Criminological and criminalistic research opportunities in Spain on the subject of the spanish civil war/Oportunidades de investigación criminológica y criminalística bajo la guerra civil española
Decenas de miles de no-combatientes españoles y extranjeros fueron ilegalmente detenidos y ejecutados durante la guerra civil española y durante la represión de la posguerra. Muchos de los cuerpos yacen en fosas comunes no marcadas en todo el país. La necesidad de investigación criminológica y criminalística es grande en este contexto. Este articulo habla de aspectos diferentes del trabajo y sugiere la participación de académicos y forenses mexicanos. Se resumen las justificaciones para tal colaboración y los aspectos del beneficio mutuo Español-Mexicano.
En la presente actividad formularás preguntas para indagar información específica de diversos acontecimientos del pasado. El pasado simple se utiliza para hablar de una situación que ocurrió en el pasado y que ya concluyó.
En la presente actividad formularás preguntas para indagar información específica de diversos acontecimientos del pasado. El pasado simple se utiliza para hablar de una situación que ocurrió en el pasado y que ya concluyó.
Dissemination presentation about the role of archives trying to break the institutional silence about the systematic repression carried out by the Francoist side during the Spanish Civil War and afterwards. Presented at Philadelphia 2011 during SALALM (seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials)
This presentation offers a detailed and comprehensive look at the Spanish Civil War, a conflict that shook Spain in the 1930s. Through images, graphics, and clear explanations, the causes and consequences of the war are explored, as well as the key events that marked its development. The impact of the war on Spain and world politics is also analyzed, and its lasting legacy in Spanish society is discussed. This presentation explores the background of novel 'For whom the Bell Tolls' by Ernest Hemingway.
Esta presentación ofrece una mirada detallada y exhaustiva sobre la Guerra Civil Española, un conflicto que sacudió España en la década de 1930. Esta presentación explora el trasfondo de la novela 'For whom the Bell Tolls' de Ernest Hemingway.
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CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: SPANISH CIVIL WAR. Contains: polarization, widespread conflict, military uprising, nationalists and republicans, general Franco, revolutionary struggle, help from abroad, Madrid, victims and significance of Spanish Civil War.
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: REASONS FOR AND IMPLICATIONS OF FRANCO'S VICTORYGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: REASONS FOR AND IMPLICATIONS OF FRANCO'S VICTORY. Contains: who was Franco, convinced monarchist, military dictatorship, El Caudillo, Spain and World War 2, Spain and the Cold War, restauration of monarchy, reasons for Franco's victory, implications.
El consumo de sustancias tóxicas legales o ilegales, sigue representando para la sociedad un problema que lejos de disminuir se acrecienta, no es solo el consumo de dichas sustancias, sino todo lo que ello implica, siembra, trasiego, compra, venta, etc. Aunado a ello se derivan conductas antisociales y otros delitos secundarios, como robos, violencia intrafamiliar, delitos sexuales entre otros, sin embargo, esta no es la raíz del problema antes de iniciarse en el consumo de las mismas, se identifican una serie de factores endógenos y exógenos que derivaron en una adicción, en toda conducta antisocial es primordial encontrar la verdadera raíz.
El presente artículo expone el estado del arte en relación a la criminología forense, abordando dos cuestiones básicas: por un lado, el concepto de la misma, partiendo de definiciones provenientes de otros países hasta aquellas que han sido elaboradas en México; y, por el otro, las posibles aplicaciones que esta ciencia puede tener, particularmente en el sistema de justicia penal, desde la perfilación criminal, la valoración del riesgo de violencia y el análisis de vinculación de casos, hasta la autopsia psicológica y la valoración del riesgo o exposición victimal.
La actuación policial es fundamental para las tareas de seguridad pública, los policías municipales tienen tareas de prevención y apoyo-coordinación con las corporaciones estatales y federales. Es en el municipio en donde se encuentra la actuación más cotidiana de la función de seguridad pública, cuyos principios son legalidad, objetividad, eficiencia, profesionalismo, honradez y respeto a los derechos humanos, mismos que son violentados por los elementos policíacos del municipio de Zapopan, Jalisco, al tener en promedio de alrededor de 50 quejas por año ante la Comisión de Derechos Humanos del Estado de Jalisco y acumular al mismo tiempo un promedio de 200 actos y/o omisiones registradas ante la propia Comisaría General de Seguridad Pública del municipio de Zapopan, Jalisco, que constituyen violaciones a los derechos humanos y/o constitutivos de delito. Además de que sólo el 42% de los elementos tienen capacitación en derechos humanos, por lo que hay muchos desafíos para la corporación al corto, mediano y largo plazo en el respeto, protección, promoción y tutela de los derechos humanos de los ciudadanos en el municipio aludido.
En este artículo se analizará de forma general la información sobre los factores biopsicosociales que son predisponentes en agresores del delito de pederastia siendo estos factores un riesgo que va aumentando cada vez más a que las personas agredan sexualmente a un niño, se analizara en base a modelos teóricos de acuerdo a los factores antes mencionados y asi poder responder a la gran interrogante el por qué los agresores de abuso sexual infantil delinquen.
