How to be Good at English, Ages 7-14 (Key Stages 2-3): The Simplest-ever Visual Guide

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About this eBook

S e n i o r e d i t o r s L a u r a S a n d f o r d , R o n a S k e n e , M o n i c a W o o d s
Pro j e c t a r t e d i t o r A n n a S c u l l y
E d i t o r s J o l y o n G o d d a r d , C a r y n J e n n e r
, S a r a h M a c L e o d ,
M a n i R a m a s w a m y
, J a m e s S m a r t
D e s i g n e r s K e l l y A d a m s , L a u r e n A r t h u r
, G i l d a P a c i t t i
I l l u s t r a t o r s A d a m B r a c k e n b u r y
, E d w o o d B u r n
A u t h o r s G e o f f B a r k e r
, C a t h e r i n e C a s e y
, H e l e n D i n e e n ,
T
o m H a n l o n , C a t h S e n k e r
C o n s u l t a n t s J a n e B u r s t e i n , J a n e t G o u g h
M a n a g i n g e d i t o r s C h r i s t i n e S t r o y a n , C a r i n e T
r a c a n e l l i
M a n a g i n g a r t e d i t o r A n n a H a l l
P r o d u c t i o n e d i t o r G i l l i a n R e i d
S e n i o r p r o d u c t i o n c o n t r
o l l e r J u d e C r o z i e r
J a c k e t d e s i g n e r V i d u s h i C h a u d h r y
J a c k e t d e s i g n d e v e l o p m e n t m a n a g e r S o p h i a M T T
P u b l i s h e r A n d r e w M a c i n t y r e
A r t d i r e c t o r K a r e n S e l f
D e s i g n d i r e c t o r P h i l O r m e r o d
P u b l i s h i n g d i r e c t o r J o n a t h a n M e t c a l f
First published in Great Britain in 2022 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited
DK, One Embassy Gardens, 8 Viaduct Gardens,
London, SW11 7BW
The authorised representative in the EEA is

Contents
1 G r a m m a r
G r a m m a r r u l e s ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N o u n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P r o n o u n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U s i n g p r o n o u n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D e t e r m i n e r s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A d j e c t i v e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U s i n g m o r e t h a n o n e a d j e c t i v e
N o u n p h r a s e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Verb s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A d v e r b s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F a c t s , q u e s t i o n s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . .
Verb a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
P u n c t u a t i o n
W h y t h o s e d o t s a n d m a r k s m a t t e r
S t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g s e n t e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . .
P u n c t u a t i n g d i r e c t s p e e c h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w p o s s e s s i o n . . . . . . .
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w c o n t r a c t i o n s
C o m m a s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S e m i c o l o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

6 0
6 2
6 4
. . . . .
6 8
7 0
7 2
7 4
. . . . .
7 6
7 8
8 2
C o n s o n a n t s u f f i x e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e p o w e r o f s u f f i x e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P l u r a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H o m o p h o n e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S i l e n t a n d u n s t r e s s e d l e t t e r s
S y n o n y m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R e a d i n g s t o r i e s ,
4
p l a y s a n d p o e m s
W h y r e a d ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F e a t u r e s o f s t o r i e s , p l a y s
a n d p o e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H o w t o w o r k o u t m e a n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T h e e f f e c t s o f l a n g u a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F i g u r a t i v e l a n g u a g e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W h a t a r e i n f e r e n c e s ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H o w t o m a k e i n f e r e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t o n e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E x p l o r i n g d i a l o g u e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A n a l y s i n g p o e t r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F i n d i n g t h e m a i n i d e a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I d e n t i f y i n g t h e m e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C o m p a r i n g a n d c o n t r a s t i n g
f i c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

S a l e s m a t e r i a l s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W h a t ’
s t h e w r i t e r ’
s p u r p o s e ?
A u d i e n c e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L e v e l s o f f o r m a l i t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L a n g u a g e f o r d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s
D i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L a y o u t a n d s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N e w w o r d s a n d t e r m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F i n d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I n f e r r i n g m e a n i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F a c t s a n d o p i n i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C o m p a r i n g a n d c o n t r a s t i n g
1 5 4
1 5 6
1 5 8
1 6 0
1 6 2
1 6 4
1 6 6
1 6 8
1 7 0
1 7 2
1 7 4
1 7 8

C h o o s i n g t h e f o r m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W r i t i n g i n t h e r i g h t s t y l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W r i t i n g s e n t e n c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U s i n g s e n t e n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W r i t i n g p a r a g r a p h s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C o h e s i v e d e v i c e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
U s i n g l a n g u a g e t e c h n i q u e s . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D e s c r i p t i v e w r i t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P l a n n i n g a s t o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P l o t a n d s t r u c t u r e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g a s t o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C r e a t i n g a s e t t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 4 8
2 5 0
2 5 2
2 5 4
2 5 6
2 5 8
2 6 0
2 6 2
2 6 4
2 6 6
2 6 8
2 7 0
W r i t i n g a s p e e c h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A n s w e r i n g a n e s s a y q u e s t i o n
P o i n t , e v i d e n c e , e x p l a n a t i o n
R e v i s i n g , e d i t i n g a n d
p r o o f r e a d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G l o s s a r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F u r t h e r r e a d i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I n d e x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10
G R A M M A R
Grammar rules!
The rules of grammar tell us how to use words and build
sentences. We learn grammar naturally as we grow up,
from talking, listening and reading. Grammar helps us
communicate clearly
, and it’
s not scar y – it’
s something
that we use every single day
.
W h a t i s g r a m m a r ?
W h a t i s g r a m m a r ?
Grammar is the way in which language is
organized and structured. Grammar helps us
to use different types of words, along with the
right punctuation, to build sentences. By correctly
using word classes such as nouns, verbs, adverbs
and ad j ectives, we can communicate more clearly
.

• G R A M M A R R U L E S !
Don’t be afraid of making
mistakes in your writing. Y
ou
can always ask an adult and
find out how to fix things.
Y
o
u r teacher can also help
point you to good reference
books and reliable websites.
T R Y I T O U T
G r a m m a r
how words are used
to make sentences.

Don’t be afraid of making
mistakes in your writing. Y
ou
can always ask an adult and
find out how to fix things.
Y
o
u r teacher can also help
point you to good reference
books and reliable websites.
T R Y I T O U T
G r a m m a r
is about
how words are used
to make sentences.

G R A M M A R
W h y i s g r a m m a r i m p o r t a n t ?
W h y i s g r a m m a r i m p o r t a n t ?
Having a good grasp of grammar helps us understand
what we hear and read. When we’re speaking and
writing, grammar allows us to express our thoughts
clearly
, so that others can understand our meaning.
When grammar isn’t used correctly
,
confusion can result. These were all
genuine mistakes made on signs!
Here, “fine” should read
“ f i n e d ”, the past tense of the
verb “ to fine”. Right now
, it
appears to be an adjective
The word “eating”
is confusing and
should be removed:
no one wants to
eat a customer!

• G R A M M A R R U L E S !
This appears to
I
l
l
e
g
a
l
l
y
p
a
r
k
e
d
c
a
r
sw
i
l
l
T
a
blesare
f o r e a ting
customers
only
.

12
Nouns
A noun identifies a person, place or thing, including
ob j ects, feelings and groups of things. Nouns play an
important part in almost every sentence.
W h a t i s a n o u n ?
W h a t i s a n o u n ?
A noun is the name of somewhere, someone or
something. Nouns are often the name of things
we can see, taste, smell, hear or touch, but
feelings and thoughts can also be nouns.
Nouns can be divided into five categories.

S E E A L S O
A d j e c t i v e s
N o u n p h r a s e s
W h a t i s a s e n t e n c e ?
G R A M M A R • N O U N S
N o u n s
are called
when they refer to one thing
and
p l u r a l
when they refer
to a group of things.

S E E A L S O
A d j e c t i v e s 2 0
N o u n p h r a s e s 2 4
W h a t i s a s e n t e n c e ? 3 6
N o u n s
are called
s i n g u l a r
when they refer to one thing
and
p l u r a l
when they refer
to a group of things.

T
y p e s o f n o u n s
T
y p e s o f n o u n s
Nouns may be common nouns
or proper nouns, depending on
what they are describing.
Common nouns identify people,
things or places in general.
M r S m i t h
t e a c h e r

C o m m o n n o u n s
P r o p e r n o u n s
T
e
d
t e d d y b e a r
N e w Y
o r k
c i t y
Count the nouns you can
see around you. Which
are common nouns and
which are proper nouns?
T R Y I T O U T
G R A M M A R
• N O U N S

14
b r o t h e r.
h a s a
Pronouns
A pronoun is a short word that can stand in for a noun,
usually after the first time the noun is mentioned.
Pronouns remind us who or what is being described.
W h a t i s a p r o n o u n ?
W h a t i s a p r o n o u n ?
A pronoun replaces a noun or group of
nouns. It helps us to avoid repeating the
same word. We also use pronouns when
we don’t know which noun to use.

i s
s i s t e r
G R A M M A R • P R O N O U N S
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s
Pronouns
are words
that replace nouns.

M i l l i e .
i s
s i s t e r
S E E A L S O
N o u n s 1 2
R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s 4 2
Pronouns
are words
that replace nouns.

W h a t c a n p r o n o u n s d o ?
W h a t c a n p r o n o u n s d o ?
Pronouns always stand in for nouns, but
they can perform several different j obs. This
means we need different groups of pronouns
to show their specific role in the sentence.

G R A M M A R
• P R O N O U N S
T
r y talking with a friend without
using any pronouns. See how
awkward it sounds – and how
difficult it is!
S P E A K U P

16
G R A M M A R
Using pronouns
There are many different pronouns in English. Choosing
the right pronouns, and thinking about when and where
to use them, will help you write more clearly
.
W h i c h p r o n o u n t o u s e ?
W h i c h p r o n o u n t o u s e ?
I
t
’
s important to use the correct pronoun.
Match it to the person or ob j ect it replaces,
and to the role it plays in the sentence.
Sub
j
ect pronouns
Always use
a capital “I”.

• U S I N G P R O N O U N S
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
P r o n o u n s
Ob
j
ect pronouns
Possessive pronouns

S E E A L S O
N o u n s 1 2
P r o n o u n s 1 4
Possessive pronouns

G R A M M A R
Emphasizes that the children
did it themselves, without help
I N T E N S I V E E X A M P L E
“
“ S e l f
S e l f ”
” p r o n o u n s
p r o n o u n s
“ Self ” pronouns always refer back to the sub
pronouns are used for emphasis. Reflexive pronouns
show the sub j ect did something to or for themselves.

