The document provides comprehensive notes on international relations, outlining its definitions, scope, key theories, and historical developments. It discusses the evolution of international relations post-World War I, the significance of the nation-state system, and the impact of globalization and technological advancements on state interactions. Additionally, it highlights the role of major international organizations like the United Nations and the implications of economic and political influences on global relationships.

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4. Table of Content
I. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………
• The Definition and Scope of International RelationsThe Nation-State
System………………
• Evolution of International Society……………………………………………………….
II. Theories and Approaches……………………………………………………………………17
• The Classical Approaches-Realism and idealism…………………………………….
• The Scientific Revolution-Behavioral Approach, System Approach………………...
• Neo-realism, Neo-liberalism. ………………………………………………………….
• Post-modernism, Critical Theory, Feminism, Constructivism………………………
III. International Political Security…………………………………………………………...….56
• Conceptualization of security in the twenty-first century……………………………….
• Power. Elements of National Power……………………………………………………...
• Balance of Power………………………………………………………………………......
• Foreign Policy: Determinants, Decision making and analysis………………………...
• Sovereignty…………………………………………………………………………………..
• National Interest…………………………………………………………………………....
IV. Strategic Approach to International Relation………………………………….….95
• War: Causation of War, Total War, Limited War, Asymmetric Warfare, civil
war,Guerilla war…………………………………………………………………………
• Strategic Culture: Determinants of Pakistani Strategic Culture. ……………….….
• Deterrence: Theory and practice with special reference to Nuclear India and
Pakistan………………………………………………………………………………….
V. International Political Economy……………………………………………………..….118
• Theories in IPE: Mercantilism, Economic Liberalism, and neo- Marxism…………...
• Theories of Imperialism, Dependence and Interdependence……………………..…..
VI. International political community………………………………………………….….133
• Nationalism………………………………………………………………………..………...
• Internationalism………………………………………………………………………….…..
• Globalization…………………………………………………………………………..…….
VII. Approaches to Peace……………………………………………………………….…..145
• Diplomacy……………………………………………………………………………..…….
• International Law…………………………………………………………………….……...
• Arms Control /Disarmament and Nuclear Non proliferation Regime…………..….….

5. VIII. International Political Institution……………………………………………………….178
• United Nations……………………………………………………………………………….
• International Monetary Fund (IMF) ………………………………………….….……..….
• World Bank…………………………………………………………………………………..
• International Court of Justice…………………………………………………………..….

6. Introduction
The Definition and Scope of International Relations:
Meaning and Nature of International Relations:
In the very beginning of the civilized world the states were mutually interlinked. In modern
times the world has greatly shrunk as a result of scientific and technological development.
As a result, events in one part of the world have an immediate impact on the rest of the
world., Therefore the states maintain regular relations with other states of the world. As an
alone individual is nothing similarly, a state without other state is nothing and in the present
complex life, a state without relations with other cannot survive. Materialistic needs, religion,
economic requirements, industrialization, security matters and trade etc. brought the states
together. Inter-states wars yielded post-war treaties, economic and friendly agreements and
international organizations. All these things are studied by international relations.
International relations are an old subject and can be traced in the old tribes. It was utilized by
the Greeks and Romans in their relations. As a regular subject, international relations took
start in the World War-I era and specially because of the second World War, Cold War
between USA and USSR, disintegration of USSR, New World Order (NWO) of USA, global
role of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) emergence of international organization
and diplomatic relations etc. developed this subject to great extent.
International Relations is the study and practice of political relationships among the world's
nations, especially their governments. International relations mean interactions between
nongovernmental groups, such as multinational corporations or international organizations
such as the OIC or the United Nations (UN).
International relations is a broad and complex topic both for countries engaged in
relationships with other nations, and for observers trying to understand those interactions.
These relationships are influenced by many variables. They are shaped by the primary
participants in international relations, including national leaders, oilier politicians, and
nongovernmental participants, such as private citinns, corporations, and nongovernmental
organizations. They are also affected by domestic political events and nonpolitical
influences, including economics, geography, and culture. Despite all of these other
influences, the primary focus of international relations is on the interactions between nations.
To understand these interactions, experts look at the world as a system of nations whose
actions are guided by a well-defined set of rules. They call this system the interstate system.
The interstate system has existed for less than 500 years and is based on a common
understanding of what a nation is and how it should treat other nations. But recent changes
in technology and international norms have caused some scholars to question whether this
system will continue in the future, or be replaced by some other system of relationships that
is not yet known.
From September 1814 to June 1815 representatives of the major European powers
convened in Vienna, Austria, to reorganize Europe following the defeat of French emperor
Napoleon I. The Congress of Vienna, as this conference became known, was a major event
in the history of international relations.