La seguridad pública se encuentra en la necesidad de evolucionar de manera constante, las condiciones institucionales de elementos de procuración de justicia son un eje central para enfrentar la criminalidad que se presenta actualmente en México y abonar a la seguridad. El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar las condiciones de las y los elementos que forman parte de las instituciones que se encargan de la procuración de justicia en México. Se hizo una investigación utilizando metodología cuantitativa, con alcance descriptivo, corte transversal y de diseño no experimental; se realizó una encuesta en formularios de Google compuesta por seis áreas de exploración: contexto institucional, desarrollo institucional, uso del sistema 911, participación en los procesos, percepción institucional y autocuidado. Esta encuesta fue enviada a 145 personas vinculadas a las instituciones de procuración de justicia. A través de los resultados obtenidos se interpreta que la labor realizada desde la perspectiva de quienes se encuestaron se realiza de manera adecuada y que realmente no hay eventualidades que sean significativas para delimitar el problema o problemas reales de las condiciones institucionales que se presentan en elementos que tienen relación con la procuración de justicia. Se concluye con que el objetivo fue cumplido y que deben estudiarse estas condiciones institucionales más a fondo en investigaciones posteriores.
La praxis funcional de la documentoscopia, aborda un espectro muy amplio en la lucha de ciertos entramados delincuenciales. Por ende, creemos oportuno la necesidad de crear un nuevo neologismo científico llamado “documentoscopia vial”, con el objetivo de aunar conocimientos y métodos lo suficientemente eficaces para detectar un documento espurio, que sirva de antesala para el descubrimiento de otros delitos de mayor envergadura: delitos contra la seguridad vial o los delitos relacionados con el tráfico ilícito de vehículos. Además, la profesionalización en la documentoscopia vial, conseguiría una disminución en las cifras de siniestralidad vial, al detectar falsificaciones en el permiso de conducción, así, como, en los documentos relacionados con los vehículos. Por último señalar que, este trabajo de investigación se pone a disposición de técnicas prácticas (herramientas virtuales) de verificación operativa con los que, a pie de calle, poder detectar un documento apócrifo en todo lo relativo al transporte viario.
Los niños, niñas y adolescentes que inevitablemente se ven en la necesidad de denunciar un hecho del cual fueron víctimas, deben saber que ser escuchados y participar en los procesos de justicia es un derecho que les asiste y es importante hacer valer, sirve además como mecanismo de protección e inhibidor del delito logrando con ello el cese de las violencias, aporta un sentido de dignificación y re-significación importante para su recuperación, señalando que el camino del silencio nunca será la opción ante el delito y la re-victimización jamás será el costo de la justicia.
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Similar to Criminological and criminalistic research opportunities in Spain on the subject of the spanish civil war/Oportunidades de investigación criminológica y criminalística bajo la guerra civil española
Dissemination presentation about the role of archives trying to break the institutional silence about the systematic repression carried out by the Francoist side during the Spanish Civil War and afterwards. Presented at Philadelphia 2011 during SALALM (seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials)
This presentation offers a detailed and comprehensive look at the Spanish Civil War, a conflict that shook Spain in the 1930s. Through images, graphics, and clear explanations, the causes and consequences of the war are explored, as well as the key events that marked its development. The impact of the war on Spain and world politics is also analyzed, and its lasting legacy in Spanish society is discussed. This presentation explores the background of novel 'For whom the Bell Tolls' by Ernest Hemingway.
Esta presentación ofrece una mirada detallada y exhaustiva sobre la Guerra Civil Española, un conflicto que sacudió España en la década de 1930. Esta presentación explora el trasfondo de la novela 'For whom the Bell Tolls' de Ernest Hemingway.
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CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: SPANISH CIVIL WAR. Contains: polarization, widespread conflict, military uprising, nationalists and republicans, general Franco, revolutionary struggle, help from abroad, Madrid, victims and significance of Spanish Civil War.
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: REASONS FOR AND IMPLICATIONS OF FRANCO'S VICTORYGeorge Dumitrache
CAMBRIDGE AS HISTORY: REASONS FOR AND IMPLICATIONS OF FRANCO'S VICTORY. Contains: who was Franco, convinced monarchist, military dictatorship, El Caudillo, Spain and World War 2, Spain and the Cold War, restauration of monarchy, reasons for Franco's victory, implications.
Similar to Criminological and criminalistic research opportunities in Spain on the subject of the spanish civil war/Oportunidades de investigación criminológica y criminalística bajo la guerra civil española (15)
El consumo de sustancias tóxicas legales o ilegales, sigue representando para la sociedad un problema que lejos de disminuir se acrecienta, no es solo el consumo de dichas sustancias, sino todo lo que ello implica, siembra, trasiego, compra, venta, etc. Aunado a ello se derivan conductas antisociales y otros delitos secundarios, como robos, violencia intrafamiliar, delitos sexuales entre otros, sin embargo, esta no es la raíz del problema antes de iniciarse en el consumo de las mismas, se identifican una serie de factores endógenos y exógenos que derivaron en una adicción, en toda conducta antisocial es primordial encontrar la verdadera raíz.
El presente artículo expone el estado del arte en relación a la criminología forense, abordando dos cuestiones básicas: por un lado, el concepto de la misma, partiendo de definiciones provenientes de otros países hasta aquellas que han sido elaboradas en México; y, por el otro, las posibles aplicaciones que esta ciencia puede tener, particularmente en el sistema de justicia penal, desde la perfilación criminal, la valoración del riesgo de violencia y el análisis de vinculación de casos, hasta la autopsia psicológica y la valoración del riesgo o exposición victimal.