• U S I N G P R O N O U N S
R E F L E X I V E E X A M P L E
j ect. Intensive

18
Determiners
Determiners are words like “ the ” , “
They tell the reader which ob j ect or person is being
talked about – and they always go in front of the noun.
W h a t i s a d e t e r m i n e r ?
W h a t i s a d e t e r m i n e r ?
A determiner is a word that introduces a noun, giving
readers more information about it. There are many
different types of determiners, including articles,
possessives, quantifiers and demonstratives.
This determiner (indefinite article) refers to a
non-specific castle; it’s not clear which one.
I ’ d t o
l i k e v i s i t

some ” , “ a ” and “ this ” .
Determiners
make it clear what
or who you’re
referring to.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
P r o n o u n s
Noun
G R A M M A R • D E T E R M I N E R S

” .
Determiners
make it clear what
or who you’re
referring to.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s 1 2
P r o n o u n s 1 4

h a t .
P r o n o u n o r d e t e r m i n e r ?
P r o n o u n o r d e t e r m i n e r ?
Possessive pronouns can also be
called possessive determiners when
they sit before a noun.
Possessive determiner
Possessive pronoun
replaces noun
r o o m .
Demonstrative
determiner
T h i s
I t
I
i s
i s
l i k e
Noun
Noun

U s i n g
U s i n g
“
“
a
a
”
”
o r
o r
“
“
a n
a n
If a noun starts with a consonant
sound, we use the article
If it starts with a vowel sound,
we use the article
“
an
d o g
u n i c o r n
G R A M M A R
• D E T E R M I N E R S

20
Ad j ectives
Ad j ectives are words that describe nouns. They tell us
more about people, places and things. We can use
ad j ectives to describe, identify and compare.
W h a t i s a n a d
W h a t i s a n a d j
j e c t i v e ?
e c t i v e ?
Ad j ectives give us more information and detail
about a noun. They tell us what a noun is like,
and we can use them to be more specific
about a person, place or thing.

G R A M M A R • A D J E C T I V E S
S E E A L S O
U s i n g m o r e t h a n o n e a d j e c t i v e
U s i n g l a n g u a g e t e c h n i q u e s
C r e a t i n g a s e t t i n g
Ad
j
ectives are…
…
d e s c r i b i n g
w o r d s

S E E A L S O
U s i n g m o r e t h a n o n e a d j e c t i v e 2 2
U s i n g l a n g u a g e t e c h n i q u e s 2 6 0
C r e a t i n g a s e t t i n g 2 7 0
Ad
j
ectives are…
…
d e s c r i b i n g
w o r d s
.

W h e r e d o a d
W h e r e d o a d j
j e c t i v e s g o ?
e c t i v e s g o ?
Ad j ectives can go before or after
a noun. Putting the ad j ective after
the noun gives it extra emphasis.
T h e
T h e

G R A M M A R
• A D J E C T I V E S
Noun
Adjective
Adjective
Noun
Adjective Noun
Noun
T h e
i s
T h e
w a s

22
G R A M M A R
Using more than
one ad j ective
Multiple means more than one. Sometimes, we might
use multiple ad j ectives to help us describe or identify
a person, place or thing more effectively
.
W h y u s e m o r e t h a n o n e a d
W h y u s e m o r e t h a n o n e a d j
j e c t i v e ?
e c t i v e ?
Using more than one ad j ective gives a reader or
listener more information about the noun. This can
be useful when describing or identifying a noun.
U s i n g m u l t i p l e a d j e c t i v e s t o d e s c r i b e t h i n g s
Using more than one ad j ective can create a
stronger
, more powerful image of the thing you
are describing. This is great for stories and poems.

• U S I N G M O R E T H A N O N E A D J E C T I V E
S E E A L S O
A d j e c t i v e s
C o m m a s
T h e e f f e c t s o f l a n g u a g e
R
e
m
e
m
b
e
r
, an
describes a noun.

S E E A L S O
C o m m a s 7 8
T h e e f f e c t s o f l a n g u a g e 1 5 6
R
e
m
e
m
b
e
r
, an
a d
j
e c t i v e
describes a noun.

G R A M M A R
W h i c h a d
W h i c h a d j
j e c t i v e c o m e s f i r s t ?
e c t i v e c o m e s f i r s t ?
Sayingthephrasealoudcanhelpyoufind
thebestorder
.Y
oucanalsoconsiderifthe
ad j ectiveissub j ectiveorob j ective.
Sub j ectivead j ectives,likebeautiful,softor
lonely
,arebasedonfeelingsoropinions.
Ob j ectivead j ectives,likewooden,spottyor
blue,arebasedonfacts.Whenad j ectives
gobeforeanoun,ob j ectivead j ectivesgo
c
l
o
s
e
r
t
o
t
h
e
n
o
u
n
t
h
a
n
s
u
b j e
c
t
i
v
e
a
d j ectives.
P u n c t u a t i o n w i t h m u l t i p l e a d
P u n c t u a t i o n w i t h m u l t i p l e a d j
j e c t i v e s
e c t i v e s
Sometimes we use commas to separate ad
This depends on the ad j ectives used. We might use
a comma to separate ad j ectives when:

• U S I N G M O R E T H A N O N E A D
j
E C T I V E
j ectives.
Objective
adjective
Subjective
adjective
Adjectives after a noun
can be in any order.

24
G R A M M A R
Noun phrases
A phrase is a small group of words that forms part of a
sentence. A noun phrase contains a noun, plus other
words that provide extra information about the noun.
H o w t o b u i l d a n o u n p h r a s e
H o w t o b u i l d a n o u n p h r a s e
Noun phrases always contain a noun. They can also include
a determiner
, which comes before the noun. Expanded noun
phrases give extra detail, and might include an ad
before the noun, and additional information after it.

G R A M M A R • N O U N P H R A S E S
A
noun phrase
group of words linked
to a
j ective
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
D e t e r m i n e r s
A d j e c t i v e s
N O U N
N O U N P H R A S E

A
noun phrase
is a
group of words linked
to a
noun
.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s 1 2
D e t e r m i n e r s 1 8

G R A M M A R
U s i n g n o u n p h r a s e s
U s i n g n o u n p h r a s e s
Y
o
u use noun phrases in a sentence j ust as you would use
a noun. Sentences can contain more than one noun phrase.
Just like a noun, a noun phrase can be replaced by a pronoun.
P r o n o u n
N o u n p h r a s e
E x p a n d e d n o u n p h r a s e

G R A M M A R • N O U N P H R A S E S
S e n t e n c e
E x p a n d e d n o u n p h r a s e

26
V
e
r
b
s
A verb is a word used to describe an action, state or
event. Without verbs, we wouldn’t be able to express
complete thoughts and ideas.
W h a t i s a v e r b ?
W h a t i s a v e r b ?
Every sentence contains at least one verb. A verb
tells you about doing (an action), being or having
(a state) and happening (an event).

V
e
r
b s are
b e i n g
and
words.
G R A M M A R • V E R B S
S E E A L S O
P r o n o u n s
C l a u s e s
T
e
n s e s
Verb a l s

V
e
r
b s are
d o i n g
,
b e i n g
and
h a p p e n i n g
words.
S E E A L S O
P r o n o u n s 1 4
C l a u s e s 4 0
T
e
n s e s 5 0
Verb a l s 6 2

“
“ T
o b e
T
o b e ”
” a n d
a n d “
“ t o h a v e
t o h a v e ”
”
“ T
o be ” and “ to have ” are both irregular verbs, which means
they don’t follow the regular pattern. Many verbs are irregular
and have different forms that we have to learn. The examples
given here are in the present tense, but these verbs can also
be used with different tenses (see pages 50–55).
H o w t o u s e a v e r b
H o w t o u s e a v e r b
A verb connects with a sub j ect (which usually comes before the
verb) to make a sentence. Sentences can’t do without verbs!
Most verbs have one form if you’re talking about
“ you ” or “ they ” , and a different form for “ he
This is the
subject .
This is the verb
or action.
U s e t h e v e r b w i t h o u t a n “ s ” i n a s e n t e n c e w h e r e
t h e s u b j e c t i s “ I ” , “ w e ” , “ y o u ” o r “ t h e y

“ I ” , “ we ” ,
” , “ she ” or “ it ” .
G R A M M A R
• V E R B S
” :
A d d a n “ s ” t o t h e v e r b i n a s e n t e n c e
w h e r e t h e s u b j e c t i s “ h e ” , “ s h e
This is the
subject .
This is the verb
or action.
Read the examples below
aloud to hear the difference
the “ s ” makes.
S P E A K U P

28
Adverbs
Adverbs tell us more about a verb, an ad
another adverb. There are many different types of
adverbs and different ways to use them in a sentence.
W h a t a r e a d v e r b s ?
W h a t a r e a d v e r b s ?
Adverbs describe verbs, ad j ectives and other adverbs.
They often tell us how
, when, where or why something is
happening. Adverbs can also show how often, how much,
to what extent or the possibility of something.
Adverb
How

G R A M M A R • A D V E R B S
j ective or
S E E A L S O
Verbs
A d v e r b i a l s
P r e p o s i t i o n s
A d v e r b s
are used to
describe verbs, ad
or other adverbs.
V
e
r
b

S E E A L S O
Verbs 2 6
A d v e r b i a l s 3 0
P r e p o s i t i o n s 3 4
A d v e r b s
are used to
describe verbs, ad
j
ectives
or other adverbs.

P
o
s
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
C
a
u
s
e
a
n
d
e f
f
e
c
t
T
i
m
e
T
y p e s o f a d v e r b s
T
y p e s o f a d v e r b s
Adverbsworkinlotsofdifferentways–someimportanttypesareshown
below
.Somewordscanbeadverbs,ad j ectivesornounsdependingon
howtheyareused.Herearesomeofthemostcommontypesofadverbs.
t h e r e f o r e
a s a r e s u l t
p e r h a p s
l a t e r o n
r e g u l a r l y
s o o n
s o m e t i m e s
a f t e r a w h i l e

G R A M M A R
• A D V E R B S
P
l
a
c
e
M
a
n
n
e
r
P
o
s
s
i
b
i
l
i
t
y
/
e
x
t
e
n
t
c
t
g r a c e f u l l y
c a r e f u l l y
g e n t l y
p e r h a p s
m a y b e
r e a l l y
q u i t e
s o m e w h e r e
e v e r y w h e r e
h e r e
c o m p l e t e l y

29
P
l
a
c
e
M
a
n
n
e
r
t
g r a c e f u l l y
c a r e f u l l y
g e n t l y
s o m e w h e r e
e v e r y w h e r e
h e r e
t h e r e
o u t d o o r s
Adverbs of
manner tell us
how something
is or was done.

