The urinary system functions to regulate water balance and remove waste from the body. It includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons that filter blood to form urine, removing wastes and regulating electrolytes. Urine travels from nephrons through tubules and collecting ducts to the renal pelvis and ureters, then to the bladder for storage and eventual excretion through the urethra. Diseases like amyloidosis, renal infarcts, and polycystic kidney disease can disrupt the kidneys' structure and function.
The document provides details on renal anatomy and histology. It describes the structure and function of the kidney, nephron, blood supply, and other components. Key points include:
- The kidney contains nephrons that filter blood to form urine and regulate water/electrolyte balance.
- Nephrons consist of a renal corpuscle, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting duct.
- Juxtamedullary nephrons help concentrate urine while cortical nephrons filter plasma and reabsorb molecules.
- The macula densa and juxtaglomerular apparatus sense filtration rate and regulate blood pressure.
This document provides an overview of the normal histology of the kidney. It describes the anatomy and histological features of the major structures of the kidney, including the cortex, medulla, renal corpuscle, nephron (glomerulus, proximal and distal tubules, loop of Henle), collecting duct system, and juxtaglomerular apparatus. Key cellular components such as podocytes, mesangial cells, and intercalated cells are also discussed. The functions of the kidney in regulating fluid and electrolyte balance and producing hormones are briefly introduced.
Cells in tissues work together in groups for specific functions. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissues line surfaces and form glands. They are classified based on the number of cell layers (simple vs stratified) and cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar). Simple epithelia are single layers, while stratified have multiple layers. Epithelial tissues have specialized junctions and polarity. Their main functions are protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration.
The document provides an overview of the histology of the female reproductive system, including the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, and vulva. It describes the structure and cellular composition of each part. The ovaries contain primordial, primary, and secondary follicles that develop into Graafian follicles and later the corpus luteum. The oviduct is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium and transports the egg. The uterus has a simple columnar epithelium and glands, with thick smooth muscle walls. The vagina and vulva are lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
The nephron is the functional and structural unit of the kidney that filters blood. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, each with two main components - a vascular component consisting of a glomerulus and blood vessels, and a tubular component. The tubular component filters blood and is composed of Bowman's capsule, proximal and distal tubules, and the loop of Henle. Blood enters the nephron via the afferent arteriole and is filtered in the glomerulus before exiting via the efferent arteriole. Nephrons are either cortical or juxtamedullary, depending on the location of the glomerulus within the kidney cortex or medulla.
This document discusses the four major types of adult tissues - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. It provides details on the classification, structure and functions of each type of tissue. The key points are:
1) Tissues are classified based on structure, composition and function. The four major types are epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue.
2) Epithelial tissues cover surfaces, line organs and form glands. They protect, absorb, secrete and transport. Connective tissues connect, support and protect other tissues. Muscle tissues contract to cause movement and pumping blood. Nervous tissues transmit electrical signals.
3) Each tissue contains different cell types and extracellular matrix to suit their functions.
The document provides information on the digestive system. It discusses the different parts of the digestive system including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It describes the histological layers common to the tubular organs of the digestive system, including the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa/adventitia. It also provides details on the microscopic structure and functions of the various glands and tissues within these organs.
The document provides an overview of the urinary system, including its main organs and functions. It describes the anatomy and histology of the kidney, nephron, ureters, and urinary bladder. It explains the three main processes of urine formation - glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. It also discusses some common urinary tract diseases and the relationships between the urinary system and other body systems.
The document provides details on renal anatomy and histology. It describes the structure and function of the kidney, nephron, blood supply, and other components. Key points include:
- The kidney contains nephrons that filter blood to form urine and regulate water/electrolyte balance.
- Nephrons consist of a renal corpuscle, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule and collecting duct.
- Juxtamedullary nephrons help concentrate urine while cortical nephrons filter plasma and reabsorb molecules.
- The macula densa and juxtaglomerular apparatus sense filtration rate and regulate blood pressure.
This document provides an overview of the normal histology of the kidney. It describes the anatomy and histological features of the major structures of the kidney, including the cortex, medulla, renal corpuscle, nephron (glomerulus, proximal and distal tubules, loop of Henle), collecting duct system, and juxtaglomerular apparatus. Key cellular components such as podocytes, mesangial cells, and intercalated cells are also discussed. The functions of the kidney in regulating fluid and electrolyte balance and producing hormones are briefly introduced.
Cells in tissues work together in groups for specific functions. There are four main types of tissues: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissues line surfaces and form glands. They are classified based on the number of cell layers (simple vs stratified) and cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar). Simple epithelia are single layers, while stratified have multiple layers. Epithelial tissues have specialized junctions and polarity. Their main functions are protection, secretion, absorption, and filtration.