La actuación policial es fundamental para las tareas de seguridad pública, los policías municipales tienen tareas de prevención y apoyo-coordinación con las corporaciones estatales y federales. Es en el municipio en donde se encuentra la actuación más cotidiana de la función de seguridad pública, cuyos principios son legalidad, objetividad, eficiencia, profesionalismo, honradez y respeto a los derechos humanos, mismos que son violentados por los elementos policíacos del municipio de Zapopan, Jalisco, al tener en promedio de alrededor de 50 quejas por año ante la Comisión de Derechos Humanos del Estado de Jalisco y acumular al mismo tiempo un promedio de 200 actos y/o omisiones registradas ante la propia Comisaría General de Seguridad Pública del municipio de Zapopan, Jalisco, que constituyen violaciones a los derechos humanos y/o constitutivos de delito. Además de que sólo el 42% de los elementos tienen capacitación en derechos humanos, por lo que hay muchos desafíos para la corporación al corto, mediano y largo plazo en el respeto, protección, promoción y tutela de los derechos humanos de los ciudadanos en el municipio aludido.
En este artículo se analizará de forma general la información sobre los factores biopsicosociales que son predisponentes en agresores del delito de pederastia siendo estos factores un riesgo que va aumentando cada vez más a que las personas agredan sexualmente a un niño, se analizara en base a modelos teóricos de acuerdo a los factores antes mencionados y asi poder responder a la gran interrogante el por qué los agresores de abuso sexual infantil delinquen.
La seguridad pública se encuentra en la necesidad de evolucionar de manera constante, las condiciones institucionales de elementos de procuración de justicia son un eje central para enfrentar la criminalidad que se presenta actualmente en México y abonar a la seguridad. El objetivo de este estudio fue explorar las condiciones de las y los elementos que forman parte de las instituciones que se encargan de la procuración de justicia en México. Se hizo una investigación utilizando metodología cuantitativa, con alcance descriptivo, corte transversal y de diseño no experimental; se realizó una encuesta en formularios de Google compuesta por seis áreas de exploración: contexto institucional, desarrollo institucional, uso del sistema 911, participación en los procesos, percepción institucional y autocuidado. Esta encuesta fue enviada a 145 personas vinculadas a las instituciones de procuración de justicia. A través de los resultados obtenidos se interpreta que la labor realizada desde la perspectiva de quienes se encuestaron se realiza de manera adecuada y que realmente no hay eventualidades que sean significativas para delimitar el problema o problemas reales de las condiciones institucionales que se presentan en elementos que tienen relación con la procuración de justicia. Se concluye con que el objetivo fue cumplido y que deben estudiarse estas condiciones institucionales más a fondo en investigaciones posteriores.
La praxis funcional de la documentoscopia, aborda un espectro muy amplio en la lucha de ciertos entramados delincuenciales. Por ende, creemos oportuno la necesidad de crear un nuevo neologismo científico llamado “documentoscopia vial”, con el objetivo de aunar conocimientos y métodos lo suficientemente eficaces para detectar un documento espurio, que sirva de antesala para el descubrimiento de otros delitos de mayor envergadura: delitos contra la seguridad vial o los delitos relacionados con el tráfico ilícito de vehículos. Además, la profesionalización en la documentoscopia vial, conseguiría una disminución en las cifras de siniestralidad vial, al detectar falsificaciones en el permiso de conducción, así, como, en los documentos relacionados con los vehículos. Por último señalar que, este trabajo de investigación se pone a disposición de técnicas prácticas (herramientas virtuales) de verificación operativa con los que, a pie de calle, poder detectar un documento apócrifo en todo lo relativo al transporte viario.
Los niños, niñas y adolescentes que inevitablemente se ven en la necesidad de denunciar un hecho del cual fueron víctimas, deben saber que ser escuchados y participar en los procesos de justicia es un derecho que les asiste y es importante hacer valer, sirve además como mecanismo de protección e inhibidor del delito logrando con ello el cese de las violencias, aporta un sentido de dignificación y re-significación importante para su recuperación, señalando que el camino del silencio nunca será la opción ante el delito y la re-victimización jamás será el costo de la justicia.
En el presente artículo se proporcionará información con respecto a los programas que se han implementado en pro de la atención a víctimas indirectas del delito de Feminicidio, específicamente en el Estado de Jalisco, lo cual ayuda a comprender la intervención de las instancias de gobierno, las cuales buscan brindar apoyo intentando gestionar una reparación integral, pues están sujetas a procedimientos legales por demás desconocidos y donde el papel de la Victimología será de suma importancia para establecer un Modelo Integral de Atención que pueda favorecer y dar la posibilidad de recuperar un proyecto de vida, tras haber sufrido del hecho victimizante.
El presente artículo presenta parte de los resultados de una investigación de grado que se desarrolló al aplicar lo establecido por la NOM-035 (Norma Oficial Mexicana) referente a “factores de riesgo psicosocial en ambientes laborales” en un cuerpo de policía municipal de Jalisco, México. Los resultados obtenidos abonan a la comprensión del fenómeno de estrés dentro de los grupos policiales al mismo tiempo que se desarrolla un contexto sociodemográfico de violencia creciente y una percepción ciudadana deficiente. Parte de los resultados relevantes muestran la existencia de un factor protector para el manejo de estrés, el sentido de pertenencia. Resultado coincidente con lo encontrado por otras investigaciones.
