This document discusses voice and transitivity in typology. It provides examples of how languages mark voice morphologically and analytically, including with reflexives, applicatives, causatives, and passives. Voice alterations change the relationship between semantic roles and grammatical relations in a clause. The document also discusses valency, transitivity, and other concepts relevant to analyzing voice cross-linguistically. Examples are provided from languages like Creek, Swahili, Japanese, Turkish, and others.
Hieber - An Introduction to Typology, Part I: Morphological TypologyDaniel Hieber
An Introduction to Typology, Part I: Morphological Typology. First in a three-part lecture series on language typology given to the Research & Development divisions of Rosetta Stone, June 15, 2012.
This document provides information about adverbs including their definition, use, form and types. It discusses how adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs to express manner, place, time or degree. It distinguishes between adjectives and adverbs and provides examples of each. The document also describes different types of adverbs such as adverbs of time, place, degree, manner and frequency. It discusses adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases. Finally, it covers how most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives and lists some irregular adverb forms.
This document provides information about adverbs including their definition, use, form and types. It discusses how adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs to express manner, place, time or degree. It distinguishes between adjectives and adverbs and provides examples of each. The document also describes different types of adverbs such as adverbs of time, place, degree, manner and frequency. It discusses adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases. Finally, it covers the formation of adverbs from adjectives, including those ending in -ly, -le, -y and some irregular forms. The document is intended to teach students about the use and formation of adverbs in the English language.
Nouns name people, places, things, and ideas. Verbs express actions and states of being. Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Prepositions show relationships within sentences and introduce prepositional phrases. Understanding parts of speech helps improve writing and serves as a foundation for proper English grammar.
This document provides information and examples about verbs, adverbs, and adjectives for an 8th grade English class. It includes lists of common verbs, adverbs, and adjectives as well as examples of their uses. Students are given tasks to identify and use these parts of speech in descriptive writing exercises about images provided.
The document provides information about the simple past tense in English. It discusses that the simple past is used for completed actions that occurred at a specific time in the past. It lists the characteristics of the simple past tense and provides examples of its uses including to talk about specific past actions, series of past actions, repeated past actions, and events from the long past. The document also discusses the formation of the simple past with regular and irregular verbs and provides exercises for students to practice.
This document defines and provides examples of the eight parts of speech: verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Verbs express actions or states of being. Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas. Pronouns replace nouns. Adjectives provide description. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositions show relationships between words. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. Interjections express emotion.
Hieber - An Introduction to Typology, Part I: Morphological TypologyDaniel Hieber
An Introduction to Typology, Part I: Morphological Typology. First in a three-part lecture series on language typology given to the Research & Development divisions of Rosetta Stone, June 15, 2012.
This document provides information about adverbs including their definition, use, form and types. It discusses how adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs to express manner, place, time or degree. It distinguishes between adjectives and adverbs and provides examples of each. The document also describes different types of adverbs such as adverbs of time, place, degree, manner and frequency. It discusses adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases. Finally, it covers how most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives and lists some irregular adverb forms.
This document provides information about adverbs including their definition, use, form and types. It discusses how adverbs modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs to express manner, place, time or degree. It distinguishes between adjectives and adverbs and provides examples of each. The document also describes different types of adverbs such as adverbs of time, place, degree, manner and frequency. It discusses adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases. Finally, it covers the formation of adverbs from adjectives, including those ending in -ly, -le, -y and some irregular forms. The document is intended to teach students about the use and formation of adverbs in the English language.
Nouns name people, places, things, and ideas. Verbs express actions and states of being. Adjectives describe nouns, while adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Prepositions show relationships within sentences and introduce prepositional phrases. Understanding parts of speech helps improve writing and serves as a foundation for proper English grammar.
This document provides information and examples about verbs, adverbs, and adjectives for an 8th grade English class. It includes lists of common verbs, adverbs, and adjectives as well as examples of their uses. Students are given tasks to identify and use these parts of speech in descriptive writing exercises about images provided.
The document provides information about the simple past tense in English. It discusses that the simple past is used for completed actions that occurred at a specific time in the past. It lists the characteristics of the simple past tense and provides examples of its uses including to talk about specific past actions, series of past actions, repeated past actions, and events from the long past. The document also discusses the formation of the simple past with regular and irregular verbs and provides exercises for students to practice.