7. Until the 1970s the study of international, relations centered mainly on international security
studies i.e. questions of war and peace. Scholars believed a nation's military power was the
most important characteristic in determining how that nation would relate to others. As a
result, scholars focused on the relative military strength of one nation compared to others,
alliances and diplomacy between nations, and the strategies nations used to protect their
territories and further their own interests.
Since the 1970s the importance of economics in international relations has increased and
the study of international political ' economy has received increased attention. The primary
force driving the interaction between nations is economic, not military. There is trade and
economic relations among nations, especially the political cooperation between nations to
create and maintain international organizations such as the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund.
In both security studies and international political economy, experts strive to explain patterns
of conflict and cooperation among nations. Conflicts among nations are expected since their
political and economic aims and interests often depart. Cooperation does not refer to the
absence of conflict but to the ability of nations to peacefully resolve their differences in a way
that is acceptable to all parties involved. When cooperation fails, conflicts often escalate into
coercion and ultimately war.
The term International" was used for the first time by Jermy Bentham in the later part of the
18th century with regard to the laws of nations. Consequently, the term "IR" was used to
define the official relations between sovereign states.
The economic, social. cultural. political and military relations amongst the state of the world
may also be included in the preview of the subject. Thus there are broadly two views
regarding the meaning of international relations.
Narrow view: According to this view 'IR' includes only "The official relations conducted by
the authorized leaders of the states." According to this view other relations do not fall in the
domain of IR'
Broad view: Some scholars have taken a broad view of international relations, and included
apart from the official relations between states, all intercourse among states and all
movements of people, goods and ideas acorss the national frontiers with in its preview.
Definitions of IR:
“International relations is the branch of political science that studies relations between
countries of the world." (Encarta).
"It is not only the nations seek to regulate, varied types of groups-nations, states,
governments, people, region, alliances, confederations, international organizations, cultural
organizations, religious organizations must be dealt with in the study of international
relations if the treatment is to be made realistic." (Quincy Wright)
"International relations is concerned with the factors and activities, that affect the external
policies and the powers of the basic units into that the world is divided." (Hoffman).
"International relations is the discipline, that tries to explain political activities across state
boundaries (Trevor Tayor).

8. It embraces all kinds of relations traversing state boundaries, no matter whether they are of
an economic, legal, political or any other character, whether they be private or official, and all
human behaviour originating on one side of a state boundary
International relations studies foreign relations, diplomacy. agreements and pacts,
international law, international organizations, inter-state interaction, war and peace,
international justice and alliances etc.
pacts, international law, international organizations, inter-state interaction, war and peace,
international justice and alliances etc.
Scope of International Relations:
International relations topic cover diplomacy, treaties, question of war and peace, global
happenings, commercial, cultural, educational. social, religious international alliances and
international organizations etc. The scope of international relations can be discussed.
Establishment of League of Nations. In modern time the field. of the study was widened
with the establishment of the League of Nations in 1920, after the First World War due to the
sincere efforts of Woodrow Wilson of USA. The establishment of the League of Nations
contributed to the study of international relations. Therefore, the study of international
organizations and international institutions was also included in its preview.
Emergence of USA and USSR as a Super Powers. Emergence of USA and USSR as
superpowers further widened the scope of international relations. After the second World
War the world transformed into bipolarity from multi-polarity with USA and USSR flourishing
in international affairs. Both the superpowers conducted international relations according to
their own interests.
Establishment of United Nations. After the end of World War II various international
conferences were held. Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin met at Tehran and Yalta. They
agreed in principle to form a worldwide international organization for peace loving states.
Therefore, an acceptable charter was signed on 26th June 1945. United Nations is a global
organization of independent and sovereign states and its main aim is "to maintain
international peace and security." The establishment of the UN also contributed to the study
of international relations to great extent.
Emergence of USA as a Superpower (New World Order). l'he end of USSR as a
superpower in Dec, 1990 changed the whole world and USA emerged as a superpower that
adopted international politics in such a way that majority of the nations of the world
visualized themselves as the subjected mission of the single power. The Gulf War of 1991
paved the way for USA to emerge as a superpower that resulted in the USA's N.W.O under
that USA became the master of the world politics. Emergence of USA as a superpower also
extended the scope of international relations.
Technological Development. Technology exercises profound influence on the power base
of a state as well as the course of international relations. Technology at least in three
spheres, industrial, communication and military, has greatly influenced the power of the
state. Due to technological development the world has become a global village.
Technological development also extended the scope and value of international relations.

