Role of community participation and partnerships: the Virginia pipeline scheme This article was written by Ganesh Keremane and Jennifer McKay. It was published in the AWA Water Journal in November 2006. www.awa.asn.au

1. technical features
recycling: community consultation
ROLE OF COMMUNITY
PARTICIPATION AND PARTNERSHIPS:
THE VIRGINIA PIPELINE SCHEME
G B Keremane, J McKay
Abstract
The Virginia Pipeline Scheme in Adelaide is
one of the largest high quality water
recycling schemes in the world and the first
of its type in Australia. This paper focuses
on this scheme and illustrates the role of
community participation and partnerships
in successful implementation of the scheme.
It also looks at the role of the initial
developers and the factors, which created
this public partnership, and the current
perceptions of the present day users of the
scheme.
Introduction
In a situation where competition for high
quality freshwater is manifold, reclaimed
water is increasingly being recognised as a Figure 1. Layout of the Virginia Pipeline Scheme and its distribution network.
new and reliable water source, without
compromising public health. Nevertheless,
while developing successful and sustainable the decline of water levels in the aquifers of Since then, the VPS has provided reclaimed
wastewater irrigation schemes, water the northern Adelaide plains. Each year water for irrigation in the Northern
managers, planners, and policymakers often groundwater resources provides about 14- Adelaide plains, some 35 kms north of
encounter difficulties, particularly 18 GL of water for irrigation in the Virginia Adelaide. It supplies highly treated
management problems. region which is beyond the sustainable reclaimed water to approximately 250
limits of supply (Kracman et al. 2001; growers operating within an area of 200
Management problems arise due to
Pritchard and Richardson, 2005). In order square kilometres.
coordination complexity resulting from
to supplement the declining groundwater
varying roles and responsibilities and The proposal for developing the VPS was
supplies, prior to the Virginia Pipeline
overlapping concerns among the public visualised when SA Water, as part of its
Scheme, many growers used Class ‘C’
agencies managing the resources reclaimed water to irrigate their crops by Environment Improvement Program,
(MacDonald and Dyack 2004). Similarly, pumping from the Bolivar wastewater constructed a $30 million
wastewater collection, treatment, and its treatment plant out-fall channel. Growers filtration/disinfection plant (DAFF) to treat
usage span a wide range of interests at were thus aware of the potential this new effluent from the Bolivar wastewater
different levels of administration. source had to offer towards meeting the treatment plant, producing Class A
Therefore, the success and long-term growing demand for water supplies. reclaimed water that could be used for
sustainability of any reuse scheme largely
This realisation by the growers and driven irrigation in the region. The Water
depends on the institutional organisation,
enhanced community participation, and Reticulation Services Virginia (WRSV), a
well-designed partnerships. Enhanced community private company, gained a contract to access
the output from the treatment plant, and
The paper illustrates the role of community participation and well-
participation and partnerships in developing further signed up clients for the water and
a successful and sustainable reuse scheme. It designed partnerships built the water distribution system. Thus,
also looks at the factors that created this VPS is a co-operative undertaking of SA
partnership, and the perceptions of the led to success. Water, Water Reticulation Systems Virginia
present day users of reclaimed water in the (WRSV) - a private company and the
Virginia Irrigation Area, South Australia. by the environmental, economic and social Virginia Irrigation Association (VIA) -
factors has led to the commissioning of the representing market gardeners and other
Background Virginia Pipeline Scheme (VPS) in 1999 irrigators. Figure 1 provides the schematic
Overuse of the groundwater resources to (Kelly and Stevens, 2000; Thomas 2006). layout of the VPS and its distribution
irrigate the horticultural crops resulted in network.
29 NOVEMBER 2006 Journal of the Australian Water Association

2. technical features
recycling: community consultation
The Study Table 1. Distribution of the respondents across different ethnic groups.
The design adopted for this study was ‘Case
Group Total number of farms visited Total Respondents
Study’, a research strategy that focuses on
understanding the dynamics present within Non-English speaking 120 91
single settings (Eisenhardt, 1989). English speaking 45 37
Household interviews were conducted to Total 165 (65) 128 (51)
gather information and key informant
Note: Figures in parentheses are percentages of the total number (252) of irrigators using reclaimed water.
interviews augmented the information.
