Cholistan was once a prosperous region supported by the Hakra River. Around 4000 BC, the Hakra River flowed through Cholistan, supporting the ancient Hakra Valley civilization. However, around 1200 BC the river began flowing irregularly and eventually vanished by 600 BC. With the loss of the river, the region was deserted through desertification processes. Today, Cholistan is a desert landscape, though archaeological ruins provide evidence it was once more habitable and productive when supported by the Hakra River.
A landform is a natural Geographical feature or shape that appears on the earth surface .India has a variety of landforms. These landforms are considered as the Natural Tourism Products and it holds a lot of significance for tourism development.Splendid and Captivating scenic attractions of these landforms made India as Incredible
Water has played an important role in the architectural heritage of western India from the earliest times. One of the most characteristic features of the early Harappan towns (3000 BC) was the presence of a sophisticated system of drains, wells and tanks. The practice of making wells into an art form was begun by the Hindus but it developed under Muslim rule.
Most of the old temples in south India and palaces in parts of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Northern Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh built centuries ago have large tanks in their premises. These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs.
About thousand year’s old and still standing India’s forgotten structures step wells are the fascinating medieval structures. Richard Cox describes their use, “During their heyday, they were a place of gathering, of leisure, of relaxation and of worship for villages of all but the lowest castes. Men gained respite from the heat in the covered pavilions, while the women had a rare chance to chat amongst themselves while drawing water for their families.”
Have been neglected for centuries, efforts are now being made to restore and rejuvenate many of the ruined or drywells.
However author has attempted to focus on scientific and natural facts about the relation between geological setting and imposing environments.
Land resources and management
Brief info about climatic zones of Pakistan
all the zones of Pakistan related to agriculture
for references check book of Crop production by shafi nazir
A landform is a natural Geographical feature or shape that appears on the earth surface .India has a variety of landforms. These landforms are considered as the Natural Tourism Products and it holds a lot of significance for tourism development.Splendid and Captivating scenic attractions of these landforms made India as Incredible
Water has played an important role in the architectural heritage of western India from the earliest times. One of the most characteristic features of the early Harappan towns (3000 BC) was the presence of a sophisticated system of drains, wells and tanks. The practice of making wells into an art form was begun by the Hindus but it developed under Muslim rule.
Most of the old temples in south India and palaces in parts of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, Northern Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh built centuries ago have large tanks in their premises. These tanks are either fed by harvested rain water or by tapping underground springs.
About thousand year’s old and still standing India’s forgotten structures step wells are the fascinating medieval structures. Richard Cox describes their use, “During their heyday, they were a place of gathering, of leisure, of relaxation and of worship for villages of all but the lowest castes. Men gained respite from the heat in the covered pavilions, while the women had a rare chance to chat amongst themselves while drawing water for their families.”
Have been neglected for centuries, efforts are now being made to restore and rejuvenate many of the ruined or drywells.
However author has attempted to focus on scientific and natural facts about the relation between geological setting and imposing environments.
Land resources and management
Brief info about climatic zones of Pakistan
all the zones of Pakistan related to agriculture
for references check book of Crop production by shafi nazir
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1600 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of the South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.
It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1600 BCE) mainly in the northwestern regions of the South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.
It flourished in the basins of the Indus River, which flows through the length of Pakistan, and along a system of perennial, mostly monsoon-fed, rivers that once coursed in the vicinity of the seasonal Ghaggar-Hakra river in northwest India and eastern Pakistan.
The Indian subcontinent, the great landmass of South Asia, is the home of one of the world’s oldest and most influential civilizations. In this article, the subcontinent, which for historical purposes is usually called simply “India,” is understood to comprise the areas of not only the present-day Republic of India but also the republics of Pakistan (partitioned from India in 1947) and Bangladesh (which formed the eastern part of Pakistan until its independence in 1971). For the histories of these latter two countries since their creation, see Pakistan and Bangladesh.