9. Globalization. Due to certain reasons the scattered world is going towards integration. The
world is now a single village and states are incomplete with one another. This situation
increased the scope of international relations.
The Nation-State System
Nation State System Definition Characteristics and Historical Background:
Nation state system is as old as the human history. It will be more correct to say that the
history of nation state system starts with the political consciousness of man. In this modern
age, no one can satisfy its all needs alone and due to this lie has to make relations with
other states in order to satisfy his desires, interests and goals. In the field of international
politics these states are called sovereign states or nation state system. It plays a dominant
role in international relations. The people all over the world are divided into a number of
groups that lie in sovereign nation state. These states maintain relations with each other
under the pressure of sheer necessity. If people are not organized into states or nations, no
international relations would have been possible. Some scholars reduce the role of state in
the nuclear and space age. However, the role of nation-state cannot be reduced in the
present age.
The terms "nation" and "state" are quite different yet they are often used interchangeably.
The nation is a concept denoting a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by single
people, while the state is a political unit define in term of territory, population, organized
government, exercising affective control over its territory and inhabitants. The nation
promotes emotional relationship among its members, while state provides political and legal
foundation for the identity of its citizens.
What is State:
The term "State" can be defined as, "A territorial Society divided into government and
subjects claiming with in its allotted physical territory, supremacy over all other institutions."
(Laski).
"State is the political organization of the ruling class that was its power for the purpose of
suppressing the resistance of its class enemies. The state arose as a result of the division of
the society into integrated class and therefore for the purpose of curbing the exploited
majority in the interest of exploiting minority. It shall exist so long as there is the need for
class domination and shall whether away." (Karl Marx).
What is Nation:
The nation is a concept denoting a common ethnic and cultural identity shared by a single
people. The terms state, government and nation differ in meaning.
A government is the established for of political administration of a state.
A nation may be a body inhabitant in a country united under a single independent
government. And in this sense the world is virtually synonymous with state but a nation may
also be any aggregation of people having like institutions and customs and sense of social
homogeneity and mutual interest. Thus, we can say that several nations may be present in
one state or a nation may extend beyond the borders of a single state.
Nation State System
According to Palmer and Perkins, "The nation state system is the pattern of life in that the
people are separately organized that interact with one another in varying ways and various