Structured questionnaires were used for the
household interviews using a mix of collective efforts and partnerships. So, what Around seven per cent believed that
question types: multiple choices, numeric factors prompted the partnerships or community interest to use reclaimed water
open end, and agreement scales. motivated the growers for collective action? for irrigation was the important reason.
Generally, whenever individuals face About six per cent rated encouragement by
An initial exploration survey revealed that
problems unsolvable on their own they tend water authorities as the important reason.
the irrigators associated with VPS
to come together to find solutions. This However, these are only the irrigators’
comprised Greek, Italian, Australian,
means, when there is a widely perception. Apart from the factors perceived
Vietnamese, and Cambodian communities.
acknowledged crisis i.e. a crisis that by the respondents, increasing public
In order to interview irrigators with non-
multiple groups acknowledge as affecting concerns about the environmental damages
English speaking background, interpreters
their core interests; collective action is caused by discharge of highly nutrient rich
were recruited on the bases of command
possible (OECD, 2003). Collective action effluents into the ocean accompanied by
over Vietnamese, Khmer and English
therefore becomes an immediate necessity some government initiatives such as
language, as well as relevant knowledge of
rather than a choice. According to Wade Building Better Cities were also
the survey methods and study theme. In
(1979), “where water is problematic for instrumental.
addition, the questionnaire was translated
from English into Vietnamese and Khmer virtually all irrigators, the irrigators tend to The theory of collective action
by professional translators to facilitate the form a corporate body to deal with Collective action is mostly discussed in
interview process and in some cases, allow common irrigation and cultivation relation to the ‘tragedy of the commons’
the respondents to mark the document on problems. The individual not only gets an (Hardin,1968) and much of the world is
their own. identity but also security in the process of dependent upon resources that are subject
When the WRSV was approached for the collective action”. That was the case with to the possibility of a tragedy of the
list of irrigators associated with the VPS, it the inception of VPS where people commons (Ostrom 1992). Although,
was difficult to obtain the list because of organised collectively in order to find overcoming the tragedy of the commons is
some formal obligations of the water solution to the water scarcity crisis in the not an easy task, there is a growing
company. Therefore, a snowball sampling region caused by depleting groundwater consensus among commons scholars that
technique was employed to identify the resources (Kracman, 2001; Thomas, 2006). collective, community–based regulation
respondents who were using reclaimed Respondents were asked to mention the holds out the best prospects for efficient
water from the scheme. In total 165 farms most important reason that prompted management of resources (Ostrom 2000).
were visited out of which 128 irrigators development of the Virginia pipeline. The concept of collective action has,
responded. This accounted for around 51 Figure 2 illustrates their responses. therefore, emerged as a response to deal
per cent of the total number of irrigators Around 53 per cent of the respondents with the tragedy of the commons.
associated with VPS (Table 1). Those not reported groundwater depletion as the most The phrase ‘collective action’ refers to
responding were either not interested in the important reason followed by 32 per cent activities that require the coordination of
study or not available during the repeated quoting the price of the mains water. efforts by two or more individuals (Agarwal
visits made to their farms. Simple tabular
analysis with aid of frequencies and
percentages was used to arrive at the results.
Results and Discussion
According to Agarwal and Ostrom (1999),
through collective action, enhanced
community participation, and well-
designed partnerships, it is possible to
coordinate individual’s activities; develop
rules for resource use; sanction violators and
mobilise the necessary cash, labour, or
material resources. This study attempts to
capture the perceptions of present day
users’ about community participation,
collective action and partnerships along
with the factors responsible for
implementing the VPS.
Factors prompting implementation of the
scheme
As mentioned earlier, VPS is the result of Figure 2. Irrigators’ perception of reasons prompting development of the VPS.

3. technical features
recycling: community consultation
and Ostrom 1999). Individuals associate
themselves for a collective action with an Table 2. Irrigators’ perception about collective action and cooperation.
objective to face the uncertainties and to Statements Agree Neutral Disagree
search for solutions wherever possible. The
commons literature has ample evidences of People in the community will cooperate when there is
water supply problem 75 (59) 18 (14) 35 (27)
collective regulation for natural resources
management (White and Runge 1995; Lam Most people in the community are willing to help when
in need 101 (79) 23 (18) 4 (3)
1996; Ostrom 1992; 2000).