Since early times the Indian subcontinent appears to have provided an attractive habitat for human occupation. Toward the south it is effectively sheltered by wide expanses of ocean, which tended to isolate it culturally in ancient times, while to the north it is protected by the massive ranges of the Himalayas, which also sheltered it from the Arctic winds and the air currents of Central Asia. Only in the northwest and northeast is there easier access by land, and it was through those two sectors that most of the early contacts with the outside world took place.
Within the framework of hills and mountains represented by the Indo-Iranian borderlands on the west, the Indo-Myanmar borderlands in the east, and the Himalayas to the north, the subcontinent may in broadest terms be divided into two major divisions: in the north, the basins of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) rivers (the Indo-Gangetic Plain) and, to the south, the block of Archean rocks that forms the Deccan plateau region. The expansive alluvial plain of the river basins provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges. To the south of this zone, and separating it from the peninsula proper, is a belt of hills and forests, running generally from west to east and to this day largely inhabited by tribal people. This belt has played mainly a negative role throughout Indian history in that it remained relatively thinly populated and did not form the focal point of any of the principal regional cultural developments of South Asia. However, it is traversed by various routes linking the more-attractive areas north and south of it. The Narmada (Narbada) River flows through this belt toward the west, mostly along the Vindhya Range, which has long been regarded as the symbolic boundary between northern and southern India.
The northern parts of India represent a series of contrasting regions, each with its own distinctive cultural history and its own distinctive population. In the northwest the valleys of the Baluchistan uplands (now largely in Balochistan, Pakistan) are a low-rainfall area, producing mainly wheat and barley and having a low density of population. Its residents, mainly tribal people, are in many respects closely akin to their Irania
Ancient Indian history:What do we know and how?Rajesh Kochhar
When and where was the Rigveda composed?
How are the Vedic people related to the vast Harappan archaeological tradition?
These quintessential questions have no direct answers. At our current level of knowledge, archaeology and sacred texts constitute two distinct streams which do not intersect. We must therefore collate evidence from different sources and try to produce a synthesis.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Synthetic Fiber Construction in lab .pptxPavel ( NSTU)
Synthetic fiber production is a fascinating and complex field that blends chemistry, engineering, and environmental science. By understanding these aspects, students can gain a comprehensive view of synthetic fiber production, its impact on society and the environment, and the potential for future innovations. Synthetic fibers play a crucial role in modern society, impacting various aspects of daily life, industry, and the environment. ynthetic fibers are integral to modern life, offering a range of benefits from cost-effectiveness and versatility to innovative applications and performance characteristics. While they pose environmental challenges, ongoing research and development aim to create more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. Understanding the importance of synthetic fibers helps in appreciating their role in the economy, industry, and daily life, while also emphasizing the need for sustainable practices and innovation.
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
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How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
Historical and archaeological perspectives of soil
1. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
864
HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES OF SOIL
DEGRADATION IN CHOLISTAN
Farooq Ahmad*
Zulfiqar Ali1
Sameera Farooq
*Department of Geography, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan.
1
Government College Burewala, Pakistan.
E-mail: drylandpk@yahoo.com
Key words: Cholistan, Hakra River, Indus civilization
INTRODUCTION
Cholistan is an extension of the Great Indian Desert, which includes the Thar Desert in Sindh
province of Pakistan and the Rajasthan Desert in India, covering an area of 26,330 Km2
, it lies
within Southeast quadrant of Punjab province between 27o
42' and 29o
45' North latitude and
69o
52' and 73o
05' East longitude (Arshad et al., 1995; Ahmad, 1999).
The word ‘Cholistan’ has been derived from a Turkish word, ‘Chol’, means a desert, while
some historians believe that this name has been distorted from Iraqi (Kurdish) word,
‘Chilistan’ meaning waterless waste land (Ahmad et al., 1992; Auj, 1995 and Ahmad, 1999),
popularly Cholistan is known as ‘Rohi’. In a dialect still spoken in some parts of Tibet, ‘roh’
means a hill, from which the name Rohilla has been attributed. In fact, Rohi has been derived
from the Pushto word ‘roh’, meaning is a sandy desert (Auj, 1987; 1991; Ahmad, 1999b).