30
Adverbials
A
d
v
e
r
b
s
,
a
d
v
e
r
b
p
h
r
a
s
e
s
a
n
d
a
d
v
e
r
b
c
l
a
u
s
e
s
a
r
e
s
o
m
e
t
i
m
e
s
g
r
o
u
p
e
d
t
o
g
e
t
h
e
r
a
s
a
d
v
e
r
b
i
a
l
s
.
T
h
e
y
t
e
l
l
u
s
m
o
r
e
a
b
o
u
t
a
v
e
r
b
,
a
d j e
c
t
i
v
e
o
r
a
d
v
e
r
b
.
A
d
v
e
r
b
i
a
l
s
h
a
v
e
s
e
v
e
r
a
l
u
s
e
f
u
l
f
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
s
.
W h a t a r e a d v e r b i a l s ?
W h a t a r e a d v e r b i a l s ?
Adverbials are used to describe verbs, ad j
adverbs. They are used in the same way whether
they’re a single word, a phrase or a clause.
S h e h e r h a t
A n a d v e r b i a l c a n b e o n e w o r d – a n a d v e r b
V
e
r
b

G R A M M A R • A D V E R B I A L S
S E E A L S O
A d v e r b s
F r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l s
ectives or
.
Adverb

W h a t d o a d v e r b i a l s t e l l u s ?
W h a t d o a d v e r b i a l s t e l l u s ?
Adverbials tell us different things about a verb, ad
such as when, where, why
, how
, how much or how often.
A d v e r b i a l s c a n t e l l u s w h e n a n a c t i o n
h a p p e n s , i s h a p p e n i n g o r h a s h a p p e n e d .
A d v e r b i a l s c a n t e l l u s w h e r e a n a c t i o n
h a p p e n s , i s h a p p e n i n g o r h a s h a p p e n e d .
A d v e r b i a l
Verb
Verb

G R A M M A R
• A D V E R B I A L S
j ective or adverb,
A d v e r b i a l

32
G R A M M A R
Fronted adverbials
An adverbial is a word or group of words that describes
a verb or clause. An adverbial used at the beginning
of a sentence is called a fronted adverbial.
W h e r e t o p u t a d v e r b i a l s
W h e r e t o p u t a d v e r b i a l s
Adverbials can be used at the beginning, middle or
end of a sentence. Fronted adverbials can help you
emphasize when, where or how something is done.
A d v e r b i a l

• F R O N T E D A D V E R B I A L S
S E E A L S O
A d v e r b s
A d v e r b i a l s
C o h e s i v e d e v i c e s
An adverbial at
the front of a
sentence is a
f r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l

S E E A L S O
A d v e r b s
2 8
A d v e r b i a l s
3 0
2 5 8
An adverbial at
the front of a
sentence is a
f r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l
.

G R A M M A R
L i n k i n g a n d c o m p a r i n g
L i n k i n g a n d c o m p a r i n g
Sometimes, fronted adverbials are used to order text or compare
and contrast ideas. Fronted adverbials can link to previous
sentences or paragraphs to develop cohesion within a text.
P u n c t u a t i n g f r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l s
P u n c t u a t i n g f r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l s
A comma is used after a fronted adverbial,
separating it from the rest of the sentence.
F r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l s c a n
b e u s e d t o o r d e r t e x t :
Comma
F r o n t e d a d v e r b i a l

• F R O N T E D A D V E R B I A L S
Rewrite these sentences, putting
the adverbial at the beginning of the
sentence. Remember to put a comma
after the adverbial.
T R Y I T O U T
W
ew e n t t o t h e p a r k w i t h
M a r i a y e s t e r d a y m o r n i n g .
I c a n s e e a s h i m m e r i n g
r a i n b o w i n t h e s k y
.

34
B a t s s l e e p
Prepositions
A preposition describes how different nouns
in a sentence are connected in terms of place,
time or movement.
P r e p o s i t i o n s o f p l a c e , t i m e a n d m o v e m e n t
P r e p o s i t i o n s o f p l a c e , t i m e a n d m o v e m e n t
Using prepositions, we can describe precisely where or
when certain people, places or things (nouns) are in
relation to others.
P r e p o s i t i o n s o f p l a c e
t e l l u s w h e r e t h i n g s a r e .
P r e p o s i t i o n s o f t i m e
u s w h e n t h i n g s h a p p e n .
G R A M M A R

P
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
s
d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
w
h
e
r
e
o
r
w
h
e
n
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
i
s
i
n
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
t
o
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
e
l
s
e
.
T h e g e c k o c l i m b s
u p t h e t r e e .
Prepositions of movement
show movement from one place to another
.
t e l l
G R A M M A R • P R E P O S I T I O N S
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
P r o n o u n s
A d v e r b s
C o n j u n c t i o n s

P
r
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
s
d
e
s
c
r
i
b
e
w
h
e
r
e
o
r
w
h
e
n
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
i
s
i
n
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
t
o
s
o
m
e
t
h
i
n
g
e
l
s
e
.
u p t h e t r e e .
Prepositions of movement are used to
show movement from one place to another
.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s 1 2
P r o n o u n s 1 4
A d v e r b s 2 8
C o n j u n c t i o n s 4 6

W h e r e d o p r e p o s i t i o n s g o ?
W h e r e d o p r e p o s i t i o n s g o ?
A preposition is usually placed between two related nouns, pronouns
or noun phrases. It comes before the word or phrase it describes.
Noun
A s n a k e w a i t s
T h e t o u c a n s i t s o n t h e b r a n c h .
G R A M M A R
Noun

t r e e .
t h e
T h i s m o n k e y w a s
i t .
Pronoun
The preposition shows where the
nouns are in relation to each other.
This preposition shows where the
noun is in relation to the pronoun.
G R A M M A R
• P R E P O S I T I O N S
Noun

36
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that convey a complete
thought. A sentence always contains a verb, usually has
a sub j ect and sometimes includes an ob
g r e e n
B u i l d i n g b l o c k s
B u i l d i n g b l o c k s
We can use words a bit like building blocks to
construct sentences and other
, shorter groups
of words, like phrases and clauses.
Words
E v e r y w o r d h a s s o m e
m e a n i n g o n i t s o w n .
W o r d s c a n b e c o m b i n e d t o
build up meaning bit by bit.
f l e w
G R A M M A R

j ect.
g r e e n
t h e
u
p
S E E A L S O
Verbs
C l a u s e s
p a r r o t
h i g h
• W H A T I S A S E N T E N C E ?
Amainclause
can also be
a
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e

u
p
S E E A L S O
2 4
Verbs
2 6
C l a u s e s
4 0
p a r r o t
h i g h
Amainclause
can also be
a
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
.

P a r t s o f a s e n t e n c e
P a r t s o f a s e n t e n c e
All sentences include a verb.
Most sentences also have a
sub j ect (or an implied sub j ect)
and they sometimes contain
an ob j ect.
S u b
j
e c t
T h e s u b j e c t i s t h e p e r s o n o r
t h i n g d o i n g t h e a c t i o n .
G R A M M A R

Write five sentences about
five things you can see.
T R Y I T O U T
V
e
r b
T h e v e r b
d e s c r i b e s
t h e a c t i o n .
O b
j
e c t
T h e o b j e c t
i s t h e r e c e i v e r
o f t h e a c t i o n .
• W H A T I S A S E N T E N C E ?

37
Write five sentences about
five things you can see.
T R Y I T O U T
O b
j
e c t
T h e o b j e c t
i s t h e r e c e i v e r
o f t h e a c t i o n .

38
T
y pes of sentences
There are four main types of sentences: statements,
exclamations, commands and questions. Each type
of sentence does a different job.
G R A M M A R
S t a t e m e n t s
S t a t e m e n t s
Statements tell us something or give us information.
Most sentences, like this one, are statements.
Depending on how they are being used, statements
can end with a full stop or an exclamation mark.
They might also include other punctuation, such
as commas in a list.
I’m going to swim towards it.

A
s e n t e n c e
statement, exclamation,
command or question.
S E E A L S O
S t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g s e n t e n c e s
• T Y P E S O F S E N T E N C E S
I think that’
s
a clownfish.

A
s e n t e n c e
can be a
statement, exclamation,
command or question.
S E E A L S O
3 6
S t a r t i n g a n d e n d i n g s e n t e n c e s
7 0

C o m m a n d s
C o m m a n d s
Commands tell us to do something. They are
punctuated with a full stop or exclamation mark,
and include an imperative verb (see page 61).
The subject is often understood to be
“
you
in the sentence
“
Stop!
”
Sometimes commands
include a noun of address, for example
“
Dad
”
in
“
Dad, open the window!
”
G R A M M A R
Come over here.

”
, like
Can you think of any more
statements, exclamations,
commands and questions to
describe the picture below?
T R Y I T O U T
• T Y P E S O F S E N T E N C E S
Look at that
stingray!

40
Clauses
Sentences are made up of clauses that tell us what
is happening. A clause can be a whole sentence on
its own or it can form part of a sentence to add
extra information.
W h a t i s a c l a u s e ?
W h a t i s a c l a u s e ?
A clause is a group of words that contains a sub
(noun) and a verb to tell us who is doing what.
Some clauses, like the examples below
, can stand
alone as sentences and some cannot.
Subject V
e
r
b
T h e

G R A M M A R • C L A U S E S
C l a u s e s
…
…add
information
to sentences.
S E E A L S O
A d v e r b i a l s
M u l t i - c l a u s e s e n t e n c e s
j ect
i n t h e m u d .

C l a u s e s
…
…add
information
to sentences.
S E E A L S O
N o u n p h r a s e s 2 4
A d v e r b i a l s 3 0
M u l t i - c l a u s e s e n t e n c e s 4 4

M a i n c l a u s e
M a i n c l a u s e
A m a i n c l a u s e is also called an “ independent
clause ” because it is a complete thought and can
form a complete sentence.
The subject
of the clause
The action (verb)
This m a i n c l a u s e stands alone as a sentence.
S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e
A s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e is also called a “ dependent clause
because it is not a complete thought and depends on

G R A M M A R
• C L A U S E S
”
See page 48 for a
list of
s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n
j
u n c t i o n s

41
See page 48 for a
list of
s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n
j
u n c t i o n s
.

42
G R A M M A R
Relative clauses
A relative clause tells us something about a noun. It is
a type of subordinate clause that usually begins with
a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
This relative clause is embedded in the middle
of the sentence and separated by commas.
W h a t i s a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ?
W h a t i s a r e l a t i v e c l a u s e ?
A relative clause gives information about a noun. It is a type
of subordinate clause, so it needs to be connected to a main
clause, usually using a relative pronoun or a relative adverb.
A relative clause can be embedded in the middle of a
sentence, where it is separated by commas.

• R E L A T I V E C L A U S E S
S E E A L S O
P r o n o u n s
A d v e r b s
C l a u s e s
A
r e l a t i v e c l a u s e
adds information
about a noun.

S E E A L S O
P r o n o u n s
1 4
A d v e r b s
2 8
C l a u s e s
4 0
4 4
A
r e l a t i v e c l a u s e
adds information
about a noun.

G R A M M A R
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
o
b
j
e
c
t
s
, p
l
a
c
e
s
o
r
p
e
o
p
l
e
R e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
R e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
The relative pronoun that you use in a relative clause depends on what
you are writing about. Here are some common relative pronouns.
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
p
e
o
p
l
e
(
s
u b
j
e
c
t
o
f
a
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
)
U
s
f
o
r
:
p
e
o
p
W H O
T H A
T

• R E L A T I V E C L A U S E S
Sometimes you don’t
need to use a relative
pronoun. For example,
you could leave out
“ that ” and say
,
book I read yesterday
was really exciting.
Similarly
, there’
s no
need to add a comma
if the relative clause
helps you to identify the
sub j ect of the sentence.
W O R L D O F W O R D S
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
o
b
j
e
c
t
s
o
r
p
l
a
c
e
s
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
s
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
p
e
o
p
l
e
(
o
b
j
e
c
t
o
f
a
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
)
W H O S E
W H O M
W H I C H

43
Sometimes you don’t
need to use a relative
pronoun. For example,
you could leave out
“ that ” and say
, “ The
book I read yesterday
was really exciting. ”
Similarly
, there’
s no
need to add a comma
if the relative clause
helps you to identify the
sub j ect of the sentence.
r
p
l
a
c
e
s
U
s
e
d
f
o
r
:
p o
s
s
e
s
s
i
o
n
o
f
a
s
e
c
e
)
W H O S E

44
G R A M M A R
Multi-clause sentences
A clause is a group of words that
contains a sub j ect and a verb.
A single-clause sentence is made
up of j ust one main clause. A multi-
clause sentence has more than
one clause – and at least one of
these clauses must be a main clause.
J o i n i n g m a i n c l a u s e s
J o i n i n g m a i n c l a u s e s
A main clause can form a complete
sentence and make sense on its
own. Some sentences have two or
more main clauses j oined together
,
often by a coordinating con j unction,
such as “ or ” , “ and ” or “ but ” .