10. degrees." In International law nation state means "Legitimacy, sovereignty and duty." The
state will have to recognize the legitimacy of other states. The state should be sovereign
both externally and internally and its people must observe their duties.
History, Background, Origin or Evaluation of Nation State System:
To understand the origin of nation state system it is necessary to fall light on past history.
Before 17th century, nation states were existed but under the control of Roman Catholic
Church headed by pope and the nation state had no sovereign status.
Treaty of Westphalia: The treaty of Westphalia is considered by occasion, on that the
modern state system took place. In 1648 treaty of Westphalia was signed due to that, the 30
years’ war came into an end. The Treaty of Westphalia was concluded on two key principles:
• The principle of internal sovereignty that is the pre-eminence of the rulers against the
claims of other centers of power within the state.
• The associated principle of external sovereignty, in other words, independence from
power centers outside the states.
So, after the treaty few sovereign nation states i.e. England, France and Spain came into
being without Church control and the church supremacy was abolished. Machiavelli. Badin
and Grotious and some other prominent theorists had together provided defense and
justification for the independent secular states.
According to William Adult, "By the Year 1648, Treaty of Westphalia, the state system was
fully established in Europe."
Westphalia to Utrecht (1648-1713) The second stage of the development of the state-
system has between 1648-1713, during that conflict among UK. France, Holland and Spain
were raised on colonial supremacy. But France had to face heavy loss due to coalition of UK
and Austria on the question of Spanish succession. France suffered heavy loss by the treaty
of Westphalia.
Utrecht to Vienna (1713- 1815) During this period conflict between Austria and France had
taken place. Fredrick the great of Persia enforced, France, Austria and Russia to form an
alliance ill order to maintain balance of power. UK made alliance with Prussia. Due to these
alliances and counter alliances seven years war took place from 1756-63. Later on, France
under Napoleon became dominant in European affairs. but soon defeated by the combined
effort of UK. Russia. Prussia, Austria and Sweden. The result was the Vienna meeting in
1915 in that balance of power was again restored in Europe with certain check on France.
Vienna to Versailles (1815-1914) During this period i.e. from 1815 to 1914, various nation
states were emerged on the map of the.
This period in the history of the world is known as period of Pax-Britannica, because during
this period Britain had full autonomy and had maintained Balance of power to greater extant
in Europe only two time her supremacy was threatened. In 1854-56, Russia threatened her
supremacy to dominate the region during the Crimean war. Secondly in 1870-71. Germany
displaced France and established her own supremacy in the continent during the Franco-
Prussian war. During this period, i.e. in 1913 the decline of Turkey (Caliphate) and Spanish
power led to the rise of several independent states on the map of the world. And also during

11. this period China emerged as a super power by defeating Japan. This period of world history
especially from 1882-1907 was the period of mutual fear and suspicion among states.
Versailles to the Present The treaty of Versailles in 1914 brought great changes in the map
of the world and also brought great disturbance because due to the harsh treatment with
Germany in this treaty caused Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy and also Russia
emerged as one of the disturbing factor in the world and due to all these the treaty of
Versailles brought a gift of 2nd world war for the humanity and due to this several UK
colonies i.e. in Africa and in Asia got independence.
Modern State System
This system similar to that of Westphalia. It is a pattern in that the independent community of
the world by organizing themselves into independent sovereign political entity and to act and
react with one another.
Nation State System in 20th Century
The 20th century is known as the century of Nation-State System. But during this modern
period the problem with Nation state system is that on one hand it is legally. sovereign but
on the other hand it has to give some concession and to accept some limitations. The Nation
State System in 20th Century can be discussed under the following points.
Challenges to Nation State System in 20th Century
• MNCs
• International Organizations
• Regional Organizations
• Terrorist groups
• Military technology
Evolution of International Society:
The Great War was a turning point in the evolution of warfare and it was a conflict that would
have far reaching ramifications for international society. The First World War led to the
development of international laws regulating the use of certain weapons in warfare, while at
the same time serving as the catalyst for a revolution in military affairs that would be realized
in the Second World War. The conflict of 1914-1918 the result, in part, of fervent nationalism,
also provided impetus for the European project and the idea of a European pacific
federation. Meanwhile, the American role in the war provided President Wilson with the
ability to enunciate his 14 Points, one of which, the right to self-determination, would
undermine the European colonial empires ushering in decades of change. But perhaps most
importantly, the war and its conclusion would set the basis for the next conflict in Europe. A
truly transformative conflict, the legacy of the First World War still reverberates today.
Social relations that is, the countless and complex ways in which the people interact with
and affect each other are more and more being conducted and organized on the basis of a
planetary unit. As historically and conventionally understood, international relations are
relations of territorially based political groups. If we arrive at a definition of “international
society”, it stands for relations between politically organized human groupings which occupy
distinctive territories and enjoy and exercise a measure of independence of each other. .In