This document defines and provides examples of the eight parts of speech: verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Verbs express actions or states of being. Nouns name people, places, things, or ideas. Pronouns replace nouns. Adjectives provide description. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositions show relationships between words. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. Interjections express emotion.
This document provides information on grammar topics in Spanish, including nationalities, stem-changing verbs, para, object pronouns, gustar, affirmative and negative words, superlatives, reflexive verbs, commands, and sequencing events. It defines terms, gives examples, and explains how to conjugate and use different parts of speech in Spanish, like verbs, pronouns, and adjectives.
Here are the sentences changed to passive voice where possible:
1. The uncontrolled rally was happened yesterday.
2. The winning goal was scored by our team.
3. A large vase is stood in front of the doorway in the library.
4. Shirley had been suggested.
An a b-c intro to canto for total new speakersBangulzai
This document provides an overview of the Cantonese language. It begins by noting that Cantonese has a wide sphere of influence, being spoken in Guangdong province, Hong Kong, Macau, parts of Southeast Asia, and Chinatowns around the world. It then discusses some key linguistic features of Cantonese, including that it is a tonal language with six tones, and has a similar grammatical structure to Mandarin but different analysis from an English perspective. The document proceeds to outline the agenda, which covers topics like phonology, morphology, parts of speech, word order, and concludes.
This document discusses verbals (participles, gerunds, and infinitives) and provides examples of how to identify them based on their function in a sentence. It explains that participles function as adjectives, gerunds function as nouns, and infinitives can function as subjects, objects, adjectives or adverbs. The document provides guidance on identifying the type of verbal based on its ending and how it is used in a sentence. Examples are given for each type of verbal and their functions to illustrate their proper identification and use.
This document defines and provides examples of three types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. It explains that participles are verb forms ending in "-ed" or "-ing" that function as adjectives. Gerunds are verb forms ending in "-ing" that function as nouns. Infinitives are verb forms preceded by "to" that can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. The document provides examples of each verbal and cautions against errors like misplaced modifiers and split infinitives.
1. The document discusses different types of verbals including infinitives, participles, and gerunds.
2. It provides examples of each verbal and explains how to identify them based on their use in sentences.
3. Key points include that verbals are verb forms used as other parts of speech, and each type has specific grammatical functions.
This document provides a table of contents and sections for a Spanish grammar book. It covers topics such as nationalities, stem changers, para, indirect object pronouns, pronoun placement, gustar, affirmative and negative words, superlatives, reflexives, affirmative and negative commands, and sequencing events. The sections provide explanations, examples, and conjugations for different grammar points in Spanish.
This document provides information about prepositional phrases. It defines prepositional phrases as phrases that start with a preposition followed by a noun. It notes that prepositional phrases can function as adjectival phrases or adverbial phrases. Adjectival phrases modify nouns and pronouns, answering questions like "which one" or "what kind." Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, answering questions about time, place, manner, etc. The document provides examples of different types of prepositional phrases and exercises for students to identify adjectival and adverbial phrases. It concludes by noting that noun phrases will be covered in the next class.
This document defines and provides examples of adverbs. It begins by stating that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, or clauses by indicating manner, place, cause, or degree. The document then provides examples of different types of adverbs including adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It discusses how most adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" and lists exceptions. It also explains the different kinds of adverbs like manner, place, time, frequency, and degree. The document concludes by covering adverb position, the three degrees of adverbs, forming comparative and superlative adverbs, irregular adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverb clauses
This document provides information about active and passive voice in English grammar. It defines key terms like voice, agent, patient, active voice, and passive voice. It explains how to identify whether a sentence is active or passive and gives rules for changing an active sentence to the passive voice. Specific cases are discussed, like sentences that cannot be changed to passive, sentences with two objects, and when the passive voice is generally used.
1. The document provides instruction on Spanish grammar concepts including pronoun placement, nationalities, stem-changing verbs, indirect object pronouns, reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and superlatives.
2. It explains how to form reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and superlatives. Examples are provided to demonstrate concepts like pronoun placement with commands.