El presente escrito tiene como objetivo principal hacer un breve análisis reflexivo sobre la influencia familiar en la conducta delictiva; especialmente en el delincuente sexual. Se abordaran los conceptos más relevantes de Familia, desde la concepción tradicional y general, hasta conceptos desde algunas disciplinas, con la finalidad de identificar que dicho concepto varía en función del tiempo y desde la perspectiva desde la cual se aborda; que es un concepto dinámico y evolutivo. Así mismo se identifican los factores criminológicos que son determinantes para la delincuencia sexual y se concluye con la contribución de la criminología a la delincuencia sexual: La prevención.
El presente trabajo tiene como objeto principal el análisis del desarrollo de los Diálogos de Paz en Colombia, del cual se pretende deducir que la construcción de la paz se ha realizado en nuestro país de manera meramente discursiva. Para esto, nos dedicaremos a estudiar la manera cómo el discurso le permite al hombre tanto modificar la realidad social existente como crear nuevas realidades completamente distintas, al igual que la influencia que el análisis del discurso ejerce en el campo político respecto de la conceptualización del poder.
Un escrito destinado a profundizar la importancia de la intervención del profesionista en Criminología en el ámbito escolar, para atender la problemática actual en las redes sociales, como lo son el Ciberbullying, Grooming y Sexting. Todo esto en relación a una campaña de prevención del delito llevada a cabo en la escuela Cesuver (Centro de Estudios Superiores de Veracruz) a nivel secundaria, para conocer la vulnerabilidad de los adolescentes ante esta problemática.
El presente trabajo tiene el objetivo de abordar dos problemáticas que existen en las escuelas y que hacen necesario la intervención del criminólogo escolar. Las problemáticas que se presentan en este trabajo son dos: la violencia escolar y el bullyng; y las conductas antisociales y delictivas de los adolescentes. Las estadísticas indican una alta prevalencia de estas problemáticas en las escuelas y aunque existen leyes que indican quiénes y cómo se debe proceder en los casos de violencia; es el criminólogo quien debe demostrar con sus conocimientos y formación que es competente para realizar con éxito estrategias que permitan a las escuelas prevenir la violencia y el delito.
Este articulo tiene como objetivo identificar que drogas son consumidas por los adolescentes que delinquen en la ciudad mexicana de Hermosillo, Sonora y como estas influyen en su comportamiento delictivo, para esto, se utilizó un enfoque cualitativo y la herramienta empleada para la metodología, fue la entrevista de opinión, que se le aplico a 3 trabajadores de la Fiscalía Especializada en la Procuración de la justicia para Adolescentes y Corrupción de Menores del Estado de Sonora, México, la cual consistió en 10 preguntas previamente estructuradas para obtener la información relevante para la investigación y al final contrastar las diferentes respuestas otorgadas por los expertos, los cuales coinciden principalmente en que es muy frecuente que los adolescentes que son detenidos por algún delitos tengan un consumo frecuente de drogas o que incluso se les detenga bajo el influjo de estas mismas.
La seguridad resulta un aspecto fundamental en la vida de los seres humanos. Estos, con frecuencia, buscan escenarios que elevan su nivel de certidumbre. La inseguridad extrae a la mayor parte de las personas y organizaciones de su zona de confort. Esta deriva de la aparición o materialización de potenciales riesgos y amenazas que provocan crisis de magnitudes diversas. Por ello, deben desarrollarse capacidades de prevención, respuesta y reacción y fomentar la resiliencia ante posibles eventos críticos.
El Segundo Congreso Internacional de Análisis Criminológico Análisis de la Criminalidad, Aspectos Psicobiológicos y Sociales, Causas e Impacto Social y Políticas Criminales, llevado a cabo los días 27 y 28 de septiembre del 2021, de manera virtual, y organizado por los grupos y Cuerpos Académicos de investigación especializados y multidisciplinarios denominados “Problemas sociales multidisciplinarios y multifactoriales” (Centro Universitario de los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara), “Estado Constitucional y Derechos Emergentes” (Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí); “Derechos Humanos y Estado de Derecho” (Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Universidad de Guadalajara); “El Sistema Penal Acusatorio y Adversarial y sus Paradigmas” (Centro Universitario de los Valles, Universidad de Guadalajara); Sociedad Mexicana de Criminología, capítulo Nuevo León, A.C; Universidad de Ciencias de la Seguridad del Estado de Nuevo León; Criminología y Ciencias Forenses (Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí) y otros.
El objetivo del presente artículo se basó en explorar el panorama sobre la violencia de género en el ámbito familiar que se presentó durante el confinamiento SARS-COV2 (Covid-19) en la ciudad mexicana llamada Hermosillo, ubicada al norte de México. Este estudio forma parte de una investigación cuantitativa de tipo cuasiexperimental, siendo realizada con una muestra representativa de 69 de mujeres entre 15 y 45 años de edad, con base a una encuesta online. Entre los resultados generales obtenidos evidencian que durante el confinamiento más del 80% de las mujeres encuestadas han experimentado estados de estrés, tensión o ansiedad por preocupaciones tanto sociales, económicas o emocionales. Sin embargo, no se observan altos índices de aumento de violencia doméstica o familiar durante la pandemia.