The document provides an overview of the histology of the female reproductive system, including the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, vagina, and vulva. It describes the structure and cellular composition of each part. The ovaries contain primordial, primary, and secondary follicles that develop into Graafian follicles and later the corpus luteum. The oviduct is lined by ciliated columnar epithelium and transports the egg. The uterus has a simple columnar epithelium and glands, with thick smooth muscle walls. The vagina and vulva are lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
The nephron is the functional and structural unit of the kidney that filters blood. Each kidney contains approximately one million nephrons, each with two main components - a vascular component consisting of a glomerulus and blood vessels, and a tubular component. The tubular component filters blood and is composed of Bowman's capsule, proximal and distal tubules, and the loop of Henle. Blood enters the nephron via the afferent arteriole and is filtered in the glomerulus before exiting via the efferent arteriole. Nephrons are either cortical or juxtamedullary, depending on the location of the glomerulus within the kidney cortex or medulla.
This document discusses the four major types of adult tissues - epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue. It provides details on the classification, structure and functions of each type of tissue. The key points are:
1) Tissues are classified based on structure, composition and function. The four major types are epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissue.
2) Epithelial tissues cover surfaces, line organs and form glands. They protect, absorb, secrete and transport. Connective tissues connect, support and protect other tissues. Muscle tissues contract to cause movement and pumping blood. Nervous tissues transmit electrical signals.
3) Each tissue contains different cell types and extracellular matrix to suit their functions.
The document provides information on the digestive system. It discusses the different parts of the digestive system including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. It describes the histological layers common to the tubular organs of the digestive system, including the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa/adventitia. It also provides details on the microscopic structure and functions of the various glands and tissues within these organs.
The document provides an overview of the urinary system, including its main organs and functions. It describes the anatomy and histology of the kidney, nephron, ureters, and urinary bladder. It explains the three main processes of urine formation - glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. It also discusses some common urinary tract diseases and the relationships between the urinary system and other body systems.
The document describes the general structure and functions of the digestive system. It is composed of the gastrointestinal tract, which includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, as well as accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Together these organs ingest, break down, absorb and eliminate food and waste products from the body. The document provides details on the histology and roles of each section of the GI tract and accessory organs in the multi-step digestive process.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. Each kidney contains over a million nephrons, the functional units that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb useful substances along the renal tubules. The kidneys secrete urine that travels through ureters to the bladder, where it is temporarily stored then expelled through the urethra. The urinary system plays critical roles in homeostasis by filtering wastes and regulating water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.
The document discusses the microstructure of the cardiovascular system. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to understand the histology of the heart including its structure, muscles, and conduction system. It then describes the layers of the heart walls including the endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium. It explains the specialized cardiac muscle cells and conduction system. Finally, it discusses the histological features of arteries, veins, and capillaries focusing on their layers and differences between vessel types.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain millions of nephrons, which are the functional units that filter blood to form urine. Each nephron includes a renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until emptying via the urethra.
The urinary system functions to filter waste from the blood and regulate fluid levels. The kidneys contain nephrons, which are the functional filtering units. Each nephron contains a renal corpuscle with glomerulus for blood filtration, and a renal tubule for reabsorption and secretion. Filtrate passes through the glomerulus and along the tubule, where it is modified before collection in the ureters and storage in the bladder for excretion. The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
Human tissues begin developing in the embryo from fertilization to 3 weeks of age, forming the three primary germ layers - ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - which give rise to the four main tissue types. Some tissues have stem cells that allow regeneration, while others like nervous tissue do not renew. The approximately 200 cell types in the body differentiate through gene expression to specialize in structure and function. Differentiated cells then combine into tissues through an extracellular matrix to form the structures of organs and carry out the functions of the body.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The kidneys contain millions of nephrons, which are the functional filtering units. Urine is formed in the nephrons through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder via the ureters for storage and then exits the body through the urethra. The urinary system plays an important role in homeostasis by regulating fluid balance and removing waste.
The mucose membrane lining of gastrointestinal tract is stratified squamous epithelium at the esophagus which slowly convert into simple columnar epithelium at the stomach until the anus it converts back into the stratified squamous epithelium at the lower half of the anal canal. The stratified epithelium is a wear and tear epithelium.
As it passes down from the small to large intestine, goblet cells increase because as it passes down water was absorb, goblet cells function to produce mucous.
This is just a rough idea, for better slides with more reference please PM the author at davidgqf@gmail.com.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and consists of a renal corpuscle containing the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule, and renal tubules. The renal cortex contains proximal convoluted tubules and distal convoluted tubules as well as interlobular arteries and veins. The glomerulus contains glomerular capillaries that filter blood, with mesangial cells helping to control glomerular function and blood pressure. Filtration occurs through the capillary endothelium, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes before entering the proximal tubules where most reabsorption occurs.
The document summarizes the histology of the liver. It describes the liver's location, vascular supply from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery, and histological structure. The liver structure consists of connective tissue capsule, trabeculae that branch into the interior, and reticular fibers that support endothelial cells lining hepatic sinusoids. The liver parenchyma is organized into thousands of hepatic lobules centered around a central vein and containing hepatocytes radiating in plates.