This community has prospered in the last five years 97 (76) 28 (22) 3 (2)
The study used 11-point Likert scale items
as a measure of collective action and I feel accepted as a member of this community 99 (77) 26 (20) 3 (2)
cooperation within the community. To Note: Figures in parentheses are percentage of the total sample (N=128).
assess the irrigators’ perception regarding
collective action and also participation, community, almost 60 per cent agreed with 2005). This also demonstrates a high level
respondents were asked to agree or disagree the proposition. When asked whether of trust among the members of the
with the scale items and the results are people who do not participate in communal community.
presented in Table 2 and Table 3. activities are criticised, more than 60 per Further, since different agencies are
More than 75 per cent of the respondents cent disagreed with the proposition. About involved in the functioning of the VPS,
agreed that ‘most people in the community making fair contribution towards trust in these agencies also plays an
are willing to help when in need’. When communal activities around 42 per cent of important role in deciding about
asked about their perception on community the respondents thought that everyone in participation in the scheme. Respondents
prosperity over the last five years, around the community makes a fair contribution. were asked about their level of trust in the
76 per cent believed that the community The term ‘contribution’ here meant agencies- government, EPA, health services
has prospered because of cooperation contributing in terms of money or kind. and the water company. Figure 3 depicts
among the community members. Keeping Almost an equal percentage of respondents the level of trust irrigators have in various
in mind the variations in cultural remained neutral. Around 75 per cent of agencies.
background and ethnicities, the the respondents agreed that the community Irrigators had either complete trust or some
respondents were asked if they felt accepted has prospered in the last five years. level of trust in these agencies to perform
as a member of one community. More than Chi-square (χ2) estimates were calculated to their duties effectively. Around 58 per cent
70 per cent agreed that they felt accepted. test whether irrigators’ perception about of the respondents had complete trust in
It was observed during the survey that most collective action and participation varied the government agencies while another 16
of the respondents were engaged in farming with age, education level, or ethnicity. The per cent had some level of trust. Regarding
in Virginia for more than 10 years without estimates were not significant affirming that the water company, more than 55 per cent
any problems. This supports the perception irrigators’ perception was similar across had complete trust while around 26 per
of irrigators’ that they felt accepted by the different age group, education level, and cent more had some level of trust. About
community. When specifically asked about ethnicity. trust in other associated agencies like the
cooperating during a water crisis, about 59
Trust and solidarity EPA and the Health department, more
per cent agreed that people cooperate in
than 40 per cent had complete trust.
such situations. A considerable percentage It is evident from the success of the scheme
However, percentage of respondents who
of people remained neutral (marked five on that despite different ethnicity and cultural
were indifferent is considerable, particularly
the scale) in response to this proposition. backgrounds the irrigators have
with respect to EPA and Department of
As observed during the survey, one possible demonstrated a high degree of networking.
Health. This may be due the lack of
reason for this could be that most Absence of this would have raised
awareness among the irrigators regarding
respondents were new to the scheme. problems. This is in contrast to the
the role of these agencies in relation to the
Overall, the responses and observations argument regarding collective action that
scheme.
made during the survey imply that the division of irrigators by cultural and/or
community has a strong sense of other social differences affects their capacity The chi-square estimates for age group
cooperation and is community orientated. to communicate with one another (Tang, (χ2=18.11) and ethnicity (χ2=41.78) in case
1992). Therefore, the findings of this study of trust in water company were significant
Mere presence of a crisis does not always
while contradicting previous studies suggest implying that irrigators’ with English
bring out collective action, participation of
that relatively heterogeneous community speaking background and in the young and
all the actors involved is equally important.
groups can be effective at provision of middle age groups had more trust. Similar
Participation is a broad term with many
irrigation services (Kurian and Dietz, results were obtained in case of trust in the
variations in its meaning and interpretation.
However, in its narrowest sense,
participation can be defined in terms of
nominal membership, while in the broadest Table 3. Irrigators’ perception about statements regarding participation.
sense it can be defined as a process in which Statements Agree Neutral Disagree
people voice and influence in decision-
making (White 1996). Here, the focus is I have worked with others in the past for the benefit of
‘community participation’ and to examine the community 76 (59) 40 (31) 12 (9)
the extent of community participation the Most likely, the people who do not participate in
study proposed three statements to the communal activities are criticised. 14 (11) 34 (27) 80 (63)
irrigators (Table 3). Everyone in the community makes a fair contribution to
communal activities 54 (42) 53 (41) 21 (16)
Respondents, when asked if they worked
with others for the benefit of the Note: Figures in parentheses are percentage of the total sample (N=128)
31 NOVEMBER 2006 Journal of the Australian Water Association

4. technical features
recycling: community consultation
health department where the estimates for
age (χ2=23.82) and ethnic groups
(χ2=71.32) were significant, implying
English speaking background and young -
middle age groups had more trust in the
health department.