En este artículo veremos la evolución histórica de la idea del delito y su fundamento para la aplicación del castigo, abordando las teorías más relevantes que aparecieron durante el transcurso del tiempo, como lo son: la teoría de los derechos subjetivos, la teoría del bien jurídico, la teoría jurídico-constitucional, la teoría funcionalista y la teoría personalista; cabe destacar que según fueron surgiendo las líneas de pensamiento, no se puede considerar que desplazaran plenamente a la anterior, más bien en cada una de estas etapas subsistía la convivencia de ideas opuestas.
Los términos seguridad pública, políticas públicas, políticas criminológicas han estado transformándose dentro del espectro de la seguridad ciudadana, ahora recientemente esta atiende a todas estas y más necesidades de seguridad al interior de un país. En particular esta tiende a la prevención de conductas y hechos delictuosos, criminales y violentos que impactan en el seno de la sociedad. En México estas acciones no han mitigado los escenarios de violencia, han tenido poca eficacia e impacto, ahora cada vez, son más frecuentes los delitos de alto impacto y que, por otro lado, a su vez, se desensibiliza a la población, la opinión pública dista mucho de interesarle directamente el tema y de sorprenderse con los hechos acontecidos. Existen alternativas que se trabajan desde la seguridad ciudadana que atienden a estos y otros retos.
El objetivo del presente tema de investigación se enfoca en analizar los problemas por los que está pasando el sistema penitenciario mexicano, para finalizar con una reflexión final de los detallado en este artículo, además, se analizará en qué consiste el tratamiento penitenciario y se abordará el tema de la reincidencia delictiva y sus posibles causas. El tipo de investigación que se llevó a cabo para este artículo es de tipo mixto, de forma que utilizo el método cualitativo Y cuantitativo, debido a que se realizó un análisis y explico el comportamiento de las personas que participan en actividades ilícitas y que continuamente se ingresan a los centros de reinserción social, obteniendo como resultado emitidos por medio del INEGI que en el año 2019, 112 811 personas ingresaron a un centro penitenciario mientras que 102 799 personas egresaron detonando más ingresos que egresos.
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Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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Criminological and criminalistic research opportunities in Spain on the subject of the spanish civil war/Oportunidades de investigación criminológica y criminalística bajo la guerra civil española
1. Fecha de recepción: 15/02/2009
Fecha de aceptación: 31/03/2009
CRIMINOLOGICAL AND CRIMINALISTIC RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES IN
SPAIN ON THE SUBJECT OF THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR
OPORTUNIDADES DE INVESTIGACIÓN CRIMINOLÓGICA Y
CRIMINALÍSTICA BAJO LA GUERRA CIVIL ESPAÑOLA
Dr. Derek Congram
Universidad Simón Fraser
No cuenta con correo electrónico público
Canadá
ABSTRACT
Tens of thousands of Spanish and foreign non-combatants were illegally detained and
executed during the Spanish Civil War and postwar repression. Their bodies are
believed to lie in unmarked mass graves throughout the country. The need for
criminological and criminalistic research is great. This article discusses different
aspects of the work and suggests the involvement of Mexican academics and forensic
practitioners. Justifications for such foreign involvement are outlined as are points of
mutual Spanish-Mexican benefit.
Año 2, vol. III agosto-diciembre 2009/Year 2, vol. III August-december 2009
www.somecrimnl.es.tl
1
2. KEY WORDS: Homicide, Spain, War, Research.
RESÚMEN
Decenas de miles de no-combatientes españoles y extranjeros fueron ilegalmente
detenidos y ejecutados durante la guerra civil española y durante la represión de la
posguerra. Muchos de los cuerpos yacen en fosas comunes no marcadas en todo el país.
La necesidad de investigación criminológica y criminalística es grande en este
contexto. Este articulo habla de aspectos diferentes del trabajo y sugiere la
participación de académicos y forenses mexicanos. Se resumen las justificaciones para
tal colaboración y los aspectos del beneficio mutuo Español-Mexicano.
PLABRAS CLAVE: Homicidio, España, Guerra, Investigación.
INTRODUCTION
As a bioarchaeologist, I study human remains from the past. From these remains, we
understand not only the physical history of our ancestors, but social relations and
adaptations as they manifest themselves on the human body. Researchers use what is
learned to inform upon our present and project into the future. The division between
the past and the present is a fleeting and artificial one and in many aspects of human
behaviour, we see that over tens of thousands of years there has been little evolution
for example, in patterns of interpersonal violence except perhaps in the technology
employed (Guilaine & Zammit 2002; Komar 2008; Lund 1995; Walker 2001). Using
information gained from this context, we can begin to better understand behaviour
patterns in modern times with an aim to reduce, control and more effectively react to
it. Although the timescale is different, this is also a goal shared with criminological
and criminalistic research.
One context that has much potential for bioarchaeological, criminological and
criminalistic study is that of the search for and identification in Spain of disappeared
persons from the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and post war repression. Due to the
Franco dictatorship and subsequent fragile democracy which followed, little work was
done to recover and identify victims of Nationalist (i.e., rebel) violence until the year
2000 (Armengou & Belis 2004; Silva y Macías 2003). Since this time, however,
clandestine graves of non-combatants (civilians or prisoners of war) are increasingly
being sought, discovered, and excavated and the remains from them analyzed with the
objective of identifying, repatriating and memorializing the victims. Restoring dignity
and addressing appropriate reparations to families of the victims is also a primary
motivation.