Hematopoiesis: Formation of Blood Cells - An OverviewStudyFriend
Hematopoiesis or haemopoiesis is a process of formation of blood cellular components, i.e. formation, development, and differentiation of blood cells, which are derived from haematopoietic stem cells (HSC).
1) Muscular tissue is composed of three main types - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones, while smooth muscle is involuntary and not striated, found in organs and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, unique to the heart.
2) All muscle types contain bundles of proteins called myofilaments that slide past each other to cause contraction. Skeletal muscle contains sarcomeres with overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Smooth muscle lacks sarcomeres but contains dense bodies. Cardiac muscle contains intercalated discs allowing synchronized contraction.
3) Contraction is initiated by calcium release from the sarcoplasmic retic
The document summarizes the histological structure of the pancreas. It describes the pancreas as having both exocrine and endocrine parts. The exocrine portion consists of acini that secrete digestive enzymes through a system of ducts into the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels. On a microscopic level, the exocrine pancreas is made up of serous acini composed of pyramidal cells that secrete enzymes into the lumen, while the islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatost
The spleen filters blood and mounts immune responses. It produces blood cells before birth but later filters out old red blood cells and mounts immune responses via white pulp and macrophages in red pulp. Congenital asplenia or splenectomy reduce immunity. Hyposplenism results in slower adaptive immunity and increased infection risk like overwhelming sepsis from pneumococcus. Diagnosis examines anatomy and function via imaging and blood smears. Complications include lifelong risk of sepsis.
This document provides an overview of the histology of the urinary system. It describes the key components and functions of the kidneys, nephrons, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter blood to form urine and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and includes the glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct. Urine passes from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder for temporary storage before being released through the urethra.
This document provides an overview of general histology. It discusses the basic tissues including epithelium, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. It then describes the different types of epithelia such as squamous, cuboidal, columnar epithelia. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, cartilage, bone and muscle tissues. Finally, it discusses the structure and layers of nervous tissue, the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
The respiratory system can be divided into a conducting portion and respiratory portion. The conducting portion includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, while the respiratory portion includes bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli where gas exchange occurs. As the passageways branch from the trachea into smaller bronchioles, the epithelium changes from pseudostratified ciliated columnar to simple cuboidal or squamous, and cartilages and glands disappear. In the alveoli, a thin blood-air barrier allows for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the alveolar air space and capillaries.
The liver is the largest internal organ located in the upper right and partially left abdomen. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions performed by hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are arranged in plates separated by sinusoids, with a space of Disse between hepatocytes and sinusoidal cells. The liver lobule is the basic functional unit, and has a dual blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein. The liver performs many vital roles including bile production, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis, hormone degradation, detoxification, and immune functions.
Histology of Gall bladder and its formation which consist of mainly 3 layers which they are:
- Mucosa
- Muscularis / Fibromuscular layer
- Serosa / Adventitia
And you must note that there is no Muscularis mucosa
& Submucosa inside Gall bladder...
Prepared by Nahry Omer Muhammad, University of Sulaimany/Collage of Medicine
The male reproductive system consists of external genitals (penis, scrotum) and internal structures (testes, duct system). The testes contain seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs, producing sperm. Leydig cells in the testes secrete testosterone. The duct system transports sperm from the testes to the urethra for ejaculation, consisting of the rete testis, efferent ductules, epididymis, vas deferens, and ejaculatory ducts lined by pseudostratified epithelium. The urethra carries urine and semen.
The document provides information about the endocrine system and several endocrine glands, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, and adrenal glands. It describes the general structure and cellular composition of each gland. The pituitary gland has an anterior, intermediate, and posterior region. The thyroid gland contains follicles that store hormones. The parathyroid glands contain chief and oxyphil cells. The adrenal glands have an outer cortex with three zones and an inner medulla.
The document describes the general structure and functions of the digestive system. It is composed of the gastrointestinal tract, which includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, as well as accessory organs like the liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Together these organs ingest, break down, absorb and eliminate food and waste products from the body. The document provides details on the histology and roles of each section of the GI tract and accessory organs in the multi-step digestive process.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. Each kidney contains over a million nephrons, the functional units that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb useful substances along the renal tubules. The kidneys secrete urine that travels through ureters to the bladder, where it is temporarily stored then expelled through the urethra. The urinary system plays critical roles in homeostasis by filtering wastes and regulating water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.
The document discusses the microstructure of the cardiovascular system. It begins by outlining the learning objectives which are to understand the histology of the heart including its structure, muscles, and conduction system. It then describes the layers of the heart walls including the endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium. It explains the specialized cardiac muscle cells and conduction system. Finally, it discusses the histological features of arteries, veins, and capillaries focusing on their layers and differences between vessel types.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain millions of nephrons, which are the functional units that filter blood to form urine. Each nephron includes a renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until emptying via the urethra.
