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Relationship between scuba diver behaviour and coral health
- 1. Investigating the relationship between scuba diver behaviour and coral health Neil Hinds
- 2. Summary - Scuba Diver and Behaviour Literature - Methodology - Scuba Diver behaviour - Conceptual model
- 3. Scuba Diving - Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus - Training organisations; PADI, SSI, CMAS, NAUI - PADI • > 900,000 annual certifications • > 23,000,000 divers since 1967 (PADI 2015)
- 4. - 1% of Ocean floor consist of coral reefs - One quarter of marine species - Importance Coral Reefs (Smithsonian 2015)
- 5. Scuba Diver Impacts Direct damage - Abrasion - Breakage - Sedimentation Coral Impact - Disease - Bleaching - Physical (Hariott et al 1997; Hasler and Ott 2008; Luna et al 2009; Toyoshima and Nadaoka 2015; Uyarra and Cote 2007) (Guzner et al 2010; Lamb et al 2014 )
- 6. - Intentional - Limb - Cause 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 St Lucia Florida Keys Bonaire Red Sea Diver Contacts per Minute Contacts per minute (Barker and Roberts 2004; Camp and Fraser 2012; Medio et al 1997; Uyarra and Cote 2007)
- 7. Behaviour change Value Belief Norm Model Human Environment Systems (Scholz 2003) (Stern 2000)
- 8. Study Site Pulau Perhentian, Malaysia Pulau Kecil Pulau Besar (Google Maps 2015)
- 9. Methods Questionnaire - Demographic - Obligations - Awareness - Values (Anderson and Loomis 2002;Heywood 2002; Lucrezi et al 2013; Salim et al 2013; Stern 2000)
- 10. Scuba Diver observations - 10 minutes - Contacts - Behaviour (Barker and Roberts 2004; Camp and Fraser 2012; Hariott et al 1997; Hasler and Ott 2008; Medio et al 1997; Luna et al 2009; Toyoshima and Nadaoka 2015; Uyarra and Cote 2007)
- 12. Coral Reaction - Coral Cover - Coral Growth - Ongoing (English et al 1997; Kohler and Gill, 2006)
- 13. Results - 104 participants - 60.6% Male | 39.4% Female - 11 Nationalities (45% Malaysian) 0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00% 40.00% 45.00% 50.00% 18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ Age Groups 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% OW AOW Rescue Pro Certifications 0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% PADI SSI CMAS Other Training Organisation
- 14. 2.51 0.875 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention Average Contacts p = 1.569E-10 - Gender (R = 0.071) - Certification (R = 0.083) - Number of dives (R = 0.042) - Buoyancy (R = -0.23) - Camera (R = 0.088) 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 Positioning Trim Finning Behaviour Pre-Intervention Post-Intervention R = -0.24 R = -0.10 R = -0.18
- 15. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Positioning Finning Buoyancy Look Trim Photography Cause of Contact Pre-Intervention Post Intervention p = 0.05 - Point of contact (p = 0.23) - Environmental outcome (p = 0.34) - Accidental (p = 0.13) Constant (Contacts) 5.32** (-1.13) Buoyancy -1.27** (0.45) Positioning -0.69* (0.32) Keep Fins away -0.42* (0.20) Number of Dives 0.83* (0.34) Damage Coral -1.18** (0.25) Touch Coral 0.79** (0.22) R Squared 0.284 No. Observations 103 * And ** represent significance at 95% and 99% respectively Multiple Regression Analysis
- 16. Environmental Value Environmental Awareness Norms / Obligations Diver Goals Positioning Buoyancy Control Diver Action Experience Environmental World View Intervention - briefing Coral Health Conceptual Model
- 17. Conclusion - Contacts - Interventions - Relationships - Recommendations - Further study
- 18. Thank you for Listening