During the Civil War, while extrajudicial violence was prevalent on both sides
Francoist forces became notorious for their brutal and systematic assassinations of
captured prisoners of war and other noncombatants that would leave 30,000-140,000
victims lying in anonymous and/or clandestine, often mass graves throughout newly
captured territory (Badcock 2005; Barcala 2008). The Nationalist victory in Spain
unsurprisingly resulted in failure to investigate these deaths.
The combination of time elapsed since the events (potentially invoking statutes
of limitations but including the deaths of perpetrators) in combination with the lack of
political will has meant that virtually nothing has been done to provoke stateemployed forensic practitioners to investigate past crimes. On the other hand, many
2
3. archaeologists have considered the context of civil war victim burials as far too recent
to be within their realm of expertise or interest (Gonzalez-Ruibal 2007). In December
of 2007, however, the Spanish parliament passed a so-called “Law of Historical
Memory” advocating an official investigation into events of the war, including acts of
extrajudicial detention and killings. Private and public persons including judge
Baltasar Garzón- famous for his legal pursuit of Pinochet and members of the former
Argentine junta- have recently sought legal action to open archives and pursue civil
reparations for victim families, even explore questions of genocide or crimes against
humanity (Junquera 2008; Keeley 2008). What was historic in Spain suddenly appears
forensic. With this shift and quickly increasing interest and attention, there is great
opportunity for professional and academic research in the fields of bioarchaeology,
criminology and criminalistics. This is especially true because of the nature of the past
crimes now under scrutiny in Spain. Similar violations of crimes against humanity,
the Geneva Conventions (1949) and genocide are under investigation in Rwanda, the
former Yugoslavia, Cambodia, Sierra Leone, Guatemala, Argentina, Peru and Iraq.
Actual crimes of this nature and scale are allegedly occurring today in places like
Darfur. Spain presents a case study and body of data that can be used not only to
discover trends and develop solutions for Spain but also for other countries with
similar problems. Furthermore, research can help anticipate and deter such crimes
before they occur. Such an endeavour would provide substance for the now cliché:
Never Again/Nunca Más.
More specifically, there are many pragmatic and symbolic reasons for Mexican
researchers to be involved in Spanish Civil War investigations of forced
disappearances. The most obvious of these is a common mother tongue. Few North
American and non-Spanish European researchers in Spain who are investigating warera crimes are truly fluent in Spanish, Basque and/or Catalan. Nuance in language
can be a critical aspect in documenting and understanding witness testimony, but also
in deciphering the bureaucratic linguistic maze of government and military archives
from the war and dictatorship. Understanding subtleties and meanings of verbal
expression- particularly ubiquitous colloquialisms for and against the Church- are
necessary for properly interpreting language used and recorded.
HISTORICAL MEXICAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE SPANISH REPUBLIC
When the Spanish Republicans came to power in 1936, Mexico under president Lázaro
Cárdenas, was quick to acknowledge and support them (Ojeda Revah 2004; Powell
1981). The coup was announced five months later. In many instances, foreign
volunteers went to Spain despite efforts by their own governments to prevent them
from doing so. Mexico made assistance to Loyalist Spain “a central feature of its
foreign policy” (Powell 1981:96). Mexico was not a party to the Non-Intervention
Agreement that governed the behaviour of many other states including Britain, the
U.S., France and- on paper- Germany, Italy and Russia. Of foreign governments
Mexico alone openly sent arms to the republic including 20,000 Mauser rifles, 20
million rounds of ammunition and 8 batteries with some trucks, and aircraft (Ojeda
Revah 2004:109; Thomas 2003:378, 943; Powell 1981:71; Beevor 2006:140). Thanks
only to Mexican support U.S. and other foreign war material reached republican Spain
via Mexico as non-intervention prevented direct sale or transfer of arms or other
materials- this despite the U.S. permitting the sale of $20 million worth of U.S. oil and
other supplies by private companies to the Nationalists (Ojeda Revah 2004:142-145;
3
4. Thomas 2003:557,936; Beevor 2006:132, 138). In non-military terms, Beevor (2006)
claims that it was only Mexican shipments of chickpeas that kept the Basques, under
Nationalist embargo, from starvation (p.226).
Only Mexico and Russia supported the Spanish government before the League of
Nations (Beevor 2006:291; Thomas 2003:721, Wollny 1991) and Mexico lobbied in
Latin America and Europe for support for the republic (Ojeda Revah 2004:115;
Thomas 2003:721). In 1937 Mexico asked the League of Nations to support the
republic by providing it military aid (Powell 1981:65). By the end of the war tens of
thousands of Spanish refugees, including many orphans, found exile in Mexico where
a republican government in exile was permitted to establish themselves (Beevor
2006:412, 423; Ojeda Revah 2004:114; Wollny 1991). Despite the international
diplomatic criticism Mexico received at this time for overtly supporting the republican
government, it is probably generally agreed today that this was the most appropriate
course of action especially in light of the later alliance of Franco’s Spain to the Axis
powers during WWII.
ACADEMIC OPPORTUNITY AND CHALLENGE
For the past three summers, the author of this paper has been involved in the
investigation of missing persons in Spain from the civil war, specifically grave
excavations and anthropological analyses. The number of excavation projects is
increasingly dramatically, yet petitions for further help follow apace and Spaniardsnow more than ever before- recognize the importance of investigating the past to bring
closure to the present and perspective for the future. Criminologists and criminalists
have a major role to play in Spain. Questions in this context relate directly to issues of
human rights, victim rights, victim and perpetrator behaviour. Other topics of
relevance to criminological researchers include penology and international criminal
law.