The urinary system functions to filter waste from the blood and regulate fluid levels. The kidneys contain nephrons, which are the functional filtering units. Each nephron contains a renal corpuscle with glomerulus for blood filtration, and a renal tubule for reabsorption and secretion. Filtrate passes through the glomerulus and along the tubule, where it is modified before collection in the ureters and storage in the bladder for excretion. The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
Human tissues begin developing in the embryo from fertilization to 3 weeks of age, forming the three primary germ layers - ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm - which give rise to the four main tissue types. Some tissues have stem cells that allow regeneration, while others like nervous tissue do not renew. The approximately 200 cell types in the body differentiate through gene expression to specialize in structure and function. Differentiated cells then combine into tissues through an extracellular matrix to form the structures of organs and carry out the functions of the body.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The kidneys contain millions of nephrons, which are the functional filtering units. Urine is formed in the nephrons through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder via the ureters for storage and then exits the body through the urethra. The urinary system plays an important role in homeostasis by regulating fluid balance and removing waste.
The mucose membrane lining of gastrointestinal tract is stratified squamous epithelium at the esophagus which slowly convert into simple columnar epithelium at the stomach until the anus it converts back into the stratified squamous epithelium at the lower half of the anal canal. The stratified epithelium is a wear and tear epithelium.
As it passes down from the small to large intestine, goblet cells increase because as it passes down water was absorb, goblet cells function to produce mucous.
This is just a rough idea, for better slides with more reference please PM the author at davidgqf@gmail.com.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and consists of a renal corpuscle containing the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule, and renal tubules. The renal cortex contains proximal convoluted tubules and distal convoluted tubules as well as interlobular arteries and veins. The glomerulus contains glomerular capillaries that filter blood, with mesangial cells helping to control glomerular function and blood pressure. Filtration occurs through the capillary endothelium, glomerular basement membrane, and podocytes before entering the proximal tubules where most reabsorption occurs.
The document summarizes the histology of the liver. It describes the liver's location, vascular supply from the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery, and histological structure. The liver structure consists of connective tissue capsule, trabeculae that branch into the interior, and reticular fibers that support endothelial cells lining hepatic sinusoids. The liver parenchyma is organized into thousands of hepatic lobules centered around a central vein and containing hepatocytes radiating in plates.
Hematopoiesis: Formation of Blood Cells - An OverviewStudyFriend
Hematopoiesis or haemopoiesis is a process of formation of blood cellular components, i.e. formation, development, and differentiation of blood cells, which are derived from haematopoietic stem cells (HSC).
1) Muscular tissue is composed of three main types - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones, while smooth muscle is involuntary and not striated, found in organs and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, unique to the heart.
2) All muscle types contain bundles of proteins called myofilaments that slide past each other to cause contraction. Skeletal muscle contains sarcomeres with overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Smooth muscle lacks sarcomeres but contains dense bodies. Cardiac muscle contains intercalated discs allowing synchronized contraction.
3) Contraction is initiated by calcium release from the sarcoplasmic retic
The document summarizes the histological structure of the pancreas. It describes the pancreas as having both exocrine and endocrine parts. The exocrine portion consists of acini that secrete digestive enzymes through a system of ducts into the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels. On a microscopic level, the exocrine pancreas is made up of serous acini composed of pyramidal cells that secrete enzymes into the lumen, while the islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatost
The spleen filters blood and mounts immune responses. It produces blood cells before birth but later filters out old red blood cells and mounts immune responses via white pulp and macrophages in red pulp. Congenital asplenia or splenectomy reduce immunity. Hyposplenism results in slower adaptive immunity and increased infection risk like overwhelming sepsis from pneumococcus. Diagnosis examines anatomy and function via imaging and blood smears. Complications include lifelong risk of sepsis.
This document provides an overview of the histology of the urinary system. It describes the key components and functions of the kidneys, nephrons, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter blood to form urine and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and includes the glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and collecting duct. Urine passes from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder for temporary storage before being released through the urethra.
This document provides an overview of general histology. It discusses the basic tissues including epithelium, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous tissue. It then describes the different types of epithelia such as squamous, cuboidal, columnar epithelia. It also describes the different types of connective tissues, cartilage, bone and muscle tissues. Finally, it discusses the structure and layers of nervous tissue, the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
The respiratory system can be divided into a conducting portion and respiratory portion. The conducting portion includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, while the respiratory portion includes bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli where gas exchange occurs. As the passageways branch from the trachea into smaller bronchioles, the epithelium changes from pseudostratified ciliated columnar to simple cuboidal or squamous, and cartilages and glands disappear. In the alveoli, a thin blood-air barrier allows for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the alveolar air space and capillaries.
The liver is the largest internal organ located in the upper right and partially left abdomen. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions performed by hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are arranged in plates separated by sinusoids, with a space of Disse between hepatocytes and sinusoidal cells. The liver lobule is the basic functional unit, and has a dual blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein. The liver performs many vital roles including bile production, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, protein synthesis, hormone degradation, detoxification, and immune functions.
Histology of Gall bladder and its formation which consist of mainly 3 layers which they are:
- Mucosa
- Muscularis / Fibromuscular layer
- Serosa / Adventitia
And you must note that there is no Muscularis mucosa
& Submucosa inside Gall bladder...