• M U L
T I - C L A U S E S E N T E N C E S
A
m u l t i - c l a u s e
sentence has more
than one clause.
A
s i n g l e - c l a u s e
sentence has only
one main clause.
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s

A
m u l t i - c l a u s e
sentence has more
than one clause.
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s 4 0

G R A M M A R
M a k i n g a m u l t i - c l a u s e s e n t e n c e
M a k i n g a m u l t i - c l a u s e s e n t e n c e
Multi-clause sentences can have a mixture of
main clauses (which are complete thoughts)
and subordinate clauses (which don’t make
sense on their own).
M a i n c l a u s e
M a i n c l a u s e
M a i n c l a u s e w i t h a s u b j e c t a n d v e r b

• M U L
T I - C L A U S E S E N T E N C E S

46
G R A M M A R
Con j unctions
Con j unctions, or j oining words, connect words and ideas
together
. They can be useful little words when you’re
extending a sentence, or adding information.
J o i n i n g d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f a s e n t e n c e
J o i n i n g d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f a s e n t e n c e
Simple words like “ and ” or “ but ” help to j oin
different parts (clauses) of a sentence together
and improve the flow
. Both clauses also need
to make sense on their own.
C l a u s e 1 C l a u s e 2

G R A M M A R
• C O N J U N C T I O N S
Wordslike
“
but
“
and
i d e a s
Conjunction
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s

Wordslike
“
and
“
,
“
but
“
and
“
so
“
j
o i n
i d e a s
together
.
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s
4 0
4 4
2 5 8

G R A M M A R
L i n k i n g t o a l e s s i m p o r t a n t i d e a
L i n k i n g t o a l e s s i m p o r t a n t i d e a
Sometimes a first idea, or main clause, is linked to a second, less important
idea. This “ subordinate clause ” tells us more about the main clause, but
it doesn’t make sense on its own. Y
ou can use linking words, called
“ subordinating con j unctions ” , like “ when ” ,
M a i n i d e a
M a i n i d e a
Subordinating conjunction
A comma follows the subordinate clause.

G R A M M A R • C O N J U N C T I O N S
“ because ” , “ if ” and “ although ” .
The
s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e
can also go at the start
of a sentence.
If the subordinate
clause comes
first, a
separates the
two clauses.

47
” .
The
s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e
can also go at the start
of a sentence.
If the subordinate
clause comes
first, a
c o m m a
separates the
two clauses.

48
G R A M M A R
L i n k i n g t o a t i m e o r p l a c e
L i n k i n g t o a t i m e o r p l a c e
Subordinating con j unctions can also be used to connect
an action or event to a time or place. Examples of these
linking words of time and place are “ once ”
“ whenever ” , “ where ” , “ wherever ” , “ before ”
Event
Event

, “ while ” , “ when ” ,
and “ after ” .
Place
Subordinating
conjunction
Subordinating
conjunction
Place

a
n
d
b u t
a l s o
G R A M M A R
W o r k i n g i n p a i r s
W o r k i n g i n p a i r s
Sometimes con j unctions work in pairs, known as
con j unctions ” . Common examples are “ both
“ and ” , or “ not only ” followed by “ but also ” . Y
ou might also
use “ either/or ” or “ neither/nor ” .
b o t h
n o t o n l y

a
n
d
n o r
o r
“ correlative
” followed by
n e i t h e r
e i t h
e r

50
T
e
n ses
When you’re writing or speaking, you can use different
words to show if something has already happened,
is happening now or will happen in the future.
T h e p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e
T h e p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e
The tense of a verb tells us when it happens.
This timeline shows how to use the past, present
and future tenses. Keep using the same tense to
describe the same event: don’t chop and change.
P a s t t e n s e
P a s t t e n s e
T h e e v e n t h a s a l r e a d y h a p p e n e d .

T
e
n s e s
something is
happening.
G R A M M A R • T E N S E S
S E E A L S O
Verbs
T
a l k i n g a b o u t t h e p a s t
T
a l k i n g a b o u t p o s s i b i l i t y
P r e s e n t t e n s e
P r e s e n t t e n s e
T h e e v e n t i s h a p p e n i n g n o w
.
F u t u r e t e n s e
T h e e v e n t i s g o i n g t o h a p p e n .

T
e
n s e s
show when
something is
happening.
S E E A L S O
Verbs 2 6
T
a l k i n g a b o u t t h e p a s t 5 2
T
a l k i n g a b o u t p o s s i b i l i t y 5 6
T h e e v e n t i s g o i n g t o h a p p e n .

G e t t i n g y o u r v e r b s r i g h t
G e t t i n g y o u r v e r b s r i g h t
In a sentence, sub j ects and their verbs always have to
agree. This means the verb needs the right ending.
S i n g u l a r
W h e n t h e s u b j e c t o f a s e n t e n c e i s s i n g u l a r
, o n l y
o n e p e r s o n o r t h i n g i s d o i n g t h e a c t i o n o r b e i n g
s o m e t h i n g . C h o o s e a s i n g u l a r f o r m o f t h e v e r b .
P a s t t e n s e , f i r s t - p e r s o n s i n g u l a r P a s t t e n s e , f i r s t - p e r s o n p l u r a l
Subject V
erb
P r e s e n t t e n s e , t h i r
d - p e r s o n s i n g u l a r
Usually, the third-person singular in the
i n t h e s e a .
i n t h e s e a .

i n t h e s e a .
G R A M M A R
• T E N S E S
P l u r a l
W h e n t h e s u b j e c t i s p l u r a l , m o r e t h a n o n e
p e r s o n o r t h i n g i s d o i n g t h e a c t i o n o r b e i n g
s o m e t h i n g . C h o o s e a p l u r a l f o r m o f t h e v e r b .
Subject V
erb
i n t h e s e a .
P r e s e n t t e n s e , t h i rd - p e r s o n p l u r a l

52
G R A M M A R
T
a lking about
the past
Past tenses help us to describe exactly when an action
happened and whether it has finished or not. We can
use the simple past, the present perfect, the past perfect
and the past progressive tenses.
R e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e s i m p l e p a s t
R e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e s i m p l e p a s t
The simple past is the most common past tense. It is used to
talk about single actions which have already finished. Regular
verbs take the ending
“
-ed
”
, which sounds like
For most regular verbs:

• T A L K I N G A B O U T T H E P A S T
“
d
”
,
“
t
”
or
“
ed
”
.
Past tenses
are used to
describe things that
happened in the past.
S E E A L S O
Verbs
T
e
n s e s
Vowe l s u f f i x e s
If the verb ends with an
“
e
”
:

Past tenses
are used to
describe things that
happened in the past.
S E E A L S O
Verbs 2 6
T
e
n s e s 5 0
Vowe l s u f f i x e s 1 0 4
“
e
”
:

G R A M M A R
I r r e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e s i m p l e p a s t
I r r e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e s i m p l e p a s t
Some of the most common verbs in English are
irregular
. This means that they have their own verb
form for the simple past, rather than using
We need to learn words like these individually
.
T h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t
T h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t

“ -ed ” .

54
G R A M M A R
T h e p a s t p e r f e c t
T h e p a s t p e r f e c t
The past perfect is used to talk about an event that happened before
another event in the past. It is formed from the past tense of
and a past participle (the form of the verb that usually ends in
S i m p l e p a s t
T h e s i m p l e p a s t i s u s e d f o r t h e
e v e n t t h a t h a p p e n e d s e c o n d .
B E F O R E

“ to have ”
“ -ed ” ).
T h e p a s t p e r f e c t i s u s e d f o r t h e
e v e n t t h a t h a p p e n e d f i r s t .
P a s t p e r f e c t
The
p a s t p a r t i c i p l e
of
“
“
begun
than
A R R I V E D A
T S C H O O L N O W

”
” ).
p a s t p e r f e c t i s u s e d f o r t h e
e v e n t t h a t h a p p e n e d f i r s t .
The
p a s t p a r t i c i p l e
of
“
to begin
”
is
“
begun
”
rather
than
“
beginned
”
.
N O W

G R A M M A R
T h e p a s t p r o g r e s s i v e
T h e p a s t p r o g r e s s i v e
The past progressive – also known as the past continuous – is used
to talk about an event in the past which was still happening when
another event took place. It is formed from the past tense of
and another verb that ends in
“
-ing
”
(see
“
B E F O R E

“
to be
”
-ing endings
”
below).
I T S T
A R T E D T O R A I N N O W
“
- i n g
”
e n d i n g

56
G R A M M A R
T
a lking about
possibility
We use modal verbs to talk about how likely something
is to take place in the future, from completely certain at
one end of the scale to impossible at the other
.
W h a t i s a m o d a l v e r b ?
W h a t i s a m o d a l v e r b ?
A modal verb is written before another verb or verb phrase to
describe the possibility of it happening. There are nine main
modal verbs that express possibility from possible to certain.
Adding
“
not
”
to these modal verbs allows us to express
negative possibility
, ranging from unlikely to impossible.

• T A L K I N G A B O U T P O S S I B I L I T Y
Weuse
m o d a l v e r b s
to talk about possibility
and the future.
S E E A L S O
Verbs
T
e
n s e s
F a c t s , q u e s t i o n s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s
s h a l l

Weuse
m o d a l v e r b s
to talk about possibility
and the future.
S E E A L S O
Verbs
2 6
T
e
n s e s
5 0
F a c t s , q u e s t i o n s a n d i n s t r u c t i o n s
6 0

G R A M M A R
O t h e r t y p e s o f p o s s i b i l i t y
O t h e r t y p e s o f p o s s i b i l i t y
Modal verbs can also be used to show whether someone is
doing an action because they plan to (intention), are able to
(ability), have to (obligation) or are allowed to (permission).
Expressing intention

• T A L K I N G A B O U T P O S S I B I L I T Y
Expressing ability

58
G R A M M A R
Conditional and
sub j unctive
We use the conditional and the sub
imagine possible events and actions that don’t
existnow, but could do or would do if the
circumstances were right.
U s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n a l
U s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n a l
We use the conditional to express when something could
happen if something else happens first to cause it or allow it.
So, the main verb in a sentence in the conditional can only
occur if certain circumstances are right.

• C O N D I T I O N A L A N D S U B J U N C T I V E
j unctive to
Use the
and
sub
describe imagined
events and actions.
S E E A L S O
Verbs
T
e
n s e s
T

Use the
conditional
and
sub
j
unctive to
describe imagined
events and actions.
S E E A L S O
Verbs
2 6
T
e
n s e s
5 0
T
5 6

G R A M M A R
U s i n g t h e s u b
U s i n g t h e s u b j
j u n c t i v e
u n c t i v e
The sub j unctive is not very common in English. It is used to
talk about imaginary things that are ver y unlikely to happen.
It is also used to express wants and needs in formal or
old-fashioned writing.
T h e p a s t s u b j u n c t i v e i s u s e d t o t a l k a b o u t
i m a g i n a r y e v e n t s a n d w i s h e s t h a t a r e v e r y
u n l i k e l y t o h a p p e n . A s e n t e n c e i n t h e p a s t
s u b j u n c t i v e u s u a l l y b e g i n s w i t h “ I f I … ” or
“ I w i s h I … ” , f o l l o w e d b y t h e w o r d “ w e r e ” .
In informal English,
people often use “was”
instead of “were” here.