12. the language of international relations, such detached communities are referred to as ‘states’
which are usually conceptualized as consisting of:
1.) Permanent population,
2.) Occupying a definite territory,
3.) Which is under a central government
4.) Which is sovereign.
Hedley Bull defines international society as ” a society of states exists when a group of
states, conscious of certain common interests and common values, form a society in the
sense that they conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules in their relations
with one another. It is pertinent to distinguish globalization from internationalization here.
Globalization refers to all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated
into a single world society i.e. a global society. Globalization is thus an ongoing trend
whereby the world has become one relatively borderless social sphere. Globalization can
also be indicated by terms like liberalization, universalization and deterritorialization. On the
other hand internationalization refers to a process of intensifying connections between
national domains. In international relations, countries are divided from each other by clearly
marked frontiers as well as by substantial time that is generally required to cover the
distance between their respective territories. Whereas global phenomenon can extend
across the world at the same time and can move between places in no time, in the sense
they have a supra-territorial and transnational character. While patterns of international
interdependence are strongly influenced by nation- state divisions, the lines of global
interconnections often have little correspondence to territorial boundaries.
The first phase of evolution of international society can be traced back from the year 1900, in
which the world was dominated by a small group of economically prosperous and populous
European states, whose empires encompassed much of the globe. The internal roots of
Europe’s instability dated back to 1870s, when the continent’s relative tranquility was
disturbed by the creation of a single unified German state as a result of Napoleonic wars.
The unified Germany’s expansion ambitions for territory and markets were a cause of
concern for Britain, France and Tsarist Russia, emerging in an attempt to halt Germany.
Britain and France dominated Asia, Africa and Middle East, Russia in Japan and Britain
competed in China while U.S. held sway in Latin America. This disruption of balance of
power in combination of imperial, nationalist and economic tension ultimately resulted in the
First World War in 1914. The alliance system built up was Austria, Hungary and Germany on
one side and Britain, France and Russia on the other. The war finally ended with the
gathering of peacemakers at Versailles in 1919. This was the first instance of inception of
global international society taking shape to maintain peace in post war period. It is to be
noticed here that at Versailles the guiding force was not one or more of the European
powers but the United States. It is at this time the principle of “self-determination” came up
prominently. Future wars were to be deterred by the League of Nations, which would take
“collective action” against aggressor states. Finally, Germany was found guilty of having
begun the war as a result it lost its land to Poland and France, it was disarmed and
reparations were to be made to the victorious powers. However, many critics like Taylor
found that Versailles was not hard enough. The German problem was unresolved as
Germany still remained the largest unitary state in the heart of Europe. Moreover, Germany’s

13. potential to wage war had not been absolutely destroyed. Thus, the treaty of Versailles
seemed to fail in the absence of any major power committed to upholding it.
Then comes the second phase of the evolution of international society that is the Second
World War, whose origin can be traced from the Great Depression of 1929 caused by the
stock market crash in America. The global impact of the shock waves of crash illustrates the
degree to which states in the inter-war years were not entirely autonomous entities. Its
symptoms like spiraling inflation, collapse of consumer demand in industrial countries,
decline in manufacturing industry, massive unemployment concluded that globalization in
economic terms, was a potent reality. In wake of such economic turmoil, Japan in order to
find new markets, raw material and land for it’s population began expansion into China.
Between 1931-33, Japan consolidated its hold over Manchuria. By 1937, Japan was at war
with China which caused worsening relations with U.S. ultimately leading to Japan’s attack
on Pearl Harbor. On the other hand in Europe, the Nazi territorial expansionism under Hitler
went beyond the provisions of Treaty of Versailles. Confronted with numerous international
crises in China and Europe, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasing Hitler. But in
March 1939 appeasement was abandoned once Germany invaded Poland and Britain and
France declared war on Germany. Alliance of Britain, France, America and USSR came
together to fight Axis powers of Japan, Italy and Germany. The Second World War was
unquestionably global in scope ending the era of European domination of the world. The
U.S. put the full stop on war by using its might and dropping atom bomb on Japan’s
Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The end of Second World War led to the third phase of evolution i.e. the onset of Cold War
between Soviet and America. The failure to implement principles agreed at the wartime and
issues concerning the failure of Germany and Poland grew tension between wartime allies.
The expansion of Soviet towards Eastern Europe and American opposition to it, American
military deployment in Britain and signing of NATO Treaty in 1949 were some of the key
issues in cold war. Agreements on limiting and controlling the growth of nuclear arsenals
have played an important role in Soviet- American relations. A set of treaties like START-1
and START-2 marked the end of cold war and laid down the ground for cordial relations
between disintegrated Russia and America.
From the above discussion it can be inferred that whenever any crises has arisen in the
past, be it political, social or financial, various states transcending their territorial boundaries
have come forward unitedly to counter it. The era of colonialism and imperialism is done
away with and the world does not have any one central power like Europe, U.S or Russia
now. The global trends have replaced the unipolar world structure to that of multipolar world
structure. The present world order has undergone tremendous transformation by changing
global patterns of international organizations, issues of universal concern, global civil
society, humanitarian issues, trade and economy and many more which we will discuss in
forthcoming paragraphs.
The very first consolidation of international society made itself evident in the form of United
Nations Organization which took birth after the havoc of Second World War. The main
objective of UN is to maintain international peace and order and to prevent situations leading
to war by means of pacific settlement. The basic principle adopted by the member states
was of self-determination. Presently the membership of UN is up to 192, which clearly
signifies it as a forum where all countries whether small or big, powerful or weak, developed
or underdeveloped interact with each other and manifest themselves as a global community.
International Court of Justice, UNICEF, UNDP, UNHCR etc. some of the organs of UN
having varied work fields. Peace keeping missions, economic sanctions on erring states and