The use and value of oral testimony- especially 70 years after the events- must
be explored. The concordance or contradiction between physical evidence and verbal
testimony is a constant challenge facing archaeologists, who must weigh an often
incomplete sample of material objects (e.g., stone, wood or bone tools) against oral
tradition, the record that has been passed down generations within groups as a form of
historical “fact”. Questions about the validity and reliability of testimony in criminal
research abound. The availability and reliability of contemporary data presents a
unique problem for those accustomed to being able to draw exclusively upon current,
primary data sources. Many of those who witnessed or participated in crimes from the
war era have since died. This is one of the reasons why the search for the missing has
gained momentum so quickly. Efforts are being made to video record the oral
testimony of eye-witnesses, even if exhumation of presumed victims is not
immediately feasible and official archives from the time cannot be accessed or do not
exist to check the reliability of such testimony. The civil war context in Spain best
approximates a criminal, but historical investigation and what has been seen so far is
that after 70 years witness testimonies can often be contradictory. Such testimony
must be considered in association with the material evidence (e.g., remains of victims,
ballistics), which itself may be quite degraded. Furthermore, memory related even to
very recent traumatic events is a complicated subject matter requiring interpretation
with respect to the accuracy and detail of remembered events (e.g., Dalgleish et al.
2008; Porter et al. 2003). The passage of time compounds problems associated with
4
5. testimony from potentially traumatized witnesses. Thus temporal and psychological
filters affect oral accounts and data reliability.
Both criminology and particularly victimology are well-developed in Mexico
(Rodríguez Manzanera 2004). According to Basque Professor of Forensic Medicine and
Forensic Anthropology who conducts civil war exhumations it is the field of
victimology that is underdeveloped in Spain (pers. comm. 2008). Victimology is of
particular interest given the unique nature of civil war investigations in Spain. Unlike
work by the United Nations tribunals in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda, where
formal prosecution of political and military leaders was the primary and almost
exclusive focus, work in Spain began as and continues to be a grass roots operation led
by family members of victims. In this instance, it is a victim-led process and their
interests are taken as a priority. The absence of the state in the work, however, means
that public funding and recourse to judicial options have been severely limited. Family
and community-inspired investigations has a history in Latin America, where several
states were often uninterested (or actively opposed) to investigations of crimes
committed by past or current government officials. Accusations have been made of
corrupt, unsympathetic and even violent officials in Mexico with reference to
kidnappings and murders in, for example, Ciudad Juárez and Ciudad Chihuahua
(Amnistía Internacional 2006; see also Human Rights Watch 2007).
Investigations in Spain have only recently started, much work remains. In many
cases, data collection protocols must still be established and employed. The general
lack of formal criminal procedures being demanded result in conditions favourable to
research in many ways. Concerns of confidentiality and the preservation of chain of
custody that govern forensic investigations are diminished in the civil war context.
Naturally given the sensitive nature of the work sympathy towards families of victims
remains critical. This is not a foreign concept to criminological researchers and routine
procedures such as obtaining informed consent from witnesses and protecting the
identities of sensitive information sources will not present unusual challenges. One
difficulty for forensic practitioners who are also academics is the pressure and
simultaneous inability to research and publish (Steele 2008). The lack of judicial
authority over investigations in Spain absolves the necessity of keeping data
confidential until all pertinent trials and appeals have taken place, something that
can often take many years. Recently passed legislation by the Spanish federal
government accommodates and to a degree encourages the search for missing persons
and investigation of their deaths and this gives research tacit government support.
The events under examination in Spain are not rare. The oft-repeated, seldom
heeded ‘never again’ did not stop after the Spanish Civil War. It did not take effect
after the Nuremberg trials, nor after Korea, Cambodia, Guatemala, Argentina, Chile,
Peru, Iraq, Rwanda, Bosnia, Kosovo, East Timor, or Darfur. It will continue to happen.
Investigation in Spain offer researchers an opportunity to engage themselves with a
local, affected population with government permission and in a time of peace. Work
can proceed without the necessary restrictions of criminal investigations and trials
prohibiting the open collection and analysis of data, publication of results and multidisciplinary consultation on what has been seen, what can be sought elsewhere, what
can be understood to deter such events in the future.
5
6. TECHNICAL VALUE
With direct relation to victim location and identification there is tremendous
opportunity to develop the application of genetic and DNA studies, taphonomy, grave
prospection via geophysical, geochemical, spectral and spatial analysis. Developing
and refining technologies for locating graves- from remote sensing via satellites to
ground based methods such as electrical resistivity or ground penetrating radar- will
help accelerate the search for victims and provide methodological alternatives for
investigations in other countries and contexts. Questions of DNA contamination in
mass burials have not yet been adequately addressed by professional and academic
research (e.g., Zehner 2007). The taphonomic state of preservation of civil war remains
can help establish baselines for distinguishing historic from forensic remains in
contemporary Spain and similar environments (see also Prieto et al. 2004). Populationspecific standards in anthropology that are necessary for unique identification are
being developed that hold particular relevance not only for the civil war context but
also for modern attempts at victim identification of terrorist attacks and
transportation disasters (Congram & Steadman 2008; Ferllini 2006). Given the genetic
component in Mexico, Spanish standards hold a degree of relevance for a Mexican
forensic anthropological context.