• C O N D I T I O N A L A N D S U B J U N C T I V E
T h e p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e i s v e r y f o r m a l a n d
u s u a l l y f o l l o w s a v e r b t h a t e x p r e s s e s a d e s i r e ,
a d e m a n d o r a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r a c t i o n . T h e
c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g t h e s u b j u n c t i v e v e r b i s u s u a l l y
l i n k e d t o t h e m a i n c l a u s e w i t h t h e w o r d
The subjunctive verb is
written in the present
tense with no “-s”.

60
G R A M M A R • F A C
Facts, questions
and instructions
We can use verbs for different purposes – called
“
moods
”
– to show whether we are stating facts,
asking people questions or telling them what to do.
S t a t i n g f a c t s
S t a t i n g f a c t s
T h e i n d i c a t i v e m o o d
This mood is used to talk about facts
or ideas we already know are true.
We say that the verb is in the indicative
mood, because “ to indicate ” means
to show or tell. A sentence with a verb in
the indicative mood is called a statement.
W h e r e t o l o o k f o r i t

F A C T S , Q U E S T I O N S A N D I N S T R U C T I O N S
S E E A L S O
Verbs
T
y p e s o f s e n t e n c e s
C o n d i t i o n a l a n d s u b
Subject
Use the
indicative
to make statements, the
interrogative
mood to
ask questions, and
the
imperative
to give instructions.

S E E A L S O
Verbs 2 6
T
y p e s o f s e n t e n c e s 3 8
C o n d i t i o n a l a n d s u b j u n c t i v e 5 8
Use the
indicative
mood
to make statements, the
interrogative
mood to
ask questions, and
the
imperative
mood
to give instructions.

G R A M M A R
• F A C
A s k i n g q u e s t i o n s
A s k i n g q u e s t i o n s
T h e i n t e r r o g a t i v e m o o d
T
o “ interrogate ” means to ask questions. We use
the interrogative mood to get a “ yes ” or “ no
answer
, or to find out more information.
In conversation, quizzes, surveys and inter views.
W h a t i t l o o k s l i k e
An auxiliary verb, or “ helping verb ” , (like “ do
“ can ” , “ is/are ” or “ has/have ” ) comes before the
sub j ect and main verb. A question word like
“ who ” , “ why ” , “ when ” or “ how ” is added to find
out more information. The sentence always
ends with a question mark.
Auxiliary
verb Main verb
Subject

F A C T S , Q U E S T I O N S A N D I N S T R U C T I O N S
”
” ,
G i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s
G i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s
T h e i m p e r a t i v e m o o d
We use the imperative mood to ask or tell
someonetodosomething.Thisincludesgiving
other people advice, requests, instructions or
orders. Y
ou might also hear these verbs called
commands or “ bossy verbs ” .
In rules, instructions, recipes, signs
and directions.
W h a t i t l o o k s l i k e
I
t
’
s usually short, with no sub j ect. The verb
comes early in the sentence. The imperative
mood uses a full stop or an exclamation mark.

62
V
e
r
b als
V
e
r
bals are verbs that have changed their role to take on
the j ob of nouns, ad j ectives or adverbs. There are three
basic types: gerunds, participles and infinitives.
G e r u n d s
G e r u n d s
A gerund is a verb or a verb phrase which is
used as a noun. It always ends in “ -ing ” . Y
ou
can check that it’
s being used as a noun by
replacing it with the word “ it ” .
Check it’s a noun by
replacing the highlighted
gerund phrase with “it”.

G R A M M A R
• V E R B A L S
V
e
r bals act like nouns,
ad
j
ectives or adverbs.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
A d j e c t i v e s
Verbs

V
e
r bals act like nouns,
ad
j
ectives or adverbs.
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
1 2
A d j e c t i v e s
2 0
Verbs
2 6

P a r t i c i p l e s
A participle is a verb that acts like an ad j ective, describing the state
of a noun. There are both past and present participles.
The participle describes
the noun “glass”.
The action describing the
noun happened in the past .
U s u a l l y e n d s
w i t h “ - e d ” , “ - t ” ,
“ - e n ” o r “ - n ”
E x p l a i n s h o w t h e
n o u n h a s b e e n
c h a n g e d b y a p a s t a c t i o n
g l a s s
t o a s t
Past participle

G R A M M A R
• V E R B A L S
the noun “children”.
noun is happening now.
T h e
T h e
E n d s w i t h
“ - i n g ”
D e s c r i b e s
t h e n o u n ’
s
c u r r e n t a c t i o n
used with
form progressive
tenses. See page 51.
Present participle
l o g s

63
the noun “children”.
noun is happening now.
D e s c r i b e s
t h e n o u n ’
s
c u r r e n t a c t i o n
can also be
used with
“
to be
”
to
form progressive
tenses. See page 51.
l o g s

64
G R A M M A R
W h a t a r e a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s ?
W h a t a r e a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s ?
In active sentences, the sub j ect of the sentence performs an
a c t i o n ( s h o w n b y t h e v e r b ) . I n p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s , a n action
happens to the sub j ect, and we may add the word
the verb to show who or what is doing the action.
A
c
t
i
v
e
a
n
d
p
a
s
s
i
v
e
s
e
n
t
e
n
c
e
s
Y
o
u can write sentences in two different ways: active and passive.
Active sentences are direct and clear
. Passive sentences may be
used when we want to emphasize the action, which is shown by
the verb, or when we don’t know who’
s doing the action.

• A C T I V E A N D P A S S I V E S E N T E N C E S
“ by ” after
S E E A L S O
Verbs
Verb a l s
U s i n g s e n t e n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y

G R A M M A R
F o r m i n g t h e a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e
F o r m i n g t h e a c t i v e a n d p a s s i v e
Active sentences have a simple construction.
Passive sentences, however
, have a more
complicated construction and include a form
of the verb
t o b e
.
A c t i v e
A c t i v e s e n t e n c e s f o l l o w a s i m p l e
w o r d o r d e r : s u b j e c t + v e r b + o b j e c t .
P a s s i v e
W e u s e a f o r m o f
t o b e
c o u p l e d
w i t h t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e o f t h e m a i n v e r b
t o s h o w w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e s u b j e c t .
F o r m o f
“
t o b e
”
a n d p a s t p a r t i c i p l e

• A C T I V E A N D P A S S I V E S E N T E N C E S
A c t i v e
W e u s e t h e a c t i v e v o i c e w h e n w e
n e e d t o b e c l e a r a b o u t w h o d o e s w h a t .
P a s s i v e
W e u s e t h e p a s s i v e v o i c e w h e n
t h e a c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t o r i t ’
s n o t c l e a r
w h o ’
s d o i n g i t .
W h e n t o u s e e a c h f o r m
W h e n t o u s e e a c h f o r m
Usually
, it’
s best to use the active voice if possible
because it’
s livelier
. The passive voice is often quite
wordy
, but you might use it to stress the action
rather than who’
s doing it.
T h e s t r e s s i s o n t h e a c t i o n .

68
Why those dots
and marks matter
Punctuation is an essential tool in writing. It can be
surprising how much these little dots and marks
affect the meaning of the words you write.
M a k i n g m e a n i n g c l e a r
M a k i n g m e a n i n g c l e a r
It’
s important to use punctuation correctly
, because
getting it wrong can cause a lot of confusion and
change the whole meaning of a sentence. Be
particularly careful when you’re using commas.
A d d a c o m m a t o t h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e , a n d
y o u c a n s a v e t h e c a t ’
s l i f e ! C o m m a s c a n
b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n m a k i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f
a s e n t e n c e a s c l e a r a s p o s s i b l e .
P U N C T U A T I O N
•

Punctuation
of spacing, marks and
signs in writing.
C o m m a s a l s o g i v e t h e s e t w o s e n t e n c e s
d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s . T h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e
s a y s a l l t o y s a r e d a n g e r o u s a n d s h o u l d b e
b a n n e d . T h e s e c o n d m a k e s m o r e s e n s e :
W H Y T H O S E D O T S A N D M A R K S M A T T E R

Punctuation
is the use
of spacing, marks and
signs in writing.
C o m m a s a l s o g i v e t h e s e t w o s e n t e n c e s
d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g s . T h e f i r s t s e n t e n c e

M a k i n g t o n e c l e a r
M a k i n g t o n e c l e a r
Punctuation helps convey
the tone of writing. An
exclamation mark (!) might
point out when something
exciting is happening, and
a question mark (?) tells
you when something is
being asked. An ellipsis
(…) can also show where
there’
s a pause or a
break in the writing.
M a k i n g t h i n g s e a s i e r t o r e a d
M a k i n g t h i n g s e a s i e r t o r e a d
T
o make writing easier to read, different words
are separated from each other with a single
space. Without spaces and punctuation, it’
s
P U N C T U A T I O N •

W a t c h y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g
W a t c h y o u r h a n d w r i t i n g
Punctuation marks are often small, so it’
s
vital to be precise and accurate with your
handwriting when making these marks.
Knock, knock!
There’
s no need
to cry!
Boo…
W
h
o
’
s there
?
Boo who?
W H Y T H O S E D O T S A N D M A R K S M A T T E R

70
Starting and
ending sentences
Using the correct punctuation and capital letters in sentences is important because
it lets your reader know when one sentence ends and a new one begins.
S e n t e n c e p u n c t u a t i o n
S e n t e n c e p u n c t u a t i o n
All sentences must start with a capital letter and end
with a full stop, exclamation mark or question mark.
The punctuation depends on the type of sentence you
are writing and how forceful the sentence is.
W
e always use a capital letter
for the personal pronoun “I”.

• S T A R T I N G A N D E N D I N G S E N T E N C E S
S E E A L S O
W r i t i n g s e n t e n c e s

T
r y writing some statements, exclamations
and questions about roller
-coasters using
the punctuation you have learnt.
T R Y I T O U T
• S T A R T I N G A N D E N D I N G S E N T E N C E S

72
Punctuating
direct speech
When you write down the exact words that someone has
said, you are using direct speech. We place inverted
commas at the start and end of any direct speech.
W h a t i s d i r e c t s p e e c h ?
W h a t i s d i r e c t s p e e c h ?
Stories and reports may include speech. Direct
speech is the exact words spoken. Reported speech
is a summary of something that has been said.
S h o w i n g d i r e c t s p e e c h
I n d i r e c t s p e e c h , w e u s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s t o s h o w
t h e p r e c i s e w o r d s s p o k e n b y a p e r s o n o r c h a r a c t e r
.
Opening

S E E A L S O
C o m m a s
E x p l o r i n g d i a l o g u e
N a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s
Who left the door open?
• P U N C T U A T I N G D I R E C T S P E E C H
Closing inverted
Inverted commas
are also called
s p e e c h m a r k s
q u o t a t i o n m a r k s

S E E A L S O
C o m m a s 7 8
E x p l o r i n g d i a l o g u e 1 6 6
N a r r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s 2 7 6
Who left the door open?
Inverted commas
are also called
s p e e c h m a r k s
or
q u o t a t i o n m a r k s
.