Cholistan: Cradle of Hakra Valley Civilization
Around 4000 BC Cholistan was a cradle of civilization commonly known as Hakra valley
civilization, when Hakra River flowed through the region (figure 1). The river supplied water
until 1200 BC, about 600 BC it became irregular in flow and consequently vanished. The
Hakra civilization, which flourished was one of the longest in the course of world history.
Aryans were the indigenous people (Auj, 1987b) and the earliest civilization of the Indian
subcontinent. In cultural advancement it can be compared with the Mesopotamian, Egyptian
and Babylonian civilization. Probably a variety of problems such as hostile invading
contributed to the ultimate disappearance of this great civilization (Ahmad, 1999c).
2. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
865
The phenomenon of disappearance of the mighty river Hakra or Ghaggar is supposed to be the
prehistoric times, hardly left some clue to the geographical change, resulted in the desolation
of two thirds of the area of Bahawalpur region. In spite of its fading past, this legendary river
is still remembered by geographers as the ‘Lost River’, identified by “Sacred River
Saraswati” in the hymns of Rigveda, also praised as “the chief and purest rivers flowing from
the mountains to the ocean” (Auj, 1987b). According to Mahabharat it has been called “one
of the two divine rivers forming the northern boundary of Darma Khestra (Holy Land)”. The
first Aryan settlement was also established on its bank.
Derawer, the earliest settlement of the Indus Valley and the only habitation that has survived
up till now, is also in Cholistan. According to Mughal (1997), the highest concentration of
older Indus sites exists here. At Ganweriwala (National Geographic, 2000) near Derawer, he
discovered ruins of a town (larger than Harappa); which was almost as large as Moenjodaro,
all suggestive of stable means of subsistence. In the same region are represented all the known
development stages of the Indus Civilization, the Early Harappan, the Mature Harappan, and
the Late Harappan. On present evidence, it would seem that sometime around the middle of
the second millennium BC hydrographic changes that were operative since at least the third
millennium BC had substantially reduced or cut-off the river water-supply to the Hakra. The
population settled alongwith Hakra were forced to move out and resettle near the upper course
of
the Ghaggar and its tributaries, to the North and the Northeast of Cholistan, where water was
still available perennially or with seasonal regularity. This site when excavated was sure to
reveal the hidden mysteries of civilization that was larger than the Babylonian or the Egyptian
empires.
3. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
866
Changes in the courses of the Indus and the Hakra River system of the Indus Valley have
profoundly influenced the settlement patterns and have induced significant cultural changes,
which have not been documented archaeologically. The evidence suggest that the origin,
climax and decline of the Indus Valley Civilization between the late fourth and second
millennium BC, were intimately linked with the environmental changes generated by the
shifting of river regimes. The relationship between the rivers and the development of
civilization is best exemplified in the East central Indus Valley comprising of Cholistan desert
of Pakistan (Mughal, 1992; Auj, 1995).
The Cholistani people have inherited a rich cultural heritage from their ancestors, who dwelt
for centuries in the Hakra Valley, which is now acclaimed as the forerunner of the Indus
Valley civilization.
Archaic views about Hakra depression
The depression of Hakra is still visible in Bikaneer, Bahawalpur and Sindh province. Its width
is about two miles and length not less than 150 miles. Half of its course passes through Sindh,
where the present Nara canal exists, which is in fact the continuation of Hakra River. The map
4. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
867
illustrated by Thomas Pennant, Hakra as rising in the Himalayas, East of the Sutlej and
flowing down the town of Umerkot and ending into the Gulf of Kutch (Auj, 1995). There it is
called Ghaggar.
