Higher education access in India is limited, with only 10% of the college-aged population having access. Geographic disparities exist, as northern India is less developed economically than southern India, resulting in fewer higher education opportunities. Social and economic status also influence access, as India's caste system historically discriminated against lower castes, limiting their financial resources and access to education. The government has implemented affirmative action policies like quotas to increase lower caste representation in education, though the effects have been limited. Disparities in India are similar to issues in the United States regarding lower economic class citizens having less access to higher education.

1. Higher Education in
India
Disparities in Access
Melinda Bolton
EDU 6450 Globalization of Higher Education
Dr. Patricia Bonnarigo
Summer 2015

2. Background
• India is the world’s third
largest economy, behind
China and the United States.
• According to
“Intergenerational and
Regional Differentials in
Higher Education in India”
only 10% of India’s college-
aged population has access
to higher education (2014).
– Perspective:
India’s population is 1.252 billion

3. Background (cont’d)
• By comparison, the study found that 22% of China’s
population and 28% of the United States’ has access to
higher education.
• From the 1990s to present, China’s Gross Enrollment
Population (GER) has grown from 5 million to 27 million.
• India’s GER has grown in this same amount of time from
5 million to 13 million.
-Statistics from Times of India, 2014

4. Common Terminology
• Scheduled Caste (SC) – the lowest caste, considered “untouchable”
(Dalits) in orthodox Hindu scriptures and practice, officially regarded as
socially disadvantaged.
• Scheduled Tribe (ST) – specific indigenous peoples whose status is
acknowledged to some formal degree by national legislation.
• Other Backward Classes (OBC) – a collective term used by the
government of India to classify castes which are socially and
educationally disadvantaged.
• Reservation – the process of setting aside a certain percentage of
seats (vacancies) in government institutions for members of backward
and underrepresented communities. Reservation is a form of quota-
based affirmative action.

5. Disparities in Access
The two largest causes of disparity in access to higher education in
India are:
• Geographic location – Northern India is less developed than
South India (Auslin, 2011). There are less opportunities for work as
there is less economic stimulation, as well as less opportunity for
education with fewer higher education institutions.
• Social and Economic Status – India has deep historical roots in
the caste system, the sociological classification system
determined by birth. The lowest of the caste are often
discriminated against due to their social status, and therefore in
poorer economic shape, limiting their access to education.

6. Geographic Location
• Those in North India have less access to
education than those in South India. Even
poor citizens in South India have better
access than those in the upper caste in
the North (Singh, 2011).
• This is largely due to less economic
resources in the region, as North India is
less developed than the southern region.
As citizens have less income, they are not
able to afford tuition and associated fees
at a higher education institution.
• Half of India’s Dalits live in four states,
three of which are in North India (Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar) – Sivakumar,
2013
• Image source: Shaguri, 2013

7. Social and Economic Factors
• “One of the key causes of fewer
enrolments in higher education is a
shortcoming of financial strength across
underrepresented masses” (Shaguri, 2013,
p.13)
• Indians of lower castes (SC, TC, OBC)
have fewer financial resources due to
discrimination based on class to attend
an institution of higher education.
• Though outlawed over 60 years ago, the
caste system still has marked effects on
education. Dalits/SC are still known as
“untouchables”, meaning they are not to
be touched due to their perceived dirty
or polluted nature. This causes isolation
and discrimination in all public spaces,
including education (BBC, 2012).

8. Reforms in Place
• “The lower castes have always been
underrepresented across all sectors
forcing…governments to take initiatives to
bridge the divide in…education…to help
them overcome their socially perceived
backwardness” (Shaguri, 2013, p. 10).
• These initiatives, otherwise known as
affirmative action, have come in the form
of reservations. Reservations increase
opportunity for higher social and
educational status by preserving a certain
number of vacancies in education and
employment for dalits, SC, TC, and OBC
citizens.
• Another government initiative is refund of
some institution associated fees for those
of lower castes.

9. Reforms (cont’d)
• With the enforcement of affirmative action and reservations
comes protest from those in higher castes. As the reservations
are only targeted towards lower class citizens, some citizens fear
it will eliminate the merit-based scholarship of higher education.
• Some research has shown that affirmative action has barely
moved the gap for the lower caste, with some graduation rates
even dropping for Dalits. This is in part due to reforms in admission
policies and quotas for financial requirements of students, which
many Dalits and others of the lower classes do not have (Desai &
Kulkarni, 2008).

10. Similarities to Higher Education in the
United States
• As I read about the caste systems in
India and their affect on higher
education access, I identified many
similarities to the United States’ issue
of higher education access.
• Many working-class citizens in the
U.S. lack access to higher
education due to less financial
resources than their wealthier
counterparts.
• Like India, the U.S. has employed
affirmative action to help its citizens
that are economically
disadvantaged, many of whom are
people of color, and are typically
discriminated against.

11. Lessons Learned
• India’s 10% higher education access rate is due mostly to
geographic location of college-aged students and the historical
caste system which discriminates against and isolates lower class
Indian citizens.
• The Indian government’s plan to increase enrollments and
bridge the gap in educational access has come in the form of
affirmative action, such as reservations in governmental
agencies to include lower caste citizens.
• Much of the disparities in college education access are similar to
those in the United States, with citizens of lower economic class
having access to higher education due to minimal financial
resources and class discrimination.

12. References
• Auslin, M. (2011). India’s Southern Promises. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703864204576314650888433110
• Basant, R., Sen, G. (2011). Access to Higher Education in India: An Exploration of its Antecedents. Indian Institute of Management
Ahmedabad and Observer Research Foundation. Retrieved from
http://www.fflch.usp.br/centrodametropole/antigo/static/uploads/the_access_to_higher_education_in_india_rakesh_and_gitanj
ali.pdf
• Desai, S., Kulkarni, V. (2008). Changing Educational Inequalities in India in the Context of Affirmative Action. National Center for
Biotechnology Information. 45(2), pp. 245-270
• India. (2012, June 27). India’s Dalits still fighting untouchability. British Broadcasting Company. Retrieved from
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-18394914
• Nagarajan, R. (2014). Only 10% of students have access to higher education in country. The Times of India. Retrieved from
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Only-10-of-students-have-access-to-higher-education-in-
country/articleshow/28420175.cms
• Shaguri, O.R. (2013). Higher Education in India: Access, Equity, Quality. European Access Network. Retrieved from
http://www.ean-edu.org/assets/highereducationindiashaguri.pdf
• Singh, J.D. (2011). Higher Education in India – Issues, Challenges and Suggestions. GV CTE College of Sangaria. Retrieved from
http://www.gvctesangaria.org/websiteimg/publications/jdarticle.pdf
• Sivakumar, B. (2013, May 2). Half of India’s dalit population lives in 4 states. The Times of India. Retrieved from
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Half-of-Indias-dalit-population-lives-in-4-states/articleshow/19827757.cms