H o w t o u s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s
H o w t o u s e i n v e r t e d c o m m a s
Inverted commas go at the beginning and the end of the
exact words that were spoken by the person or character
.
“ M y s u n f l o w e r i s n e a r l y
a s t a l l a s m e ! ”
e x c l a i m e d T
o m .
My sunflower is
nearly as tall as me!

A v a a s k e d ,
“ C a n w e m e a s u r e
o u r s u n f l o w e r s ? ”
“ T h e s u n f l o w e r s a r e
g r o w i n g r e a l l y w e l l , ”
s a i d t h e t e a c h e r
.
W R I T T E N S P E E C H
• P U N C T U A T I N G D I R E C T S P E E C H
The sunflowers are
growing really well.
Can we measure
our sunflowers?

74
Apostrophes to
show possession
An apostrophe (‘) is a punctuation mark that usually
sits between two letters. It looks like a small straight or
curly line. One of its uses is to show who owns what.
H o w t o u s e a p o s t r o p h e s
H o w t o u s e a p o s t r o p h e s
We use an apostrophe to show who or what a thing belongs
to. We usually do this by writing an apostrophe followed by
the letter
“
s
”
at the end of the word for the owner
.
T
o w r i t e t h i s p h r a s e
u s i n g a n a p o s t r o p h e ,
f i r s t i d e n t i f y t h e o w n e r
.
H e r e t h e o w n e r i s t h e s p i d e r
.

‘
Apostrophe
S E E A L S O
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w c o n t r a c t i o n s
P l u r a l s
• A P O S T R O P H E S T O S H O W P O S S E S S I O N

‘
Apostrophe
S E E A L S O
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w c o n t r a c t i o n s 7 6
P l u r a l s 1 1 2

T
o s h o w w h o o w n s w h a t
T
o s h o w w h o o w n s w h a t
When there is a single owner
, the way you use an apostrophe depends
on whether the word for the owner ends in
there is more than one owner
, the rules are a little more straightforward.
F o r s i n g u l a r w o r d s n o t e n d i n g i n
“
s
”
w r i t e a n
a p o s t r o p h e t h e n t h e l e t t e r “ s ” a f t e r t h e o w n e r
.
F o r s i n g u l a r w o r d s e n d i n g i n
“
s
”
e i t h e r a d d a n
a p o s t r o p h e a n d a n “ s ” o r j u s t a n a p o s t r o p h e .

• A P O S T R O P H E S T O S H O W P O S S E S S I O N
“ s ” or another letter
. When
F o r p l u r a l w o r d s n o t e n d i n g i n t h e l e t t e r
w r i t e a n a p o s t r o p h e a n d t h e l e t t e r
F o r p l u r a l w o r d s e n d i n g i n t h e l e t t e r
a d d a n a p o s t r o p h e a f t e r t h e l e t t e r

76
Apostrophes to
show contractions
Apostrophes are a type of punctuation that we use
to show that letters have been left out of a word.
We call these words contractions.
M i s s i n g l e t t e r s
M i s s i n g l e t t e r s
Sometimes we leave out letters to combine or shorten
words, creating contractions. We write an apostrophe
where the letters have been left out of the original words.
P U N C T U A T I O N •
These letters are replaced
with an apostrophe.

Avoid contractions in
formal writing
your English essays.
S E E A L S O
W h y t h o s e d o t s a n d m a r k s m a t t e r
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w p o s s e s s i o n
A P O S T R O P H E S T O S H O W C O N T R A C T I O N S

Avoid contractions in
formal writing
, such as
your English essays.
S E E A L S O
W h y t h o s e d o t s a n d m a r k s m a t t e r 6 8
A p o s t r o p h e s t o s h o w p o s s e s s i o n 7 4

W h a t ’ s i n a n a m e ?
W h a t ’ s i n a n a m e ?
Sometimes you’ll see apostrophes to show
contractions in names. For example,
“
O
”
short for
“
of
”
in names like O’Connor
. The
family name that follows keeps a capital letter
.
•
I t ’
s o r i t s ?
I t ’
s o r i t s ?
Remember
, we never use
an apostrophe with
“
it
”
to
show possession. T
o work
out if you need to use an
apostrophe, replace
“
it’
s
”
with
“
it is
”
or
“
it has
”
and
see if the sentence still
makes sense.
O ’ C o n n o r
d ’ A r t a g n a n
L ’ H e u r e u x

is
A P O S T R O P H E S T O S H O W C O N T R A C T I O N S
W r i t e d o w n t h e c o r r e c t c o n t r a c t i o n s f o r t h e
f o l l o w i n g w o r d s :
T R Y I T O U T
h e h a d l e t u s
w o u l d n o t w e w i l l
d i d n o t h a s n o t

78
Commas
A comma is a punctuation mark that is used to
organize our writing by separating words and
clauses, and to clarify meaning.
C o m m a s i n l i s t s
C o m m a s i n l i s t s
Commas are used to separate items in a list, until
the last item when we use an “ and ” . This helps us
to avoid repeating the word “ and ” throughout.
A t t h e p l a y g r o u n d a r e s w i n g s

P U N C T U A T I O N • C O M M A S
We pause briefly at
a
c o m m a
when we
are reading.
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s
, a s l i d e a n d a c l i m b i n g f r a m e .
The comma separates
items in the list .

We pause briefly at
a
c o m m a
when we
are reading.
S E E A L S O
C l a u s e s 4 0
a c l i m b i n g f r a m e .

C o m m a s i n l e t t e r s
C o m m a s i n l e t t e r s
Commas are used when we write letters, in dates and after
greetings and closings.
Use a comma after
the day of the week.
U s e a c o m m a i n d a t e s t h a t
i n c l u d e t h e d a y o f t h e w e e k
.
Commas are not usually
used when we write the
date in this format .
F r i d a y
,
3 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 2 1
3 S e p t e m b e r 2 0 2 1
T
u
e s d a y
, 1 2 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1
H e l l o A u n t i e M a r t i n a
,
T h a n k y o u f o r t h e
b e a u t i f u l c o l o u r i n g p e n c i l s
a n d p a p e r y o u s e n t m e .
I ’ m l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o
u s i n g t h e m t o d r a w y o u
a p i c t u r e .
L o t s o f l o v e
,

• C O M M A S
U s e a c o m m a a f t e r
t h e g r e e t i n g t o t h e
r e a d e r o f y o u r l e t t e r
.
U s e a c o m m a a f t e r t h e
c l o s i n g p h r a s e b e f o r e
y o u s i g n y o u r n a m e .
s d a y
1 2 O c t o b e r 2 0 2 1
H e l l o A u n t i e M a r t i n a
,
T h a n k y o u f o r t h e
b e a u t i f u l c o l o u r i n g p e n c i l s
a n d p a p e r y o u s e n t m e .
I ’ m l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o
u s i n g t h e m t o d r a w y o u
a p i c t u r e .
L o t s o f l o v e
H e l l o G r a n d m a
D e a r A l i c e
T
o m y f r i e n d M a x
G o o d m o r n i n g
Y
o
u r s s i n c e r e l y
L o v e

79
U s e a c o m m a a f t e r
t h e g r e e t i n g t o t h e
r e a d e r o f y o u r l e t t e r
.
U s e a c o m m a a f t e r t h e
c l o s i n g p h r a s e b e f o r e
y o u s i g n y o u r n a m e .
H e l l o G r a n d m a
,
D e a r A l i c e
,
T
o m y f r i e n d M a x
,
G o o d m o r n i n g
,
Y
o
u r s s i n c e r e l y
,
L o v e
,

80
Fronted adverbial
Conjunction
C o m m a s a n d c l a u s e s
C o m m a s a n d c l a u s e s
Commas are often used to separate clauses within a sentence, which makes
sentences easier to read. When you’re reading, a comma indicates a pause.
Y
o
u can use a comma before a con j unction when
the con j unction j oins two main clauses.
Always use a comma after a fronted adverbial to
separate the adverbial from the main clause.
Question tags turn statements into questions.
Always use a comma before a question tag.

P U N C T U A T I O N • C O M M A S

C o m m a s a n d m e a n i n g
C o m m a s a n d m e a n i n g
Commas are often used to avoid confusion and make
the meaning clear
. A comma can sometimes completely
change the meaning of the sentence.
A d d i n g e x t r a i n f o r m a t i o n
A d d i n g e x t r a i n f o r m a t i o n
We can use commas to mark extra information
within sentences – this extra information is called a
parenthesis. If we remove the information between
L e t ’
s e a t D a d .

• C O M M A S
B r a c k e t s
and
d a s h e s
can also be
used to add extra information.
Brackets add emphasis and dashes
are used for an informal, chatty style.
Comma
L e t ’
s e a t
,
D a d .
A
change the meaning
of a sentence.

81
B r a c k e t s
and
d a s h e s
can also be
used to add extra information.
Brackets add emphasis and dashes
are used for an informal, chatty style.
Comma
L e t ’
s e a t
,
D a d .
A
c o m m a
can
change the meaning
of a sentence.

82
Semicolons
A semicolon (;) is a punctuation mark that we use
to j oin sentences and separate items in a list.
J o i n i n g t w o i d e a s
J o i n i n g t w o i d e a s
When two independent sentences are closely related, we
can (but don’t have to) use a semicolon to
make one, longer sentence. A semicolon is often used
instead of a con j unction like “ so ” or “ but ” .
Both parts of this sentence
could stand alone, but
since they are so closely
related we can join them
using a semicolon.
I t w a s a w a r m s p r i n g ; t h e t u l i p s

j oin them to
S E E A L S O
C o m m a s
T h e f l o w e r s w e r e i n b l o o m .
• S E M I C O L O N S
Y
o
u can use either a full
stop or semicolon here.
Sometimes you might find
a full stop is more effective.
;
Semicolon

S E E A L S O
4 4
4 6
C o m m a s
7 8
Y
o
u can use either a full
stop or semicolon here.
Sometimes you might find
a full stop is more effective.
;
Semicolon

S e m i c o l o n s i n l i s t s
S e m i c o l o n s i n l i s t s
When we have a list that contains long phrases or groups of
items, we use a semicolon to separate each of the items in
the list. This makes the list much easier to read.
Put a semicolon before
the last item in the list .
H e p r u n e d t h e r o s e s , p e o n i e s a n d l i l a c s ;
w e e d e d t h e f l o w e r b e d , v e g e t a b l e p a t c h
a n d p a t h ; m o w e d t h e l a w n ;
a n d w a t e r e d t h e p l a n t s .
separate each group.
C o m m o n m i s t a k e s
People often use a comma when they should
use a semicolon.