Partnerships
Apart from collective action and
community participation, ‘well designed
public-private partnerships’ is also a factor
responsible for the success and
sustainability of VPS.
In the context of water sector, public-
private partnerships refer to ‘public entity
entering into a contractual agreement with
the private sector to take over some or all
of its activities related to water
management’ (OECD 2003). Generally,
public-private partnerships (PPPs)
promoted within the water sector are
concession-based contracts in which a Figure 3. Irrigator’s level of trust in different agencies associated with the scheme.
private firm obtains from the government
the right to provide a particular service
under conditions of significant market
implementation of any reclaimed water to SA Water in 2018 as per the terms of
power (Kerf et al. 1995 cited in Braadbaart
irrigation schemes. Acquiring funds is agreement (Menzies, 2001).
2005). Such contracts come in three
another important obstacle since financing In the present case, Government agencies
families namely: franchise contracts,
a reuse scheme is normally a complex task. contributed nearly half the capital funds.
concession contracts and the build-operate-
transfer (BOT) contracts (Braadbaart, Legal and policy issues were addressed The total cost of the project ($55million),
2005). The Virginia pipeline is built on the effectively because South Australia has a including the DAFF Plant and the
BOT model. favourable regulatory and policy regime for reticulation system, was shared between the
wastewater reuse. The government policy Commonwealth Government ($10.8
Under the BOT form of partnership,
‘to phase out all sewerage discharges to the
capital investment, designing, building and million), which contributed from the
marine environment where it is
operating the scheme is the responsibility Building Better Cities funds, Landcare
economically and environmentally
of the private sector while the responsibility ($574,000), private investors ($7 million),
sustainable’ has significantly influenced the
of setting performance standards, asset SA government ($7 million), Horticulture
development of water reuse programs in
ownership, user fee collection, and Australia Limited ($ 700,000) and the
South Australia (Thiyagarajah 2005). The
oversight of performance and fees rests with remainder from SA Water. Regarding the
inclusion of reclaimed water in the South
the public agencies. This means, “in a BOT social issues, which is mostly addressing the
Australian Government’s State Water Plan
project, a private company is given community concerns about using reclaimed
2000 demonstrates the State’s commitment
concession to build and operate a facility water the VPS has clear and effective water
to wastewater reuse projects. Above all, the
that would normally be built and operated
state has several regulatory controls that management plans. An Irrigation
by the government” (UNIDO, 1996 cited
need to be complied with before Management Plan (IMP) is developed by
in Braadbaart 2005). In the present case,
implementation of the scheme like the WRSV to ensure that the irrigation of
SA water (public agency) is responsible for
comprehensive reclaimed water guidelines; the agricultural land is sustainable. The
setting performance standards, asset
Water Resources Act; approval of the Public Environment Protection Agency (EPA) is
ownership, user fee collection and,
and Environmental Health Service, and responsible for approving and reviewing the
oversight of performance and fees. The
approval of Environment Protection IMPs on an annual basis and ensuring that
WRSV (private company) is responsible for
Authority (EPA). it complies with all the environmental
capital investment, designing and building
and operating the scheme. However, it had The remaining financial, institutional and legislations. The irrigation association
some financial assistance from the SA water social issues were addressed through (VIA) representing the
and Federal government funds from the contractual agreements between the community/irrigators manages an
Build Better Cities Program. stakeholders – SA Water, VIA, and the
education programme for growers in
WRSV. As a part of the contractual
Impediments encountering relation to water reuse. This programme
agreement, SA water constructed the DAFF
implementation of reuse scheme water treatment plant. The WRSV built aims to educate the irrigators about the
Successful development of reuse schemes the distribution system and delivers water impact of the enhanced nutrient levels on
always encounters various impediments. to dams on individual growers’ properties, soils and natural groundwater by use of
Most of these are due to lack of from which they pump the water into their reclaimed water. It also closely monitors
institutional organisation and community own irrigation systems. The supply the effects of the reclaimed water on the
reluctance to use this resource. Legal, contracts with the irrigators are with the soils. To inform the public, all properties
policy, institutional and social impediments water company who owns the scheme at using reclaimed water have signs on fencing
occupy a prominent place during the present and will transfer the whole scheme reading ‘Reclaimed water – do not drink’.