3. Sequencing events in Spanish is discussed, including terms like primero, entonces, luego, después, por fin that indicate the order in which things occurred. Time phrases with por, la mañana, la tarde and la noche are also addressed.
1. The document provides instruction on Spanish grammar concepts including pronoun placement, nationalities, stem-changing verbs, indirect object pronouns, reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and sequencing events.
2. It explains rules for attaching object pronouns to verbs, conjugations of stem-changing verbs like jugar and contar, forms of the indirect object pronouns, and how to form reflexive verbs.
3. Affirmative and negative commands are discussed, including how to change the verb form and attach object pronouns for both regular and irregular verbs.
The document defines and provides examples of various grammatical structures including phrases and clauses. It discusses the key components of phrases, such as present participial phrases, adjective infinitive phrases, and adverb infinitive phrases. It also examines the differences between independent and subordinate clauses, and provides examples of adjective subordinate clauses, adverb subordinate clauses, and noun subordinate clauses. The document serves as a reference for the basic building blocks of language including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and other grammatical structures.
The document discusses the active and passive voice in writing. In the active voice, the subject performs the action, while in the passive voice the subject receives the action. The passive voice is commonly used in more formal writing when the actor or agent performing the action is unknown, unimportant, or obvious from context. It can also be used in narratives to describe a character being affected by events outside of their control.
This document provides instructions on how to change sentences from active to passive voice in English. It explains the basic structure of a passive sentence and how to identify whether a sentence is active or passive. Rules are presented for changing the voice of sentences in different tenses, including indefinite, continuous, and perfect tenses. Examples are given to demonstrate changing active sentences to their passive equivalents.
The document discusses the classification and typology of human languages. It describes how languages can be classified genetically based on common ancestry or typologically based on structural features. Genetic classification groups languages into language families that descend from a proto-language. Major language families mentioned include Indo-European. Typological classification examines morphological typology based on how languages combine morphemes and syntactic typology based on word order. The document also briefly discusses the origins and types of writing systems.
This document summarizes the services provided by a Russian language school called the Russian Language Centre (RLC). The RLC has highly qualified native Russian speaking teachers with extensive experience. It uses its own exclusive textbooks designed for adult learners from beginner to intermediate levels. Because Russian is its sole focus, the teachers can work as a team and share resources. The RLC offers group and individual courses in London, Moscow, and St. Petersburg at different times and levels. Students praise the teachers for being encouraging and for putting language in its cultural context.
The document discusses the history and spread of the Russian language throughout the 20th century and its decline following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It provides details on:
- How Russian became one of the most widely spoken languages in the world during the Soviet era and was the primary language of the USSR and its satellite states.
- Following the USSR's collapse in 1991, the use and study of Russian declined dramatically as former Soviet republics and Eastern bloc countries shifted towards their own languages or English.
- However, there is renewed interest in Russian from students and younger people in Europe and elsewhere due to cultural interest and growing economic ties with Russia.
The Russian alphabet was created in 962 CE by Greek monks, who adapted the Greek alphabet and added letters for Slavic sounds. Russian developed from Old Church Slavonic and is most closely related to Ukrainian and Belorussian. Russian uses a synthetic grammar with cases, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections. Pronunciation follows a consistent pattern and stress can shift meaning. Hard and soft consonants are distinguished, affecting pronunciation.
This document provides information on grammar topics in Spanish, including nationalities, stem-changing verbs, para, object pronouns, gustar, affirmative and negative words, superlatives, reflexive verbs, commands, and sequencing events. It defines terms, gives examples, and explains how to conjugate and use different parts of speech in Spanish, like verbs, pronouns, and adjectives.
Here are the sentences changed to passive voice where possible:
1. The uncontrolled rally was happened yesterday.
2. The winning goal was scored by our team.
3. A large vase is stood in front of the doorway in the library.
4. Shirley had been suggested.
An a b-c intro to canto for total new speakersBangulzai
This document provides an overview of the Cantonese language. It begins by noting that Cantonese has a wide sphere of influence, being spoken in Guangdong province, Hong Kong, Macau, parts of Southeast Asia, and Chinatowns around the world. It then discusses some key linguistic features of Cantonese, including that it is a tonal language with six tones, and has a similar grammatical structure to Mandarin but different analysis from an English perspective. The document proceeds to outline the agenda, which covers topics like phonology, morphology, parts of speech, word order, and concludes.