- 19. References • Anderson, L.E. & Loomis, D.K., 2011. SCUBA Diver Specialization and Behavior Norms at Coral Reefs. Coastal Management, 39(5), pp.478–491. • Barker, N.H.L. & Roberts, C.M., 2004. Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs. Biological Conservation, 120(4), pp.481–489. • Camp, E. & Fraser, D., 2012. Influence of conservation education dive briefings as a management tool on the timing and nature of recreational SCUBA diving impacts on coral reefs. Ocean and Coastal Management, 61, pp.30–37. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2012.02.002. • English, Susan A, V. J Baker, and Clive R Wilkinson. Survey Manual For Tropical Marine Resources. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science, 1997. Print. • Google, 2016. Google Maps [Online] Available from: https://www.google.com/maps/place/Perhentian+Islands,+Terengganu,+Malaysia/@5.9166881,102.7245782,15z/data=!3m1!4b1!4m5!3m4!1s0x31b6e0a106669 8ef:0x335867e57327093c!8m2!3d5.916667!4d102.733333 • Guzner, B. et al., 2010. SCUBA diving: Patterns of growth and predation in branching stony corals. Bulletin of Marine Science, 86(3), pp.727–742. • Harriott, V.J., Davis, D. & Banks, S.A., 1997. Recreational diving and its impact im marine protected areas in eastern Australia. Ambio, 26(3), pp.173–179. • Hasler, H. & Ott, J. a., 2008. Diving down the reefs? Intensive diving tourism threatens the reefs of the northern Red Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56(10), pp.1788–1794. • Heywood, J.L., 2002. The Cognitive and Emotional Components of Behavior Norms in Outdoor Recreation. Leisure Sciences, 24(3-4), pp.271–281. • Kohler, K.E. and S.M. Gill, 2006. Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 32, No. 9, pp. 1259-1269, DOI:10.1016/j.cageo.2005.11.009. • Lamb, J.B. et al., 2014. Scuba diving damage and intensity of tourist activities increases coral disease prevalence. Biological Conservation, 178, pp.88–96. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.06.027. • Lucrezi, S., Saayman, M. & van der Merwe, P., 2013. Managing diving impacts on reef ecosystems: Analysis of putative influences of motivations, marine life preferences and experience on divers’ environmental perceptions. Ocean and Coastal Management, 76, pp.52–63. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.02.020.
- 20. • Luna, B., Pérez, C.V. & Sánchez-Lizaso, J.L., 2009. Benthic impacts of recreational divers in a mediterranean marine protected area. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66(3), pp.517–523. • Mair, J. & Laing, J.H., 2013. Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: the role of sustainability-focused events. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(8), pp.1113–1128. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09669582.2012.756494. • Medio, D., 1997. , 3207(96), pp.91–95. • PADI 2015. Worldwide Coporate Statistics. PADI Global Statistics annual report • Salim, N., Bahauddin, A. & Mohamed, B., 2013. Influence of scuba divers’ specialization on their underwater behavior. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 5(4), pp.388–397. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-03-2013-0015. • Scholz, R.W. & Binder, C.R., 2003. The Paradigm of Human-Environment Systems. Working Paper No. 37, (April).. • Smithsonian Ocean Portal. Smithsonian Ocean Portal. N.p. 2016 Web 5 June 2016 [Online] Available from: www.ocean.si.edu • Stern, P.C., 2000. Toward a Coherent Theory of Environmentally Significant Behavior. Journal of Social Issues, 56(3), pp.407–424. • Toyoshima, J. & Nadaoka, K., 2015. Importance of environmental briefing and buoyancy control on reducing negative impacts of SCUBA diving on coral reefs. Ocean & Coastal Management, 116, pp.20–26. Available at: http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0964569115001714. • Uyarra, M.C. & Côté, I.M., 2007. The quest for cryptic creatures: Impacts of species-focused recreational diving on corals. Biological Conservation, 136(1), pp.77–84.