Journal of the Australian Water Association NOVEMBER 2006 32

5. technical features
recycling: community consultation
Conclusions Kelly, J. and Stevens, D. (2000) From problem
to profit. Water, 27 (5):39-41.
Development of successful and sustainable Kracman, B., Martin, R., and Sztajnbok, P.
water reuse projects will definitely provide (2001) The Virginia Pipeline: Australia’s
solutions to water scarcity problems. largest water recycling project. Water Science
However, we cannot overlook the and Technology, 43(1): 35-42.
impediments encountering implementation Kurian, M. and Dietz, T. (2005) How pro-poor
are participatory watershed management
of any reuse scheme. Experiences from the projects? – An Indian case study, Research
VPS suggest that community participation, Report 92. International Water Management
well-designed partnerships, and favourable Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
regulatory and policy regime are very much Lam, W. (1996) ‘Improving the performance of
important in implementing a successful and small-scale irrigation systems: the effects of
sustainable reuse scheme. Further, by technological investments and governance
structure on irrigation performance in Nepal’.
providing knowledge and information on World Development, 24 (8): 1301-1315.
the current best practices and MacDonald, D. H. and Dyack, B. (2004)
communicating this information in a form Exploring the institutional impediments to
that is understandable to the different conservation and water reuse –National
stakeholder groups, it is possible to issues. CSIRO Land and Water Client
implement sustainable reuse schemes. Report.
Menzies, Tom (2001) The $ 52 m model. The
Acknowledgments Source, April 2001, Issue 13, pp.9.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
The authors express their gratitude towards Development (2003) Public-Private
the University of South Australia and CRC Partnerships in the Urban Water Sector.
for Irrigation Futures (CRC IF) for OECD Policy Brief, April 2003.
supporting this work. The authors thank Ostrom, E. (1992). Crafting institutions for self-
Bui, Huynh Thanh Nguyen; Le, Thi Thanh governing irrigation systems. ICS press. San
Francisco, CA.
Tra; Nguyen, Van Tuong; Pham, Thu Van
Ostrom, E. (2000) Reformulating the commons.
and Chy, Ty for their help in translation Swiss Political Science Review, 6 (1), pp. 29-
and conducting the survey. The authors 52.
thank Satya G. N. for helping create the
map and finally the participants for their
Pritchard J. and Richardson S. (2005) Northern
Adelaide Plains: Analysis of trends in the
Editorial Submissions -
time and cooperation. groundwater conditions. Research and Technical Papers
Environment Management Pty Ltd for North
Water journal welcomes the submission of
The Authors Adelaide and Barossa Catchment Water
Management Board, Kent Town, South papers equivalent to 3,000-4,000 words
Ganesh B. Keremane is a PhD student at Australia. (allowing for graphics) relating to all areas of
the University of South Australia. He is a Tang, S. Y. (1992) Institutions and Collective the water cycle and water business to be
President’s Scholarship holder and CRC for Action: Self-Governance in Irrigation, San published in the journal. Topical stories of up
Irrigation Futures Scholar and this paper is Francisco, ICS press. to 2,000 words may also be accepted.
based on his PhD research work. Email: Thiyagarajah, R. A. (2005) Sustainable
All submissions of papers intended for the main
ganesh.keremane@unisa.edu.au. Jennifer wastewater reuse through private sector
participation - The Adelaide experience body of the journal should be emailed to the
McKay is Professor of Business Law and [online]. ADB. http:// www.adb.org/ Technical Editor, bswinton@bigpond.net.au
Director of the Centre for Comparative Documents/Events/2005/ and https://zeus.econ.umd.edu/wj (Editorial
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Jennifer.Mckay@unisa.edu.au 2006] tabled at a monthly Journal Committee
Thomas, R. (2006) Reuse in South Australia in meeting where, if appropriate, it will be
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appropriate reference in the text e.g. see Figure
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33 NOVEMBER 2006 Journal of the Australian Water Association