P U N C T U A T I O N • S E M I C O L O N S
The semicolons

84
Colons
A colon (:) is a punctuation mark that we use to introduce an
explanation, quotation or list. Colons are very dif ferent from
semicolons, which we use to j oin closely linked sentences.
I n t r o d u c i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n
I n t r o d u c i n g a n e x p l a n a t i o n
A colon is handy when you want to add an explanation or
extra information to a sentence. Y
ou write a colon after the
first part of the sentence but before the explanation.
The colon shows
an explanation
is coming.
The first part of the
sentence introduces
an idea.
T h e i c e c r e a m s h o p w a s p o p u l a r :
i t h a d t h e b i g g e s t s e l e c t i o n o f
f l a v o u r s i n t h e c i t y
.

T h e c h i l d r e n c o u l d n ’ t b e l i e v e w h a t
t h e y s a w : i c e c r e a m i n e v e r y
f l a v o u r i m a g i n a b l e .
S E E A L S O
P u n c t u a t i n g d i r e c t s p e e c h
S e m i c o l o n s
• C O L O N S
:
Colon

f l a v o u r i m a g i n a b l e .
S E E A L S O
P u n c t u a t i n g d i r e c t s p e e c h
7 2
S e m i c o l o n s
8 2
:
Colon

I n t r o d u c i n g q u o t a t i o n s
I n t r o d u c i n g q u o t a t i o n s
Colons can also be used to introduce a quotation.
The statement that comes before the colon must be
a complete sentence. The quotation written after
the colon then explains that statement.
T h e g i r l a s k e d t h e o w n e r p o l i t e l y :
“
P l e a s e c o u l d I b u y a
s t r a w b e r r y i c e c r e a m ?
”
The quotation
reveals what the
girl said.

The colon introduces
the quotation.
T h e o w n e r w a r n e d t h e c h i l d r e n :
“
D o n ’ t e a t t h e m t o o q u i c k l y !
P U N C T U A T I O N • C O L O N S

86
Brackets, dashes
and ellipses
B r a c k e t s
B r a c k e t s
W
h
e
n
y
o
u
w
a
n
t
t
o
a
d
d
i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
that is useful (but not essential) to
S E E A L S O
C o m m a s
H y p h e n s
Brackets and dashes can be used
in a similar way to commas to
add non-essential information to
a sentence. An added word or
phrase is called a parenthesis.
Ellipses (three dots in a row)
are used to create a pause
or suspense in a sentence.

• B R A C K E T S , D A S H E S A N D E L L I P S E S
S E E A L S O
7 8
8 8
A non-essential word
or phrase added to
a sentence is called
a
p a r e n t h e s i s
.

U s e a s i n g l e d a s h w i t h o u t a s p a c e
e i t h e r s i d e f o r r a n g e s o f n u m b e r s o r
s p a n s o f t i m e .
T h e j o u r n e y – a t o v e r s e v e n
m o n t h s – h a d b e e n a l o n g o n e .
D a s h e s
D a s h e s
Dashes create a stronger interruption than commas. They
are also used to add drama or show a span of time or a
range of numbers. If you remove a pair of dashes and the
text between them, the sentence must still make sense.
U s e a s i n g l e d a s h o r a p a i r o f d a s h e s w i t h a s p a c e e i t h e r
s i d e t o s e p a r a t e t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n f r o m t h e m a i n s e n t e n c e .
A dash joins the information to the sentence.
T h e y w e r e a l m o s t t h e r e b u t o n l y h a d

U s e a d a s h w i t h a s p a c e e i t h e r s i d e
i n t h e m i d d l e o f a s e n t e n c e t o c r e a t e
a d r a m a t i c p a u s e .
T h e j o u r n e y h a d b e e n a l o n g
o n e – o v e r s e v e n m o n t h s .
M a r s w a s n e a r – b u t p e r h a p s
• B R A C K E T S , D A S H E S A N D E L L I P S E S
–
Dash

87
U s e a d a s h w i t h a s p a c e e i t h e r s i d e
i n t h e m i d d l e o f a s e n t e n c e t o c r e a t e
j o u r n e y h a d b e e n a l o n g
o n e – o v e r s e v e n m o n t h s .
M a r s w a s n e a r – b u t p e r h a p s
–
Dash

88
Hyphens
A short line called a hyphen is used to
form a single idea. Hyphens are very versatile: they can
ad j ectives, nouns, verbs and even parts of words together
.
H y p h e n s t o
H y p h e n s t o j
j o i n d e s c r i b i n g w o r d s
o i n d e s c r i b i n g w o r d s
A hyphen is often used to j oin together two or more
ad j ectives when those ad j ectives work together to form
a single idea. Using a hyphen in this way helps to avoid
confusion and make the meaning clear
.
A 1 6 - y e a r
- o l d c a t
The hyphen joins the words
that describe the noun.

• H Y P H E N S
j oin words together to
j oin
S E E A L S O
U s i n g m o r e t h a n o n e a d
B r a c k e t s , d a s h e s a n d e l l i p s e s
P r e f i x e s
A b i r d - e a t i n g s p i d e r
W
i
t
h
o
ut a hyphen,
this could suggest a
bird is eating a spider.

H y p h e n s i n v e r b s
H y p h e n s i n v e r b s
Sometimes hyphens appear in verbs after a prefix (such as
to make the meaning clear
. This helps avoid confusion with verbs that
would otherwise look the same but have a different meaning.
I r e s e n t b e i n g t o l d t o
e a t m y v e g e t a b l e s .
T
o “resent” is to feel
angry about something
you think is unfair.

• H Y P H E N S
“ re ” or “ co ” )
I r e - s e n t t h e e m a i l
t o m y f r i e n d .
“Re-sent” has a totally
different meaning. It
means to send again.

92
H O W W O R D S W O R K
Studying words
The study of words helps improve your understanding,
spelling and pronunciation of them. It can also increase
your knowledge of other languages.
W a y s t o s t u d y w o r d s
W a y s t o s t u d y w o r d s
Y
o
u can study words in different ways. For example, you
may want to see if a word can be broken up into smaller
,
meaningful units. Or you might explore its histor y
, to find
out how and when it entered the English language.
o
r
p
h
o
l
o
g
y

• S T U D Y I N G W O R D S
People who study
words and language
are called
E
t
y
m
o
l
o
g
y

People who study
words and language
are called
l i n g u i s t s
.
o
l
o
g
y

D i c t i o n a r i e s
D i c t i o n a r i e s
Y
o
u can check the spelling and meaning of a word in a
dictionar y
. The entr y may also tell you the word’
s class,
how many syllables it has and how to pronounce it.
u n r e a d a b l e
a d j e c t i v e u n • r e a d • a • b l e u n - r e e - d u h - bu h l
1 .
W r i t i n g t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o r e a d
b e c a u s e t h e w o r d s a r e n o t c l e a r ;
i l l e g i b l e
2 .
W r i t i n g t h a t i s t o o b o r i n g o r d i f f i c u l t
t o u n d e r s t a n d
W
o
r d class
Head word
O
r
t
h
o
g
r
a
p
h
y

• S T U D Y I N G W O R D S
Most common
meaning
Alternative, less
common meaning
Pronunciation
Number
ofsyllables
P
h
o
n
o
l
o
g
y

93
Most common
meaning
Alternative, less
common meaning
Pronunciation
Number
ofsyllables
l
o
g
y

94
Roots and
root words
Roots and root words are the base parts of a word.
It is from the roots that words grow and become
other words, often by adding prefixes or suffixes.
W h a t a r e r o o t w o r d s ?
W h a t a r e r o o t w o r d s ?
Rootwords are complete words
that can stand on their own
without a prefix or a suffix.
A prefix is a group of letters that
goes at the start of a root word,
changing its meaning.
A suffix is a group of letters that
goes at the end of a root word,
P r e f i x

• R O O T S A N D R O O T W O R D S
S E E A L S O
B r e a k i n g w o r d s i n t o p a r t s
P r e f i x e s
W h a t i s a s u f f i x ?
R o o t S u f f i x
A
rootword
does
not
have
an affix.

S E E A L S O
B r e a k i n g w o r d s i n t o p a r t s 9 6
P r e f i x e s 9 8
W h a t i s a s u f f i x ? 1 0 2
An
a
f
f
i
x
is
a prefix
or a suffix.
A
rootword
does
not
have
an affix.

W o r d f a m i l i e s
W o r d f a m i l i e s
Word families are groups of words that all have
the root word in common, but often with different
affixes
(prefixes or suffixes). They share parts of
the same spelling and are linked in meaning.
ACT
r
e
a
c
t
a
c
t
i
n
g
a c t i o n
a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
r e a c t i o n
a
c
t i v
e
a
c
t e
d
i
n
a
c
t
i
v
e
j
o
y
f
u
l
l
y
o v e r

• R O O T S A N D R O O T W O R D S
u
s
e
d
m i s u s e
u
s e
f u
l
u s a b l e
u
s e r
u
s
i
n
g
u
s
e
l
e
s
s
USE
JOY
e n j o y e d
j
o
y
f
u
l
l
y
j o y e d
e
n
j
o
y
i n
g
e
n
j
o
y
m
e
n
t

95
u
s
e
d
m i s u s e
u
s e
f u
l
u s a b l e
u
s e r
u
s
i
n
g
u
s
e
l
e
s
s
USE
e n j o y e d
e
n
j
o
y
i n
g

96
Breaking words
into parts
Knowing how to break words into parts can help with
your reading and spelling skills, as well as your
understanding of the meanings of words.
H o w t o b r e a k w o r d s i n t o p a r t s
H o w t o b r e a k w o r d s i n t o p a r t s
If we break a word into parts and look at the
meanings of each separate part, it can help us
understand the word better
. T
o do this, first find the
root word, then look for any prefixes and suffixes
that you recognize.
Rootwords

Morphology
morph
(words and their parts)
+ ology
(the study of)
• B R E A K I N G W O R D S I N T O P A R T S
Root word
S E E A L S O
S t u d y i n g w o r d s
R o o t s a n d r o o t w o r d s
P r e f i x e s

Morphology
=
morph
(words and their parts)
+ ology
(the study of)
Root word
S E E A L S O
S t u d y i n g w o r d s 9 2
R o o t s a n d r o o t w o r d s 9 4
P r e f i x e s 9 8
W h a t i s a s u f f i x ? 1 0 2

W h a t a r e m o r p h e m e s ?
W h a t a r e m o r p h e m e s ?
A morpheme is the smallest unit of a word that has its own
meaning. A morpheme can either be a stand-alone word, a root
or an affix. Splitting a word into morphemes helps with spelling,
reading and vocabulary
. We can see in the example below how
the word “ play ” changes meaning with every added morpheme.
B o u n d a n d f r e e m o r p h e m e s
B o u n d a n d f r e e m o r p h e m e s
There are two types of morphemes:
bound morphemes, which are always
part of a word; and free morphemes,
to have fun
1 m o r p h e m e
an outdoor area for
children to play in
2 m o r p h e m e s

• B R E A K I N G W O R D S I N T O P A R T S
Can you put together two words (free
morphemes) to make a compound word?
How many compound words can you think of?
T R Y I T O U T
done in a playful way
3 m o r p h e m e s
A
morpheme
the smallest unit of
meaning in a word.