Prepared by Nahry Omer Muhammad, University of Sulaimany/Collage of Medicine
The male reproductive system consists of external genitals (penis, scrotum) and internal structures (testes, duct system). The testes contain seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs, producing sperm. Leydig cells in the testes secrete testosterone. The duct system transports sperm from the testes to the urethra for ejaculation, consisting of the rete testis, efferent ductules, epididymis, vas deferens, and ejaculatory ducts lined by pseudostratified epithelium. The urethra carries urine and semen.
The document provides information about the endocrine system and several endocrine glands, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, and adrenal glands. It describes the general structure and cellular composition of each gland. The pituitary gland has an anterior, intermediate, and posterior region. The thyroid gland contains follicles that store hormones. The parathyroid glands contain chief and oxyphil cells. The adrenal glands have an outer cortex with three zones and an inner medulla.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The basic functional unit of the kidneys is the nephron, which filters blood in the glomerulus and reabsorbs and secretes substances through specialized tubules. Urine is stored in the bladder and expelled through the urethra.
The urinary system removes waste from the body via the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter blood to form urine via nephrons, which consist of a renal corpuscle and renal tubule. Urine passes from nephrons to the renal pelvis and ureters into the bladder, then exits via the urethra. The kidneys also regulate electrolytes and blood pressure by producing hormones like erythropoietin and renin.
The urinary system removes waste from the body via the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter blood to form urine via nephrons, which consist of a renal corpuscle and renal tubule. Urine passes from nephrons to the renal pelvis and ureters into the bladder, then exits via the urethra. The kidneys also regulate electrolytes and blood pressure by producing hormones like erythropoietin and renin.
The document summarizes renal physiology and kidney function. The kidney maintains homeostasis by precisely regulating the balance of water, electrolytes, and other substances in the body through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Key functions include regulating fluid volume and composition, electrolyte levels, and excretion of wastes while conserving essential nutrients. These processes occur along the functional units of the kidney called nephrons.
The document provides detailed information on the anatomy and structures of the renal (kidney) system. It discusses the location and descriptions of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. It describes the internal structures of the kidneys including the cortex, medulla, renal pyramids, and nephrons. It discusses the microstructure of the nephrons and how they filter blood to form urine. It also discusses the blood supply, lymphatic drainage, and innervation of the kidneys.
The document provides information on the renal system and its organs. It describes the anatomy and microscopic structure of the kidneys, ureters, and urinary bladder. The kidneys are described as bean-shaped organs located retroperitoneally on the posterior abdominal wall. The kidneys contain nephrons, the functional units that filter blood to form urine. Urine travels from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until excretion.
This document provides an introduction to the cardiovascular system, including its main components and functions. It discusses the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart is described as a four-chambered muscular organ that pumps blood through the arteries to the body and returns it via the veins. Arteries are thicker-walled and have smaller lumens than veins. Veins contain valves to direct blood flow back to the heart. Capillaries and sinusoids facilitate the exchange of nutrients and waste. The document outlines the systemic, pulmonary, and portal circulations that transport blood throughout the body.
This document provides a study guide for histology terms related to cell nuclei, cytoplasm, epithelial tissues, glands, cilia, microvilli, and cellular junctions. It defines key terms and describes what students should learn about the structure and function of various cell and tissue types, as well as variations that relate to cellular function. Specific examples are given of tissue structures like simple squamous epithelium in the ovaries and stratified squamous epithelium in the skin. Modes of glandular secretion and different exocrine and endocrine glands are also outlined.
This document provides a study guide for histology terms related to the nucleus, cytoplasm, epithelial tissues, glands, cilia, microvilli, and cellular junctions. It defines key terms and describes what students should learn about the structure and function of various cell and tissue types. For example, it explains the differences between euchromatin and heterochromatin in the nucleus, specialized inclusions in different cell types, and modes of secretion for exocrine and endocrine glands.
The document provides an eye and ear study guide that summarizes key structures and features. For the eye, it describes the three tunics (layers) that make up the eye wall, as well as internal structures like the aqueous and vitreous compartments, lens, zonular fibers, and retina. It also summarizes key features of the eyelid. For the ear, it outlines the external structures of the auricle and external auditory meatus, as well as the middle ear ossicles and auditory tube, and mentions the two main components of the inner ear.
The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, at which point urine passes through the urethra and out of the body. The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra each have distinct tissue layers including mucosa, muscularis, and serosa that allow them to perform their specialized functions within the urinary system.
The document summarizes the human excretory system. It describes the three main types of excretion - ammonotelism, ureotelism, and uricotelism. It then discusses the major organs of the human excretory system, including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood and regulate homeostasis. Urine is transported from the kidneys to the bladder via the ureters and is stored in the bladder before being excreted through the urethra.
This document provides a study guide for the digestive system. It outlines various structures and features to identify when examining slides of different parts of the digestive system under a microscope, including:
- The lips, tongue, salivary glands, teeth, soft palate, epiglottis, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and appendix.
