100 square feet.
Probably the easiest method is to install an inexpensive water meter with automatic shutoff on the faucet. Then attach the
hose which carries the water to the header pipe. Set the water to the header pipe. Set the meter to deliver the number of
gallons needed to apply in inch of water. This volume would be 60 times the number of units of 100 square feet in the
garden.
Turn on the water and stay nearby to record the time it shuts off. The elapsed time is how long it took the system to deliver
the inch of water.
For newly seeded gardens the system should be run only a short time every day for a few days to keep the surface soil
from drying out. Plants loaded with fruit will need an inch of water every other day.
Most people new to drip irrigation notice immediately that the soil surface is dry except for a circle of moist soil right
around the emitter. The wet circles overlap where emitter holes are closely spaced. Two examples are the Bi-Wall and
Twin-Wall hoses.
Moist surface soil is desirable only when germinating seed. At other times it is a waste of water because tremendous
quantities evaporate from a wet soil surface. The small circle of moist surface soil around a drip irrigation emitter is like
the tip of an iceberg, because after a few hours of irrigating a great volume of water under the emitter has spread out
through the soil for several feet in all directions.
The water which falls gently from the drip hose into the soil is pulled downward by gravity. It is also pulled sideways,
moving from one tiny soil particle to the next by a force known as capillary attraction. The slower the water flows into the
soil, the greater is its sideways flow relative to its downward flow.
It is easy to see why water from a drip hose in the row spreads out several feet in all directions even though only a small
circle of wetness on the soil surface is visible. Actually, the dry surface soil prevents moisture from evaporating into the
air, thus conserving water.
Very often after spring or fall tillage, especially rototilling, the soil is fluffy and very loose. This soil will not conduct drip
irrigation water properly. Instead of spreading out and wetting the entire soil volume in the garden, the water travels
almost straight down. A narrow column of soil will be waterlogged, but most of the surrounding soil remains dry.
For tilled soil to regain its ability to conduct the water sideways, soil particles must settle back together after each spading,
plowing or rototilling. Sprinkle irrigate an inch of water on the entire garden after spring and fall tillage to settle soil
particles so that the soil will conduct water laterally as well as downward. An inch or two of rain also settles the soil.
Sandy loam soils hold less water per foot of depth than clay loam soils. Water moves downward faster in sandy soils than
in those with high clay content. Generally, water spreads sideways more in clay loam than in sandy loam soils, but there
are exceptions. Some homeowners have added so much organic matter to their sandy soil that the water from an emitter
travels outward in a circular pattern, wetting soil 3 feet away from the emitter to within 3 inches of the soil surface.
In Texas, spring rainfall is often adequate to get plants started. In June and July rainfall is less, and higher air temperatures
and longer days cause plants and soil to lose much more water into the air. Watch the weather and record the amount and
frequency of rainfall, remembering that supplemental irrigation may be necessary even in a rainy week if the required
20 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM
21. Efficient Use of Water http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/greenhouse/new/training/garden.htm
amount has not been supplied naturally.
The frequency of irrigation should increase as hot summer weather approaches. When temperatures reach the high 90's and
humidity is low, fruiting tomato plants require irrigation every other day with at least an inch of water for maximum
production. In the fall, with the return of more frequent rainfall and cooler temperatures, allow more time between
irrigations. An inch every 5 to 7 days is adequate then.
Inspect plants regularly to determine necessary adjustments in daily irrigation time. If the zone of moistened soil is
increasing in size, reduce operating time; if the moistened soil zone is decreasing in size, increase operating time.
The frequency and duration of drip irrigation also depend on the kinds of plants being grown. For instance, tomatoes use
more water than any other vegetable in the garden when full grown and laden with fruit.
Three to 6 gallons of water daily usually is sufficient for a tree during the first and second year after planting. Only 3 to 6
hours of irrigation time are required daily during maximum water use months if one 1-gallon-per-hour emitter is used at
each tree.
Water Responsibility:
Water is a limited and fragile resource. Each gardener utilizes a small part of the total water consumed, but the total use by
all gardeners is significant. Irrigating home gardens and landscapes is considered a luxury use of water by many people.
Non-essential use of water implies a special responsibility on the part of gardeners to efficiently use the resource and to
protect its quality.
This responsibility is fulfilled by following the recommendations in this bulletin concerning water conservation and to
further avoid practices that contribute to surface and groundwater contamination. Among the threats to pure water are
improper use of fertilizers, pesticides and soil erosion. Label instructions on all pesticides and fertilizers must be followed
faithfully and water run-off due to excess irrigation should be minimized.
GLOSSARY
Abscission - The falling off or breaking off of a leaf or fruit as the result of a weak point which forms at a point on the
petiole or stem.
Bi-Wall drip tubing - A brand of drip tubing which has a small diameter plastic tube fused to the top side of a large
diameter plastic tube. Water flows through the large tube and into the small tube through holes spaced every 4 to 6 feet.
Water drips out of the small tubing onto the soil from holes spaced about 1 foot apart. This system allows water to be
distributed evenly along a relatively long row of up to several hundred feet.
Drip irrigation - The slow application of water, usually drop by drop, to the soil.
Ear tee - A fitting used to conduct water from a given point along a header pipe into a length of Bi-Wall or Twin-Wall
tubing. The ears are two semi-rigid loops of plastic that are looped over the header pipe to prevent the tee from being
pushed out by water pressure.
Emitter - A small fitting (usually in the size range of an aspirin to a spark plug) with a precisely formed orifice or channel
in it. This emitter is plugged into flexible plastic pipe permitting water to flow out of the pipe at a very slow rate at any
point along its length.
Evapotranspiration - The combined loss of water from the soil by evaporation and from leaves by transpiration.
Filter - A device which captures particles of sand or other matter which might plug orifices in the lateral drip lines.
Fittings - Collectively, the parts of a drip system; pipe, connecting tees, valves, emitters, etc.
Flow rate - The volume of water passing through a pipe or out of an emitter.
21 of 23 5/10/99 4:18 PM