Editor's Notes
- Self contained – what is scuba, recreational support Global Sport PADI; over 200 countries and territories SSI; 110 Countries CMAS: 11 countries NAUI: ? Training Organisations; PADI considered market leaders (estimated >60% of all courses globally) –http://www.divebuddy.com/blog/11985/2014-market-share-scuba-certification-agencies-padi-ssi-naui/ 70% of sample in this study PADI trained
- Threats: climate change, fishing, debris, tourism and diving
- Contacts per minute graph – highlighting that result differ a lot based on locations. Bonaire – Frogfish sightings – small or cryptic species encourages closer inspection and photography resulting in greater numbers of contacts. Red Sea – Medio et al – 1997 – potentially higher as marine awareness education and scuba diver training had not evolved in to what it is today. Accidental – 55.4% (camp and Fraser, 2012) Accidental 86% (Uyarra and Cote, 2007) Accidental 81.2% (Barker and Roberts, 2004)
- TTM Precontemplation – the step before any thoughts of change take place Contemplation – considering change and weighing up pros and cons of changing behaviour Preparation and action – preparing for change and making the change for the first time Maintenance – ensuring continuation of change through persistence, repetition (deliberate practice) Termination – when behaviour has changed without further thought This theory has been questioned as it doesn’t give indepth details into the contemplation period, suggesting change occurs after only weighing up pros and cons of making the change – similar to ‘awareness’ or knowledge VBN Values – egotistic (value to self), altruistic (value to others) and biospheric (value to nature) Within conservation and pro-green behaviour goals, all three values can play a part in behaviour change as environmental issues can threaten each of them. Belief – environmental world view; how a person views the world and their role and ability to change or have an impact on it. For behaviour change to occur, a person must perceive the threat to their values but also believe that their actions do and can make a difference – this aspect of it can come through education, awareness and understanding of the threat and problems and links to TTM through contemplation and preparation stages. Norms – the final aspect of the VBN model relates to norms and the ‘obligation’ a person feels to behave in a certain way. This is influenced by belief and values as well as larger circles such as community, family and societal norms, which create a feeling of obligation to behave in the same way as others in these groups. Where values and beliefs are strong, norms can be developed and altered, from an individual level to larger scale, depending on the ability to target wider groups of people. HES The HES approach considers the relationship between humans and the environment, the behaviour and action of humans and the environmental reaction (both short and long term). The HES takes into account a persons goals and how they decide what steps they will take to reach it, and it also states that environmental awareness feeds into the goals and strategy decisions. Unlike the other models, the HES considers the environmental reaction and accepts that human behaviour will result in an impact (whether good or bad) and the environment will react to this.
- Kohler, K.E. and S.M. Gill, 2006. Coral Point Count with Excel extensions (CPCe): A Visual Basic program for the determination of coral and substrate coverage using random point count methodology. Computers and Geosciences, Vol. 32, No. 9, pp. 1259-1269, DOI:10.1016/j.cageo.2005.11.009. Reef Check
- R = pearsons correlations – all represent NO or very weak correlations between Contacts and Gender, Cert. and Experience
- The same regression run after the second dive shows a much lower 10% explanation for contacts. Briefing appears to target many of these areas – significant improvement in positioning and reduction in positioning caused contacts explains some, but EWV potentially a second aspect. Also potential of obligations or norms being afftected by the briefing – wider society belief that we should behave in a certain way – making more likely to try and stay away from the reef.
- The draft model: Diver goals influenced, based on theory and this study, by Values, Awareness and Obligations Keep fins away from coral (88.5%) Maintain horizontal positioning (83.6%) Damage coral satisfaction (97.1%) Broken coral on reef (86.5%) Coral Importance (96.2%) Causes lasting damage (85.6%) Positioning biggest cause (41.3%) Fins main point of contact (66.7%) Mostly Accidental (69.9%) – not linked with experience or training – suggests that there are no elements of majority of training courses that pursue this. No orrelation between contacts and PPB training. Briefing seems to have the biggest influence - Diver goals influence actions – as described by the HES approach (where intended goals lead to actions This study has highlighted how positioning and buoyancy both influence the rate of contacts (as both improve, number of contacts reduces), whilst experience was shown to correlate with buoyancy and positioning (as number of dives increases, both buoyancy and positioning improved. However, alone, experience does not influence diver actions significantly. Finally, use of the intervention briefing as described in the previous slide showed significant reductions in the number of contacts as well as an improvement in positioning. However, as shown in the regression analysis, positioning (along with 5 other variables) only account for 28% of the contacts. With this in mind, another factor must be at play. Which is where Environmental World View is brought in, as in the VBN model (Stern, 2000), the EWV is based on belief, the belief and understanding that a persons actions make a difference. This is targeted within the briefing, alongside simple and easy to implement changes to reduce the impacts. Therefore, the briefing is able to influence both the pre-dive goals assosicated with the HES framework and behaviour through providing the belief that improved positioning will reduce their own impact on the reef, which is shown to be understood and valued by divers.