This document discusses verbals (participles, gerunds, and infinitives) and provides examples of how to identify them based on their function in a sentence. It explains that participles function as adjectives, gerunds function as nouns, and infinitives can function as subjects, objects, adjectives or adverbs. The document provides guidance on identifying the type of verbal based on its ending and how it is used in a sentence. Examples are given for each type of verbal and their functions to illustrate their proper identification and use.
This document defines and provides examples of three types of verbals: participles, gerunds, and infinitives. It explains that participles are verb forms ending in "-ed" or "-ing" that function as adjectives. Gerunds are verb forms ending in "-ing" that function as nouns. Infinitives are verb forms preceded by "to" that can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. The document provides examples of each verbal and cautions against errors like misplaced modifiers and split infinitives.
1. The document discusses different types of verbals including infinitives, participles, and gerunds.
2. It provides examples of each verbal and explains how to identify them based on their use in sentences.
3. Key points include that verbals are verb forms used as other parts of speech, and each type has specific grammatical functions.
This document provides a table of contents and sections for a Spanish grammar book. It covers topics such as nationalities, stem changers, para, indirect object pronouns, pronoun placement, gustar, affirmative and negative words, superlatives, reflexives, affirmative and negative commands, and sequencing events. The sections provide explanations, examples, and conjugations for different grammar points in Spanish.
This document provides information about prepositional phrases. It defines prepositional phrases as phrases that start with a preposition followed by a noun. It notes that prepositional phrases can function as adjectival phrases or adverbial phrases. Adjectival phrases modify nouns and pronouns, answering questions like "which one" or "what kind." Adverbial phrases modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, answering questions about time, place, manner, etc. The document provides examples of different types of prepositional phrases and exercises for students to identify adjectival and adverbial phrases. It concludes by noting that noun phrases will be covered in the next class.
This document defines and provides examples of adverbs. It begins by stating that adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, or clauses by indicating manner, place, cause, or degree. The document then provides examples of different types of adverbs including adverbs that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. It discusses how most adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" and lists exceptions. It also explains the different kinds of adverbs like manner, place, time, frequency, and degree. The document concludes by covering adverb position, the three degrees of adverbs, forming comparative and superlative adverbs, irregular adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverb clauses
This document provides information about active and passive voice in English grammar. It defines key terms like voice, agent, patient, active voice, and passive voice. It explains how to identify whether a sentence is active or passive and gives rules for changing an active sentence to the passive voice. Specific cases are discussed, like sentences that cannot be changed to passive, sentences with two objects, and when the passive voice is generally used.
1. The document provides instruction on Spanish grammar concepts including pronoun placement, nationalities, stem-changing verbs, indirect object pronouns, reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and superlatives.
2. It explains how to form reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and superlatives. Examples are provided to demonstrate concepts like pronoun placement with commands.
3. Sequencing events in Spanish is discussed, including terms like primero, entonces, luego, después, por fin that indicate the order in which things occurred. Time phrases with por, la mañana, la tarde and la noche are also addressed.
1. The document provides instruction on Spanish grammar concepts including pronoun placement, nationalities, stem-changing verbs, indirect object pronouns, reflexive verbs, affirmative and negative commands, and sequencing events.
2. It explains rules for attaching object pronouns to verbs, conjugations of stem-changing verbs like jugar and contar, forms of the indirect object pronouns, and how to form reflexive verbs.
3. Affirmative and negative commands are discussed, including how to change the verb form and attach object pronouns for both regular and irregular verbs.
The document defines and provides examples of various grammatical structures including phrases and clauses. It discusses the key components of phrases, such as present participial phrases, adjective infinitive phrases, and adverb infinitive phrases. It also examines the differences between independent and subordinate clauses, and provides examples of adjective subordinate clauses, adverb subordinate clauses, and noun subordinate clauses. The document serves as a reference for the basic building blocks of language including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and other grammatical structures.
The document discusses the active and passive voice in writing. In the active voice, the subject performs the action, while in the passive voice the subject receives the action. The passive voice is commonly used in more formal writing when the actor or agent performing the action is unknown, unimportant, or obvious from context. It can also be used in narratives to describe a character being affected by events outside of their control.