- Key features to identify include the epithelial lining, lamina propria, muscularis mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa/adventitia, glands, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic tissue in each region.
- Specific structures like lingual
The male urogenital system develops from the intermediate mesoderm and cloaca. The kidneys develop from the nephrogenic cord in the sacral region and ascend to the lumbar region. Each kidney contains millions of nephrons which filter blood to form urine. The ureters develop from the ureteric buds and connect the kidneys to the urinary bladder, which develops from the urogenital sinus and stores urine.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood in the form of urine, which travels through the ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine until urination, when it is expelled through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which filter the blood and reabsorb necessary substances, producing urine that is collected and excreted.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to form urine and are located retroperitoneally near the waist. Each kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, the functional filtering units. Nephrons have a glomerulus for blood filtration and a renal tubule for modifying the filtrate. Filtration occurs across the glomerular membrane due to starling forces and is regulated to maintain homeostasis. The modified filtrate becomes urine and is transported through the ureters to the bladder for storage and eventual excretion.
The kidneys are a pair of red bean-shaped organs, each about 10 cm long. They are located behind the stomach and liver. The kidneys contain millions of filtration units called nephrons. Each nephron contains a glomerulus with a cluster of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule. Blood enters the glomerulus from the renal artery and is filtered through the capillary walls into the Bowman's capsule. Waste products and extra water pass through tubules in the cortex and medulla before draining into the renal pelvis and exiting the kidneys via the ureters to be stored in the bladder.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the urinary system. It describes the kidneys, nephrons, blood filtration in the glomerulus, and the path of filtrate through the nephron tubules. It then outlines urine production and flow from the kidneys through the ureters into the bladder and urethra for excretion from the body.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
DECLARATION OF HELSINKI - History and principlesanaghabharat01
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Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
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Time-lapse embryo monitoring is an advanced imaging technique used in IVF to continuously observe embryo development. It captures high-resolution images at regular intervals, allowing embryologists to select the most viable embryos for transfer based on detailed growth patterns. This technology enhances embryo selection, potentially increasing pregnancy success rates.
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Respiratory issues like asthma are the most sensitive issue that is affecting millions worldwide. It hampers the daily activities leaving the body tired and breathless.
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Test bank for karp s cell and molecular biology 9th edition by gerald karp.pdfrightmanforbloodline
Test bank for karp s cell and molecular biology 9th edition by gerald karp.pdf
Test bank for karp s cell and molecular biology 9th edition by gerald karp.pdf
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The skin is the largest organ and its health plays a vital role among the other sense organs. The skin concerns like acne breakout, psoriasis, or anything similar along the lines, finding a qualified and experienced dermatologist becomes paramount.
5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT or Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that serves a range of roles in the human body. It is sometimes referred to as the happy chemical since it promotes overall well-being and happiness.
It is mostly found in the brain, intestines, and blood platelets.
5-HT is utilised to transport messages between nerve cells, is known to be involved in smooth muscle contraction, and adds to overall well-being and pleasure, among other benefits. 5-HT regulates the body's sleep-wake cycles and internal clock by acting as a precursor to melatonin.
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Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
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Dive into an in-depth exploration of the histological structure of female reproductive system with this comprehensive lecture. Presented by Dr. Ayesha Irfan, Assistant Professor of Anatomy, this presentation covers the Gross anatomy and functional histology of the female reproductive organs. Ideal for students, educators, and anyone interested in medical science, this lecture provides clear explanations, detailed diagrams, and valuable insights into female reproductive system. Enhance your knowledge and understanding of this essential aspect of human biology.
2. The Urinary System
• The urinary system functions primarily in
osmoregulation and excretion of toxic
metabolic waste products. In this
laboratory, we will examine the components
of the urinary system: the
kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
3. Kidney:
Overview & Anatomy
• The two kidneys lie behind the peritoneum on either side
of the upper lumbar vertebrae, embedded in fat in the
paravertebral gutters of the posterior abdominal wall
(dissection). The left kidney usually lies at a higher level
than the right.
• Covered by a thin capsule, the kidney comprises an outer
cortex and an inner medulla (schematic; dissection). The
medulla contains numerous pyramids; the apex of each
pyramid, called a renal papilla, projects into the renal sinus.
Urine discharged from the papillae is collected by about ten
trumpet-shaped chambers, the minor calyces, which unite
to form two or three major calyces. These then fuse into
the single, funnel-shaped renal pelvis, which is continuous
with the ureter.
4. Kidney:
Cortex
• Identify the cortex below the kidney capsule (4X).
• At higher magnification, identify the regions of the cortex. Note that the renal corpuscles (4X) are readily
visible.
• Identify medullary rays (4X, 4X, schematic) alternating with regions containing renal corpuscles and their
convoluted tubules (pars convoluta). Note that medullary rays are actually in the cortex. On the trichrome-
stained slide (O-031), the middle section is a cross-section of the kidney cortex that illustrates this
relationship very well.