14. the right to self defense are some such distinctive features of the organization which keep
intact the principle of self-determination. But critics often raise the question mark upon the
decisions taken by UN as a representative and collective world body. The imbalanced
sharing of decision making power at the executive body of UN i.e. Security Council clearly
manifest the hegemony of superpowers like U.S., U.K., China, Russia and France. Waging
Iraq war, Gulf war, Palestine and Israel crisis, Afghanistan problem in the name of
maintaining international peace and security is the mockery and exclusion of international
society in the real sense. Similar is the case with international financial organizations like
IMF and WB. IMF was created to promote international monetary cooperation and resolve
the inter-war economic problems. The IMF now has a membership of 183 countries each of
whom contribute a quota of resources to the organization proportionate to the size of their
economy which also determines their percentage of voting rights and the amount of
resources to which they can have automatic access to. Although it would be wrong to out
rightly negate the role played by them in the infrastructure development, poverty reduction,
raising living standards but down the line the practices of protectionism and favourism
followed by superpowers have hampered its functioning. The frequent failure of WTO round
of talks due to widening divide between the developed and developing is not a different
story. The international organizations most of the times end up being super power
organizations.
In the age of globalization the structure of nation state has undergone tremendous
transformation. The relevance of geographical boundaries has fainted and the world has
become a borderless entity. This aspect of globalization has led to the formulation of local
issues like poverty, hunger and development etc. into global concerns. The other most
important issues of global concern are environment, terrorism, gender inequality and human
right violations. To tackle such wide range of issues, the international society manifests itself
broadly as non-state actors and particularly as global civil society, voluntary organizations,
intergovernmental organizations and international non-governmental organizations. Such
organizations are the source of new political and social change. Red Cross, Amnesty
International, World Social Forum, Cry are some such bandwagons which raise the local
issues to international forums and play an important part in designing policies affecting the
lives of billions of people across the world. Especially the gender issues of violence,
inhuman treatment, lack of opportunities, female foeticide, trafficking of women and children
are now concerns of every country of the world and are redressed as never before. Owing to
the efforts of such civil society groups the awareness of human rights has become a global
phenomenon. The universalization and homogenization of globe has made the whole world
as their work field.
The discourse on globalization would remain incomplete without the mention of global
market patterns after the end of cold war. This era can be recognized as an era of triumph
which swept away all the barriers to the operation of the market around the world and
transformed the character of international politics. Now the governments have reduced their
military spending and started making their markets efficient and open as per the growing
needs. New technologies, computerization and communication provides opportunity for
small business and individual entrepreneurs, empowering excluded persons and social
groups. The state monopoly is reduced, the culture of multinationals and transnationals is
strengthening the universal labor standards and unions are more organized to stand against
exploitation at larger level. The rise of giant corporations and cartels serve as new modes of
social control and regulation. Post-industrialist theorists like Daniel Bell call the present
society as “information society” and present age as “technocapitalism”. According to J.
Baudrillard .3.technology and capitalism have permeated every aspect of society. While
Gilder .4., Gates .5.and Friedman .6.defend technology as legitimizing capitalism on the

15. other hand Heideggar call it a complete Europianization of the earth and man. Critics
however characterize global capitalism by a decline of the state and increased power of the
market and globalised transnational corporations. Hence both negative and positive versions
of economic determinism exist.
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