In addition to the above mentioned Mauser rifles and ammunition that was
given to the Republic by Mexico, President Cárdenas authorized Mexican officials to
purchase arms for the Republic in Europe (Powell 1981:71). Taphonomic effects of the
soil and flora over 70 years are likely to obscure or destroy stamps on the casings of
ammunition that would otherwise indicate the country of manufacture. Mexican
archives may help answer questions related to ballistic evidence recovered at
execution and burial sites in Spain. Of the ammunition donated by Mexico, Ojeda
Revah quotes President Cárdenas as recording that the rifles were “siete milímetros...
de fabrica nacional” (2004:109). This author has seen reports on civil war exhumations
in Spain citing the presence of Mauser ammunition/shell casings as evidence of
Nationalist killings, presumably based on the fact that the ammunition is German. In
1943, mass grave excavations in Poland by the Nazis and members of an international
commission revealed German ammunition. This evidence was claimed by the Soviets
to show that the crimes were committed by the Germans. In fact, the ammunition had
been manufactured in Germany but sold and made available to the Soviet NKVD, who
was ultimately deemed responsible for the killings (Raszeja & Chroscielewski 1994).
Clearly the presence of certain types of ammunition at crime sites warrants further
study before declarations about probable offenders can be made with confidence.
SOCIO-POLITICAL VALUE
Not only is there simply opportunity to engage with and research in Spain, but to do so
can reassert the conviction of governments and private citizens who opposed the
illegal military rebellion and subsequent dictatorship. Investigations of all killings
though particularly Nationalist killings are a reaffirmation of democratic governance,
support for the rule of law and acknowledgement of the suffering and oppression that
inevitably accompany military rebellion and rule.
Mexico was practically alone amongst countries in formally defending the right
of the Republican government to resist the military coup. Most other nations,
including the home of this author, Canada, chose the easier path- to remain neutral.
6
7. Nevertheless, in proportion to population, only France surpassed Canada in terms of
the numbers of volunteers who travelled to Spain to defend the republic (Petrou 2008).
Retrospectively the Canadian government has acknowledged the sacrifice of these
volunteers and a monument was erected to honour them in the nation’s capitol in
2000.
A conservative estimate of about 300 Mexican volunteers went to assist the
Spanish republic during the war although Ojeda Revah (2004) notes that the numbers
vary significantly according to source (p.194). A socio-political reaffirmation of
Mexico’s decision to defend the government would be to support the location, recovery,
repatriation and memorialisation of those who died in Spain. According to Powell
(1981:105), only about 20% of the Mexican volunteers survived the Spanish carnage to
return to Mexico. That means that the remains of about 240 Mexican volunteers may
still lie in unmarked graves in Spain. Citing Castells (1974), Ojeda Revah (2004:198)
lists 74 Mexicans as having died in combat, 42 disappeared or arrested and 19
unrecoverable at the time of the war. Despite the passage of time, the possibility of
victim recovery exists today.
CONCLUSIONS
The question of foreign participation in Spain is a primary consideration. Why would
Spaniards want Mexican aid now when democracy is well established and Spanish
experts exist who are capable of conducting investigations of the missing themselves?
A primary justification is the scale of the problem. Foreign academic, technical,
political and social support should always be welcomed in these circumstances.
Congram & Steadman (in press) address the past role of foreigners not only in Spain
but other countries with respect to forensic and humanitarian exhumations.
Argentines have conducted similar work in Mexico, specifically with the victims of
Ciudad Juárez, and there are good arguments for their participation, particularly
when there may be concern over improper influence or security risk to local/Mexican
analysts (EAAF 2006; EAAF 2007). The text above addresses many areas in which
there is mutual Mexican and Spanish justification and benefit such as the
developments in fields of archival studies, victimology, DNA identification,
anthropological analysis, grave prospection, ballistic analysis and witness testimony.
Conclusions that result from studying the context of illegal detention and
assassination of non-combatant victims in Spain will have resonance and application
in Mexico. Common contemporary problems resulting in large part from human and
narcotrafficking have resulted in a very high rate of homicide and kidnapping in
Mexico (United Nations 2002, Duarte 2008). There is a potential parallel between the
events that took place in Spain where large-scale and illegal detention and murder
was committed out of a range of motives including political gain and personal
vengeance.
Thirty years ago, Powell (1981) commented about the Spanish Civil War that:
Mexicans could relish their country’s admirable diplomatic stand at a time when
ignoble cowardice and appeasement were the prevailing norms. Especially in
their regard to their rescue of the Loyalist refugees stranded in France, Mexicans
can forever point with pride to what they did when the rest of the world remained
indifferent to human suffering. In reality Mexico’s defence of the often
7
8. exasperating Spanish Republic cast little glory on the country but it has come to
have great importance today (p.177, 178).
With contemporary Mexican research into the missing such sentiments would
have even greater resonance. Mexicans today can proudly serve the cause of
productive academic research as well as social justice- not only for Spaniards but for
their fellow citizens who went to serve in Spain and continue to lie in unmarked
graves.
The point of the work in Spain, as with bioarchaeological studies in general, is
not just about discovering the past and bringing historical knowledge to a certain
community. No people or country is immune from the type of violence and suffering
that has been experienced in Spain. Much can be learned that has relevance in a
criminological context in Mexico and also applied in Latin America and abroad where
investigations of widespread violence and violation of Human Rights are necessary.
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