5. Kidney:
Medulla
• Identify medullary pyramids, best seen in O-062B (1X).
• Identify the outer medulla and the inner medulla, best seen in slide SCPM070 (1X). The "outer stripe" and
"inner stripe" together comprise the outer medulla. What structural features make the inner and outer
stripes look different from each other (hint)?
• Identify papillae (1X, 4X).
6. Kidney:
Renal Sinus
• Identify minor calyces, best seen in O-062A and SCPM -070 (2X, 10X). Make sure you understand the
relationship of minor calyces to the major calyces and renal pelvis.
• Identify the renal pelvis.
7. Kidney:
Uriniferous Tubules
• Each uriniferous tubule is comprised of a nephron and
a collecting tubule (schematic). Although of different
embryological origins, these two tubular structures
unite during development to form an anatomical and
functional unit. The blind start of the uriniferous
tubule, Bowman's capsule, is intimately associated
with a vascular structure, the glomerulus.
Together, these structures form the renal corpuscle. At
this site, an ultrafiltrate of blood enters the lumen of
the nephron, and the process of urine formation
begins. The nephron has several regions, each with its
own distinct function in the production of urine (table).
8.
9. Renal Corpuscle
• Identify a glomerulus and the
surrounding Bowman's capsule
(20X, 40X).
• Look for a vascular pole (40X, 40X) and a
urinary pole (40X, 50X).
• Identify an afferent arteriole (10X, 50X);
you can be sure of its identity if it
branches from an intralobular artery.
You can try to find an efferent
arteriole, but this is only possible if you
find a lucky section that contains both
types of vessel.
• The visceral and parietal layers of
Bowman's capsule form during
development, when a knot of capillaries
invaginates into the tip of a primitive
renal tubule, much like a finger pushing
into an inflated balloon (schematic).
11. Kidney:
Proximal Convoluted Tubules
• Proximal convoluted tubules are
located around the renal corpuscles in
the pars convoluta, but are not
present in the medullary rays.
• Look for a proximal convoluted tubule
emerging from the urinary pole (40X)
of Bowman's capsule.
• Note that proximal convoluted tubules
(20X, 50X) have simple, low columnar
epithelium with a prominent apical
brush border, best seen in O-030
(50X, 100X, 100X). Typically, the brush
border is poorly preserved in most LM
slide preparations; only remnants of it
are observed in the lumen. You can
identify proximal tubules by their
brush border; distal tubules and
collecting tubules don't have a brush
border.
12. Kidney:
Proximal Convoluted Tubules
• PCT cells have basal striations, too
small to see at 40x; these represent
infoldings of the basal surface
membrane, into which are packed
large numbers of mitochondria
(arrows, EM). These infoldings increase
the basal surface area of the tubule
cells, much like the microvilli do on
their apical surfaces. Why do these
cells need such a large basal surface
area?
– Na/K ATPase present on the basal surface
to pump Na out into the blood (drives
reabsorption of both Na and water)
– Water enters/exits the PCT at both the
apical and basolateral surfaces
• The majority of tubules in regions
surrounding the renal corpuscles are
proximal convoluted tubules
(20X, 20X). Why is this the case?
– PCTs are the longest segments of the
nephron in the cortex, so there are more
PCT profiles in the cortical regions
containing renal corpuscles
14. Kidney:
Loop of Henle
• Thick descending limbs
of the loop of Henle.
These are located in
medullary rays
(20X, 50X), and continue
into the medulla. They
are histologically similar Contains both thick descending
to proximal convoluted and thick ascending limbs
tubules (although they
are straight, not
convoluted). They are
also called proximal
straight tubules.
15. Kidney:
Loop of Henle
• Thin limbs of the loop of Henle. These
loops connect the descending thick
and ascending thick limbs, and are only
found in the medulla. In
juxtamedullary nephrons, the thin
segment forms the loop of
Henle, while in cortical nephrons it
forms only part of the descending limb
of the loop.
• Examine several regions of medulla for
thin limbs, which are tubes made of
simple squamous epithelium. In cross-
section, the thin limbs (50X, 100X) look
like empty capillaries.
• In longitudinal views, you can
appreciate why the capillaries of the
medulla are called "straight vessels"
(vasa recta) (100X, 100X). These
capillaries often contain
erythrocytes, so you can distinguish
them easily from the thin limbs, which
are always empty.
16. Kidney:
Loop of Henle
• Thick ascending limbs of
the Loop of Henle. Also
called distal straight
tubules, these structures
(20X, 50X, 50X) can be
observed in medullary
rays and the medulla.
• Note that, in cross-
section, they look very
similar to distal
convoluted tubules
(although they are
straight, not convoluted).
17. Kidney:
Distal Convoluted Tubules
• Distal convoluted tubules.
These structures can be
observed in the vicinity of renal
corpuscles and proximal
convoluted tubules.
• DCTs are considerably shorter
than proximal convoluted
tubules, so they are less
frequent in a cross section of
the cortex (20X).