97
A
morpheme
is
the smallest unit of
meaning in a word.

98
Prefixes
A group of letters added to the front of a root word
is called a prefix. There are lots of different prefixes.
W h a t i s a p r e f i x ?
W h a t i s a p r e f i x ?
Prefixes are small groups of letters that can be
added to the front of a root word to make a new
word. Each prefix has its own meaning. Adding
a prefix changes the meaning of the root word.
s
u
p
e
r
-
= above, great, big

H O W W O R D S W O R K • P R E F I X E S
Adding a
p r e f i x
a new word with a
d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g
S E E A L S O
H y p h e n s
H o w t o w o r k o u t m e a n i n g
auto-
= self

Adding a
p r e f i x
creates
a new word with a
d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g
.
S E E A L S O
H y p h e n s 8 8
H o w t o w o r k o u t m e a n i n g 1 5 4
auto-
= self

C o m m o n p r e f i x e s
C o m m o n p r e f i x e s
There are lots of prefixes we use regularly in everyday
conversations and writing. Knowing the meaning of some
of these prefixes can help you to read, spell and understand
unfamiliar words. Here are some examples.
b i - ( t w o )
c o m - ( w i t h , t o g e t h e r )
m o n o - ( s i n g u l a r )
m i d - ( m i d d l e )
i n t e r
- ( b e t w e e n , a m o n g )
o v e r - ( t o o m u c h )
s e m i - ( h a l f )

• P R E F I X E S
b i c y c l e b i a n n u a l
c o m p a n i o n c o m p r e s s
m o n o t o n e m o n o
m i d n i g h t m i d d a y
i n t e r a c t i n t e r n a t i o n a l
o v e r l o a d o v e r d o
s e m i c i r c l e s e m i c o l o n

100
W h a t i s a p r e f i x w i t h a n e g a t i v e m e a n i n g ?
W h a t i s a p r e f i x w i t h a n e g a t i v e m e a n i n g ?
Some prefixes have a negative meaning such as
These prefixes create a word that is the opposite to the root word.
dis-
= not, opposite of
anti-
= opposite, against
p r e f i x r o o t w o r d n e w w o r d

• P R E F I X E S
The new word means
the
o p p o s i t e
the root word.
“
not
”
,
“
no
”
or
“
against
”
.

The new word means
the
o p p o s i t e
to
the root word.
”
.

T h e p r e f i x
T h e p r e f i x “
“ u n -
u n - ”
”
The prefix “ un- ” can be added to ad j ectives and verbs.
Usually “ un- ” means “ not ” when added to ad
“ to do the opposite ” when added to a verb. The spelling
of the root word does not change.
un- + ad j ective = not
h a p p y
w e l l
f r i e n d l y

• P R E F I X E S
j ectives and
w r a p
t i e
d o
un- + verb = do the opposite of

102
What is a suffix?
A suffix is a word ending that is made up of
one or more letters. When placed at the end of
a word, a suffix can change the word’
s meaning
and its word class.
C o m m o n s u f f i x e s
C o m m o n s u f f i x e s
Understanding the meaning of common suffixes
can help you figure out the meaning of new words
and their word class.
+ -
n e s s
+ -
m e n t
( a n a c t o f )
e n t e r t a i n m e n t
e n j o y m e n t

…but a
change its
and its
+ -
i n g
( p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e )
p l a y
i n g
j
u m p
i n g
• W H A T I S A S U F F I X ?
A
p
r
e
f
i
x
can only
change a word’
s
meaning
…
+ -
e d
( p a s t t e n s e )
p l a y e d
j u m p e d

…but a
s
u
f
f
i
x
can
change its
meaning
and its
wordclass
.
i n g
i n g
i n g
A
p
r
e
f
i
x
can only
change a word’
s
meaning
…
+ -
e d
( p a s t t e n s e )
p l a y e d
j u m p e d
+
-
e n
( t o b e c o m e )
b r i g h t
e n
s t r e n g t h
e n

+ -
y
( c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y )
n o i s
y
f u n n
y
+
-
e r
( m o r e )
n o i s i
e r
b r i g h t
e r
+ -
n o i s i
b r i g h t
+
-
e n
( m a d e o f )
w o o d
e n
g o l d
e n

A d j e c t i v e s
• W H A T I S A S U F F I X ?
e r
e r
e r
+ -
f u l
( f u l l o f )
p l a y
f u l
h o p e
f u l
+ -
e s t
( m o s t )
n o i s i
e s t
e s t
+
-
l
e
s
s
( w
i t h o u t )
c a r e
l e s s
h o p e
l e s s
+
-
a
b
l
e
( a b l e
t o
b e )
m
o v
a b l e
e n
j
o y
a b l e

103
+ -
f u l
( f u l l o f )
p l a y
f u l
h o p e
f u l
+
-
l
e
s
s
( w
i t h o u t )
c a r e
l e s s
h o p e
l e s s
+
-
a
b
l
e
( a b l e
t o
b e )
m
o v
a b l e
e n
j
o y
a b l e

104
V
o
w
el suffixes
V
o
w
el suffixes are simply suf fixes that start with a vowel. Dif ferent suf fixes
have different spelling rules, and the spelling rule often depends on
whether the suffix is a vowel suf fix or a consonant suf fix.
T
h
e
o
t
h
e
r
l
e
t t e r s
o
f
t
h
e
a
l
p
h
a
b
e
t
T
h
e
l
e
t
t
e
r
“
y
”
i
s
u s u
a
l l y
a
c
o
n
s
o
n
a
n
t ,

• V O W E L S U F F I X E S
S E E A L S O
D o u b l i n g l e t t e r s f o r s u f f i x e s
T h e p o w e r o f s u f f i x e s
P l u r a l s
a r e c
o
n
s
o
n
a
n
t
s
.
, b u t c
a
n
b
e
a
v
o
w
e
l
.

S E E A L S O
1 0 2
1 0 6
1 1 0
P l u r a l s
1 1 2
t
s
.
v
o
w
e
l
.

S w a p t h e
S w a p t h e
“
“
y
y
”
”
f o r a n
f o r a n
“
“
i
i
”
”
When the root word ends in a consonant followed by the letter
you usually swap the
“
y
”
for an
“
i
”
before adding the vowel suffix.
D r o p t h e
D r o p t h e
“
“
e
e
”
”
When the root word ends with the letter
“
e
the
“
e
”
before adding the vowel suffix.
T h e “ y ” is dropped
for an “i ” before the suffix.
The root word
ends in “y ”.

• V O W E L S U F F I X E S
“
y
”
,
”
, you drop
The root word
ends in “y ”.
For the suffix “-ing”,
t h e “ y ” stays.

106
Doubling letters
for suffixes
Sometimes you need to double the last letter of the root
word before adding a suffix. Use your knowledge of vowels,
consonants and syllables to work out when to do this.
1 : 1 : 1 r u l e
1 : 1 : 1 r u l e
If a root word has one syllable, one
vowel and one final consonant, then
the last consonant must be doubled
before adding the suffix.
1 syllable
1 vowel
Root words with

• D O U B L I N G L E T T E R S F O R S U F F I X E S
A
syllable
a word, usually with
only one vowel sound.
a n d e n d i n g w i t h
Double the final
S E E A L S O

A
syllable
is a beat in
a word, usually with
only one vowel sound.
Double the final
S E E A L S O
W h a t i s a s u f f i x ? 1 0 2
Vowe l s u f f i x e s 1 0 4
T h e p o w e r o f s u f f i x e s 1 1 0

2 : 1 : 1 r u l e
2 : 1 : 1 r u l e
If a root word has two syllables, ends in
one vowel followed by one consonant,
and the stress is on the second syllable,
then the last consonant must be doubled
before adding the suffix.
2 syllables
ending with
1 vowel and
1 consonant
Root words with

• D O U B L I N G L E T T E R S F O R S U F F I X E S
and the stress is on
the second syllable
Double the final
consonant before
adding the suffix.
2 syllables and ends in
1 vowel followed by
1 consonant
Stress
means that
the syllable is
emphasized…
…as in be
and for

107
Double the final
consonant before
adding the suffix.
Stress
means that
the syllable is
emphasized…
…as in be
gin
and for
get
.

108
Consonant suffixes
A suffix that starts with a consonant is known as a consonant suf fix. Knowing
consonant and vowel suffixes will help you with reading and spelling.
Usually “ y ” is a
consonant, but
sometimes it is
a vowel.
“ Y ” is a consonant
when you hear a
hard “ y ” sound, as
in the word “ yes ” .

• C O N S O N A N T S U F F I X E S
S E E A L S O
A d j e c t i v e s
A d v e r b s

A d v e r b s w i t h
A d v e r b s w i t h “
“ - l y
- l y ”
”
An adverb describes a verb, ad j ective or even another adverb.
We can often make an ad j ective into an adverb by adding the
consonant suffix “ -ly ” to the end of the ad j ective.

• C O N S O N A N T S U F F I X E S
ective.
T
r y thinking of examples
of root words where
you can add
consonant suffixes.
T R Y I T O U T
The suffix “-ly” can be added to the
end of the suffixes “-ful” and “-less”.
We’d better run
q u i c k l y to catch
the bus!

110
The power of suffixes
A suffix can change both the meaning and the word class of
a root word. The more you know about suffixes, the better your
reading and spelling skills will be – and you’ll increase your
vocabular y
, too!
A d
A d j
j e c t i v e s w i t h t h e s u f f i x
e c t i v e s w i t h t h e s u f f i x “
“ - o u s
- o u s
When you add the suffix “ -ous ” to a word, you change
the word to an ad j ective. The suffix “ -ous ” means

• T H E P O W E R O F S U F F I X E S
S E E A L S O
C o n s o n a n t s u f f i x e s
”
”
“ full of ” .

N o u n s w i t h t h e s u f f i x
N o u n s w i t h t h e s u f f i x
“
“
- i o n
- i o n
”
”
o r
o r
When you add the suffixes
“
-ion
”
or
“
-ation
word from a verb to a noun. Remember that
as in the words
“
creation
”
,
“
imagination
”
and
Canyou
d
i
r
e
c
t
meto
thebeach,please?
Drop the final “e”
before adding “ion”.
d i r e c t

• T H E P O W E R O F S U F F I X E S
“
“
- a t i o n
- a t i o n
”
”
”
to a word, you change the
“
tion
”
sounds like
“
shun
”
,
“
direction
”
.
Just follow the
d i r e c t i o n
of
the arrow
.
Drop the final “e” and
add the suffix “-ation”.
c r e a t e i m a g i n e

112
A d d i n g t h e s u f f i x
A d d i n g t h e s u f f i x
“
“
- s
- s
”
”
T
o make a noun plural, we usually add the suffix
“
-s
”
to the end of the singular word.
Plurals
Plural means there’
s more than one of something
(whereas singular means just one). For most nouns,
their endings show you if they’re singular or plural.

• P L U R A L S
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
P l u r a l
means…

…more than one!
S E E A L S O
N o u n s
1 2
7 4
1 0 2
P l u r a l
means…

W o r d s e n d i n g i n t h e l e t t e r
W o r d s e n d i n g i n t h e l e t t e r “
“ y
y ”
”
When a singular word ends in a “ y ” , we usually change the
“ y ” to an “ i ” and add the suffix “ -es ” to make it plural.
If a word has a vowel before its “ y ” ending, you

• P L U R A L S
j ust add the suffix “ -s ” .

How to be Good at English, Ages 7-14 (Key Stages 2-3): The Simplest-ever Visual Guide

How to be Good at English, Ages 7-14 (Key Stages 2-3): The Simplest-ever Visual Guide

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