This document provides instructions on how to change sentences from active to passive voice in English. It explains the basic structure of a passive sentence and how to identify whether a sentence is active or passive. Rules are presented for changing the voice of sentences in different tenses, including indefinite, continuous, and perfect tenses. Examples are given to demonstrate changing active sentences to their passive equivalents.
The document discusses the classification and typology of human languages. It describes how languages can be classified genetically based on common ancestry or typologically based on structural features. Genetic classification groups languages into language families that descend from a proto-language. Major language families mentioned include Indo-European. Typological classification examines morphological typology based on how languages combine morphemes and syntactic typology based on word order. The document also briefly discusses the origins and types of writing systems.
This document summarizes the services provided by a Russian language school called the Russian Language Centre (RLC). The RLC has highly qualified native Russian speaking teachers with extensive experience. It uses its own exclusive textbooks designed for adult learners from beginner to intermediate levels. Because Russian is its sole focus, the teachers can work as a team and share resources. The RLC offers group and individual courses in London, Moscow, and St. Petersburg at different times and levels. Students praise the teachers for being encouraging and for putting language in its cultural context.
The document discusses the history and spread of the Russian language throughout the 20th century and its decline following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. It provides details on:
- How Russian became one of the most widely spoken languages in the world during the Soviet era and was the primary language of the USSR and its satellite states.
- Following the USSR's collapse in 1991, the use and study of Russian declined dramatically as former Soviet republics and Eastern bloc countries shifted towards their own languages or English.
- However, there is renewed interest in Russian from students and younger people in Europe and elsewhere due to cultural interest and growing economic ties with Russia.
The Russian alphabet was created in 962 CE by Greek monks, who adapted the Greek alphabet and added letters for Slavic sounds. Russian developed from Old Church Slavonic and is most closely related to Ukrainian and Belorussian. Russian uses a synthetic grammar with cases, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections. Pronunciation follows a consistent pattern and stress can shift meaning. Hard and soft consonants are distinguished, affecting pronunciation.
Creating an Open Source Genealogical Search Engine with Apache SolrBrooke Ganz
Set Your Records Free!
LeafSeek is a new tool that helps you turn your genealogical or historical record collections into searchable online databases. Combine multiple datasets of different types — such as birth, marriage, and military records — into one unified searchable website. Find inter-connections in your data that you never noticed before.
With great features like built-in geo-spatial searches, pop-up Google Maps, Beider-Morse Phonetic Matching, name synonyms, and language localization, LeafSeek can help you turn your spreadsheets of names and dates into a full-featured genealogy search engine. It’s designed for researchers and genealogy societies alike.
Oh, and one more thing: LeafSeek is free and open source. No strings attached.
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian LanguageLegesse Allyn
Amarigna & Tigrigna Qal Roots of Russian Language: The Not So Distant African Roots of the Russian Language
Authored by Legesse Allyn
https://www.amazon.com/Amarigna-Tigrigna-Roots-Russian-Language/dp/1534891935
List Price: $14.95
8" x 10" (20.32 x 25.4 cm)
Black & White on White paper
88 pages
ISBN-13: 978-1534891937
ISBN-10: 1534891935
BISAC: Language Arts & Disciplines / Linguistics / Historical & Comparative
The Russian language is rooted in the east African,
ancient Egyptian dual languages of Amarigna and Tigrigna. This book provides a small sampling of the not so distant African linguistic roots of the words in Russian.
This document provides a pre-incident plan for a Safeway grocery store. It includes details about the building dimensions, statistics, exits, utilities, exposures, fire load, hazards, life safety features, and water supply. The building is approximately 30 years old with a flat roof, concrete walls, sprinkler system, and fire alarms. Exposures include another Safeway and an RV park. Hazards include lighter fluid and a deep fryer. The sprinkler system is located throughout the building. Water is supplied via fire hydrants and various amounts of water are needed depending on fire involvement from 4,400 to 8,800 GPM.
towards mulitlingual cultural lexicography. the russian dialect dictionary as...eveline wandl-vogt
the presentation introduces into a new collaboration between the russian academy of sciences and the austrian academy of sciences. the project described is the russian dialect dictionary. the presentation introduces first time into the main project ideas concerning research infrastructures, interoperability and accessability. the transformation process is discussed against the background of open science, citizen science and open innovation.
added value of the collaboration and first steps towards cultural lexicography are discussed on the example of the collaboration with the natural history museum in vienna and on the reusability of common names for cultural heritage instituions such as europeana.