• Note that DCTs have a simple
cuboidal epithelium with no
brush border, and an empty
lumen (40X, 50X).
• Like PCT cells, DCT cells have
basal infoldings with many
mitochondria (arrows, EM).
18. Kidney:
Collecting Tubules and Ducts
• This portion of the uriniferous
tubule is primarily excretory in
function, although some
modification of urine tonicity
does occur here. To identify
collecting tubules, you may
find it easiest to begin near the
tip of the medullary papilla of
slide O-062A, then follow the
tubules up towards the cortex
(schematic, 1X, A → B → C →
D).
• Papillary ducts (20X, 40X).
These are the large collecting
ducts of the papillary
region, and drain into the
calyceal space (2X, 4X). At this
level, the ductal epithelium is
tall columnar.
19. Kidney:
Collecting Tubules and Ducts
• Moving up towards the cortex, you
should first encounter thin limbs as
well as capillaries (vasa recta)
(40X).
• Slightly higher, thick limbs appear
(ascending and descending), while
the collecting ducts are smaller and
their epithelium has become less
columnar (40X).
• Near the medulla/cortex border,
the collecting ducts are almost the
same size as the thick limbs, and
their epithelium is cuboidal; the
two types of tubule are therefore
difficult to distinguish (40X). From
this point on (i.e. in medullary
rays), you will not be expected to
distinguish collecting ducts and
tubules from thick limbs.
20. Kidney:
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
• Macula densa.
• Look near glomerular arterioles (at the
vascular pole) to identify this structure
(50X, 50X, 100X), which is a specialization
of the distal convoluted tubule.
• What does the term "macula densa"
mean?
• Juxtaglomerular cells.
• These cells are located in the afferent and
efferent arteriole walls next to a macula
densa; they are modified smooth muscle
cells with an epithelioid appearance (100X)
• JG cells contain renin granules, although
these cannot be distinguished at 40X on a
virtual slide.
• Lacis cells. Also called extraglomerular
mesangial cells, these are mesangial cells
that lie outside the renal corpuscle, and
that form part of the JG apparatus
(schematic). They cannot be reliably
identified in routine H&E preparations.
27. Renal Pelvis
• The renal pelvis is an expanded region of ureter that forms a cap over the renal papilla.
Hilum. Identify, where possible:
• Renal papilla.
– Identify Ducts of Bellini (4X, 10X) opening into the pelvicalyceal space.
• Minor calyx (4X, 10X) . Note the transitional epithelium lining the calyx.
28. Renal Ureter
Ureter (4X).
• Mucosa.
– Identify the characteristic transitional epithelium (50X).
– Note the stellate (star-shaped) lumen (4X).
– Identify lymphoid structures. (10X, 100X) PLASMA CELLS
• Muscularis.
– Identify smooth muscle layers (4X, 10X): inner longitudinal, outer circular (and outermost oblique or
longitudinal in lower ureter).
• Adventitia.
– This loose C.T. layer blends with the C.T. of neighbouring organs (10X).
29. Urinary Bladder
• The urinary bladder is structurally similar to the ureter. Compare the relaxed and distended sections.
Mucosa. (4X, 10X)
• Identify the transitional epithelium that forms the lining (40X).
• Muscularis. The greatest difference between ureter and bladder is found here.
• Note the significantly increased thickness of the smooth muscle tunic (4X).
• Identify autonomic ganglia (40X) embedded within the muscular wall. What is their function?
• Adventitia/Serosa.
• Note that the exposed regions of the bladder are covered by a serosa, while those regions that are
embedded within other bodily tissues are surrounded by a loose C.T. adventitia (20X).
• What are the two components of a serosa?
30. Histopathology:
Amyloidosis
• Amyloid is the general name for proteinaceous material that accumulates as abnormal deposits within
tissue spaces. Several different types of amyloid exist, but all are aggregates of polypeptides (protein
fragments) that have a beta-pleated sheet structure. In brain, amyloid accumulation accompanies
Alzheimer's disease; however, almost any organ can be affected.
In this kidney specimen (1X), the medulla contains aggregates of amorphous material surrounding the
ducts and tubules in this region (5X, 20X). The cortex appears relatively normal. Eventually, the deposits of
amyloid become so large that they obliterate the normal tissue structure.
32. Histopathology:
Renal Infarct
• An infarct is an area of ischemic necrosis (tissue damage caused by lack of oxygen) caused by blockage of
the arterial supply or the venous drainage in a tissue. In this case, blockage of an interlobar artery
(schematic) cut off blood flow to several interlobular arteries, resulting in necrosis of several kidney
lobules. Ischemic areas (1X) show severe structural damage (10X), while nearby areas appear normal
(10X).
33. Histopathology:
Polycystic Kidney Disease
• Polycystic kidney disease (specimen) is a relatively common (1/800 births) congenital, autosomal
dominant disease. Fluid-filled cysts develop from the PCT, DCT, and CT; these cysts disrupt the organ's
structure and function, leading to organ failure.