In 1942, Sir Aural Stein surveyed the deserted course of the ‘Lost River’. He mentioned that,
“It would be hazardous to co-relate the archaeologically attested changes of conditions along
the Ghaggar-Hakra bed with reference found in the Vedic texts to the Saraswati River, but the
evidence shows that down to historical times the Ghaggar carried water for irrigation under
existing climatic conditions much farther than it does now. This makes it intelligible how the
Saraswati has included in hymns of Rigveda to be praised as a ‘Great River’. The interval
between the time, when the notion found expression in Vedic poetry and the time when the
Ghaggar was joined by the branch of Sutlej, may not have been so great as to efface
traditional knowledge of the entire river, having once been large enough to make its way as
far as the Panjnad and the Indus. The width of the Ghaggar-Hakra bed is so great that even
now it is mentioned in the local folklores. A great change affected the Saraswati River or
Ghaggar since reference was made in Vedic texts, which is scarcely composed before the
second millennium BC at the earliest. This change may be attributed to two distinct physical
causes. As regards the upper portion of the ancient bed, archaeological evidence attests a
drying up during historical times, which is likely to have been at work in prehistoric periods.
It might have been hastened by the diversion of floodwater for irrigation, brought about by
more settled conditions and the resulting pressure of population”. Down on the Hakra, the
main change was due to the Sutlej having in late prehistoric times, abandoned bed, which
before had joined the Ghaggar, the result of a law, affected all rivers course lies over alluvial
plains. We have clear evidence that the drying up was gradual, at least in the historical period
(Stein, 1942).
Wilhelmy (1969) examined and suggested during the 1960s that from the Tertiary times the
drainage of North India was very different to that of the present day, which has been
influenced by the up-thrust of Himalayas. In more recent geological times (Late Pleistocene
and Early Holocene), there were three major river systems; Indus, Saraswati and Ganges. The
Saraswati flowed in the Ghaggar-Hakra channel, receiving water of both the Ur-Jumna and
the Sutlej. In Rigvadic times (around 1000 BC) the Ur-Jumna had already been captured by
the Ganges system, and in Mahabharat (around the beginning of the Christian era) the water
of the Sutlej was largely captured by the Indus. Wilhelmy (1969) suggested that the Ghaggar
5. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
868
or Hakra channels continued to serve as flood channels of the Sutlej and the Indus, which
were utilized for irrigation (Allchin et al., 1978).
The ‘Lost River’ played a vital role in the demise of Hakra Valley civilization after it dried up
or changed its course. Geographers are still trying hard to find the real cause of disappearance
of Hakra River keeping in view, its traces, depressions, chronology of physical changes and
geographical history of the region where the river once flowed.
Once, Cholistan Desert was rich in all kinds of wildlife, including magnificent mammals like
Rhinoceros, Lions, Leopards and a number of beautiful game birds. There is evidence that
hunting of Lion, Leopard, Deer (pahra), and Ravine-deer (hiran) Wild Boars were common.
Lion and Leopard had disappeared from the desert by the beginning of this century. Black
Buck (kala hiran), Chinkara, Nilgai and Bustards are now the most threatened species,
however, large herds are found across the border. Similarly, Wild Ass has been encountered
near Pak. – India border but its number is dwindling fast. Desert Cat and Wild Boar have
almost disappeared, whereas Hare and other rodents are still found. Among birds, some
species of Partridges, Quails and Sand Grouse are found.
Cholistan was once green and prosperous land, where cultivation was practiced. The source of
irrigation water was Hakra River (Akbar et al., 1996). With the drying of the river, area was
deserted through desertification processes and left only as grazing lands. A vast majority of
the population of Cholistan continues to lead a nomadic existence, and for the small
proportion of the population, who has chosen to settle down to agriculture, the dramatic
changes have proved traumatic in many ways. The vastness and beauty of Cholistan still
haunts the people who have moved from the desert to settle down in chaks on its peripheries.
But the radical change in their circumstances following their switch from a nomadic to a
peasant way of life is seen as a mixed blessing by most of the desert people.
The nomads of the parched, thirsty land of Cholistan, who are denied the fruits of overall
development of the country, are living a Stone Age existence. They do not have access to the
most basic needs such as clean drinking water, food and basic health care.
6. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
869
Cholistan offers tremendous opportunities for those seeking to gain a deeper understanding of
its rich cultural heritage. As one expert puts it, the area has a “unique romanticism,
distinguished poetry, literature, folklore and music”.
CONCLUSION
Cholistan was once green and prosperous land, where cultivation was practiced. The source of
irrigation water was Hakra River. The river supplied water until 1200 BC, about 600 BC it
became irregular in flow and consequently vanished. The Hakra civilization, which flourished
was one of the longest in the course of world history. Cholistan is the only place where the
remnants of the oldest settlements are still intact because of the desertion of the river Hakra.
With the drying of the river, area was deserted through desertification processes and left only
as grazing lands.
Archaeological ruins present in Cholistan indicate that water availability in the area was
higher a few centuries ago. The reduction of vegetation to about one third or less of its
historical cover most probably, results in considerably higher near surface and surface
temperature. As a result, evaporation of the scarce rainfall has increased considerably during
the last decades so reducing the effective rainfall available for range and groundwater
recharge, which is well known as self-reinforcing aspect of desertification. The aridity in
Cholistan is rightly seen as a major limitation to wide-scale range improvement and
management programmes. However, aridity prevents high incidence of many crops and
livestock diseases as well as nutrient leaching from soils.
REFERENCES
• Ahmad, Farooq (1999), “Eco-regeneration and runoff collection in Cholistan”, UNEP:
Desertification Control Bulletin 35, pp.50-54.
• Ahmad, Farooq (1999b), “Rainwater utilization and ecological restoration in Cholistan”,
Proceedings of VI International Rangeland Congress, 19-23 July 1999, Townsville,
Australia, pp.709-711.
• Ahmad, Farooq (1999c), “Eco-regeneration and runoff collection in Cholistan”,
Proceedings of an International Conference on Desertification and Soil Degradation, 11-
15 November 1999, Moscow, pp.337-343.
7. Sociedade & Natureza, Uberlândia, Special Issue, 864-870, May, 2005
870
• Ahmad, T.F., Akbar, G., Tahir, M.B., Ahmad, I. (1992), “Developing Cholistan desert – a
perspective”, Progressive Farming, Vol.12 (6), pp.35-40.
• Akbar, G., Khan, T.N., and Arshad, M. (1996), “Cholistan desert, Pakistan”, Rangelands,
Vol. 18(4), pp.124-128.
• Allchin, B., Coudie, A., and Hedge, K. (1978), “The prehistory and palaeogeography of
the Great Indian Desert”, pp.18-211.
• Arshad, M., Altaf-ur-Rehman Rao, and Akbar, G. (1995), “Cholistan desert in a state of
flux”, UNEP: Desertification Control Bulletin 26, pp.55-58.
• Auj, Nurul Zaman Ahmad (1987), “Ancient Bahawalpur”, Caravan Book Centre, Multan,
Pakistan.
• Auj, Nurul Zaman Ahmad (1987b), “Mystery of the Indo-Aryans: were they not true
Aryans”, November 6, The Pakistan Times, Lahore, Pakistan.
• Auj, Nurul Zaman Ahmad (1991), “Cholistan: land and people”, Caravan Book Centre,
Multan, Pakistan.
• Auj, Nurul Zaman Ahmad (1995), “Legacy of Cholistan”, Caravan Book Centre, Multan,
Pakistan.
• Mughal, M. Rafique (1992), “The consequences of river changes for the Harappan
settlements in Cholistan”, Eastern Anthropologist, Vol. 45(1 & 2), pp.105-116.
• Mughal, M. Rafique (1997), “Ancient Cholistan – archeology and architecture”,
Ferozsons (Pvt) Ltd; Lahore, Pakistan.
• National Geographic (2000), “INDUS: Clues to an ancient civilization”, National
Geographic Society, Vol. 197(6), Washington D.C., pp.114-129.
• Sir Aural Stein (1942), A survey of ancient sites along the “The Lost Saraswati River”,
The Geographical Journal, Vol. XCIX, pp.173-182.