This document provides an overview of Russia, the Russian language, and Russians. It includes brief biographical information about the author Ekaterina Vylomova. It then covers basic facts about Russia, including geography, climate, population centers, and travel destinations. It discusses the history and development of the Russian language. It also compares and contrasts features of Russian and English grammar and lexicon. Finally, it notes cultural differences in greetings between Russians and Americans.
This document analyzes errors in two reaction papers written by L2 learners. It identifies common error categories and provides examples. The main categories are morphological agreement, tense, misuse, and punctuation. For each category, the document explains what it is, provides examples from the papers, and gives tips on how to avoid or correct typical mistakes in that area. These include ensuring subjects and verbs agree, maintaining consistent verb tense, checking word meanings in context and with a dictionary, and properly using punctuation.
This document discusses different types of morphological systems and morphological operations. It begins by defining morphology as the study of meaningful parts of words (morphemes) and how they combine to form new words. There are three main types of morphological systems: isolating/analytic languages with single-morpheme words, inflectional/synthetic languages which allow combining of multiple morphemes, and polysynthetic languages which combine large numbers of morphemes. The main morphological operations discussed are concatenative processes like compounding, affixation, and incorporation as well as non-concatenative processes like reduplication and modification of internal word structure. Various examples are provided to illustrate different morphological phenomena across languages.
This document provides information about the languages spoken around the world. It states that there are estimated to be over 7,000 languages spoken globally, with 90% spoken by less than 100,000 people. The document then profiles the top 15 most widely spoken languages, including Chinese, Spanish, English, Hindi/Urdu, Arabic, Bengali, Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Malayan/Indonesian and others. It notes the number of speakers and countries where each language is official.
Russia is a large country located in both Europe and Asia. Moscow is the capital city with a population of over 149 million people who primarily speak Russian. The official currency is the ruble. Russia has a varied climate ranging from steppe to tundra. Some important cities include Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Irkutsk in Siberia. Russia is known for brown bears, matryoshka dolls, ballet, and foods like borscht. Russian children enjoy winter activities like ice skating and summer activities like swimming.
Learn Russian - FSI FAST Course (Part 3)101_languages
Learn Russian with this course from the Foreign Services Institute. Download the full course (with audio) at http://www.101languages.net/russian/free-russian-course
An introductory Russian language course prepared by the U.S. Peace Corps for its volunteers.
View and download the full course (with audio) at:
http://www.101languages.net/peace-corps-courses/
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang tipologi morfologi yang meliputi proses morfologis seperti afiksasi, reduplikasi, modifikasi internal, konversi dan derivasi balik. Juga membahas jenis bahasa berdasarkan sistem pembentukan kata seperti bahasa isolat, sintetis yang terdiri atas bahasa aglutinatif dan fusional, serta bahasa polisintetis. Selain itu dibahas pula arti kata, makna leksikal dan sem
The document summarizes the Indo-European language family, which contains 12 branches that originated in the Neolithic period north of the Black Sea. It describes the major languages within each branch, including Celtic, Germanic, Latin, Slavic, Baltic, Hellenic, Iranian, Indic, and others. Many branches contain extinct languages in addition to the major current languages.
Morphological analysis involves breaking words down into their component morphemes. There are three main approaches: morpheme-based analyzes words as sequences of morphemes; lexeme-based analyzes changes to word stems; word-based analyzes words within paradigms of related forms. Morphological analysis is needed because having every word explicitly listed uses more memory than rules, and it helps understand new words. Analysis uses paradigm tables listing changes to apply morphological rules for inflection and derivation. Problems include false analyses of unproductive forms and bound morphemes that only occur within compounds.
This document provides instructions on determining the gender of Russian nouns and establishing agreement between nouns and modifying words in the singular form. It begins by explaining the three genders in Russian - masculine, feminine, and neuter - and how the gender of most nouns can be identified by their endings. A few exceptions are noted, such as nouns ending in -a denoting males which are masculine. Rules for replacing nouns with personal pronouns based on gender are also outlined. The document concludes by detailing how to make adjectives agree with nouns in gender by changing the adjective endings.
The document discusses defining and non-defining relative clauses. Defining relative clauses provide essential information to identify the person or thing being referred to, while non-defining clauses provide additional, non-essential information. It provides examples and discusses the different types of relative clauses based on their antecedent being the subject, object, possessive, or object of a preposition. It also discusses relative adverbs used to introduce relative clauses of time, place, or reason.
The document discusses passive voice in Persian and English. It explains that in Persian, the passive is formed using the past participle (صفت مفعولی) plus the verb "شدن". Similarly, in English the passive is formed using "be" plus the past participle. It provides examples of passive forms for both regular and irregular verbs in both languages.
The document discusses passive voice in Persian and English. It explains that in Persian, the passive is formed using the past participle (صفت مفعولی) plus the verb "شدن". Similarly, in English the passive is formed using "be" plus the past participle. It provides examples of passive forms for both regular and irregular verbs in both languages.
Voice in English Grammar is the form a transitive verb takes to indicate whet...ChristineBubos
The document defines active and passive voice in English grammar. There are two types of voice: active and passive. In active voice, the subject performs the action of the verb. In passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb, and the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. The document provides examples and reasons for using active versus passive voice, noting that active voice is usually more concise and direct.
The document discusses the passive voice in Spanish. It identifies three types of passive constructions and provides examples of each. The first type uses "be" + past participle with one object. The second type uses "be" + past participle with two objects. The third type involves using "have" + past participle to express that something was done to someone. The document provides guidance on forming passive sentences and common mistakes to avoid.
This Spanish grammar book covers topics such as verb conjugation in the present tense, irregular verbs, ser and estar, verbs like gustar, nouns and articles, adjectives, preterite vs imperfect tenses, the present subjunctive, subjunctive usage in noun and adjective clauses, commands, and object and prepositional pronouns. It provides examples and explanations of grammar concepts and includes tables of verb conjugations.
Here are ten examples of how I eliminated passive voice in my essay:
Old: The ball was dribbled down the court by the point guard.
New: The point guard dribbled the ball down the court.
Old: A shot was taken from the three-point line by the shooting guard.
New: The shooting guard took a shot from the three-point line.
Old: The game was enjoyed by all the fans in attendance.
New: All the fans in attendance enjoyed the game.
Old: Mistakes were made by both teams throughout the game.
New: Both teams made mistakes throughout the game.
Old: A last second shot was attempted by my team
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Hieber - An Introduction to Typology, Part II: Voice & Transitivity
1. An Introduction to Typology
Part II: Voice & Transitivity
Daniel W. Hieber
June 22, 2012
2. Creek
ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it’ Active
ck-i-s ‘it is cut’ Middle -k-
choː- s ‘they/people are cutting it’ Impersonal
plural -ho-
n- ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it for him/her’ Dative
applicative
im-
s- ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it with it’ Instrumental
applicative is-
tac- peyc- s ‘s/he is making him/her cut it’Indirect
causative -
ipeyc-
(Martin 2000)
4. Voice
• “adjust the relationship between semantic roles and
grammatical relations in clauses” (Payne 1997:169)
– semantic roles: actor, undergoer
– grammatical relations: subject, object
• Alignment of semantic roles and grammatical relations
– actor = subject The boy saw the man. Active
– undergoer = subject The man was
seen by the boy. Passive
• Alters the “point of view” or “centre of interest”
(Jesperson 1924:167)
• Today’s talk: The different ways that languages do this
6. Valency
• Counts the number of participants in a clause
– Monovalent: The boy is running.
– Bivalent: The man is eating a sandwich.
– Trivalent: Our grandfather gave us a cat.
– Avalent: It is raining.
• Semantic v. grammatical participants
– The boy is eating. Grammatically monovalent
Semantically bivalent
• Analogy taken from chemistry
– Valence of an atom is the number of bonds it forms
• Grammars don’t count (Martin 2000)
– Valency is solely a method of classification
– Valency is a side-effect (epiphenomenon) of shifts in perspective
(voice)
7. Arguments, Adjuncts & Dummy
Subjects
• Predicate Calculus
– E(x,y) ‘x eats y’
– x and y are arguments of the operator E
– Mathematical analogy – arguments of a function
– The man is eating a sandwich. Arguments: the man, a
sandwich
• Adjuncts
– The man is eating a sandwich in the kitchen. E(x,y)
– Often adverbial clauses
– Not required for the completion of the clause
• Dummy Subjects
– It was raining.
– There was an accident.
8. Transitivity
• Counts the number of objects
– Intransitive The boy is running.
– Transitive The man ate a sandwich.
– Ditransitive Our grandfather gave us a cat.
• Transitivity and valence do not necessarily
correlate
– I placed the book on the shelf. Trivalent but transitive
• Adpositions
– I looked down. I looked down the hole.
Intransitive Transitive
10. Reflexives
• Subject and object are the same entity
• Reduce the valence of the verb
• English reflexives can be lexical: wash, shave, dress
• English reflexives can be analytic: Chris burned
himself
• Spanish (Payne 1997:199) reflexives are morphological
(clitics):
– Matilde se ‘Matilde washed (herself)’
el carro ‘Matilde washed the car’
*
– Matilde se ‘Matilde got dressed’
o ‘Matilde dressed the boy’
11. Reflexives & Reciprocals in Swahili
• kuona ‘to see’ • kujiona
‘to see oneself’
• kusaidia ‘to help’ • kusaidiana
‘to help each other’
12. Applicatives & Dative Shift
• Both take an adjunct / oblique argument and makes it a core
argument of the verb (increases the valence)
Applicative (Swahili)
• a-li-pik-a nyama
3SG-PAST-cook-IND meat
‘he cooked the meat’
a-li-pik-i-a Juma nyanya
3SG-PAST-cook-APP-IND Juma meat
‘he cooked Juma the meat’
• ku-amb-a ku-amb-i-a
INF-speak-IND INF-speak-APP-IND
‘to speak’ ‘to tell’ (lit. ‘to speak to’)
13. Dative Shift
English
• The man gave the ball to the boy. Object + Indirect Object
• The man gave the boy the ball. Double Object Construction
Korean (Song, cited in Kittila 2012:355)
• kica-ka enehakca-eykey chayk-ul ponay-ss-ta
journalist-NOM linguist-to book-ACC send-PAST-IND
‘the journalist sent a/the book to the linguist’
• kica-ka enehakca-lul chayk-ul ponay-ss-ta
journalist-NOM linguist-ACC book-ACC send-PAST-IND
‘the journalist sent the linguist a book’
14. Causatives
• Analytic: The noise made the man jump.
• Lexical: The bug died.
The boy killed the bug. (caused it to die)
• Morphological
– A specific morpheme that means ‘to cause/make’
• Typically adds an argument to the verb
– Normal transitive: CAUSE + AFFECTEE
– Causative transitive: CAUSE + CAUSEE + AFFECTEE
15. Morphological Causatives
• English: fall fell
rise raise
lie lay
• Turkish: Hasan öl-dü Ali Hasan-t öl-dür-dü
Hasan die-PAST Ali Hasan-ACC die-CAUS-PAST
‘Hasan died’ ‘Ali killed Hasan’
• Different form of the causative for transitives and intransitives
• Turkish: müdür mektub-ü imzala-dɩ
director letter-ACC sign-PAST
‘The director signed the letter’
dišçi mektub-ü müdür-e imzala-t-tɩ
dentist letter-ACC director-DAT sign-CAUS-PAST
‘The dentist made the director sign the letter.’
(Payne 1997:178)
16. Direct & Indirect Causatives
• Japanese: Causee must retain control over event
– Taroo-wa Ryoko-o ori-sase-ta
Taroo-TOP Ryoko-ACC descend-CAUS-PAST
‘Taroo made Ryoko come down’
– *Taroo-wa nimotu-o ori-sase-ta
Taroo-TOP baggage-ACC descend-CAUS-PAST
‘Taroo made the baggage come down’
• Korean: Distinguishs direct and indirect causation
– ip-hi-ta ‘to dress someone’
ip-key ha-ta ‘to persuade someone to dress’
– ket-ɩ-ta ‘to force someone to walk’
ket-key ha-ta ‘to enable someone to walk’
(Payne 1997:183-184)
17. Passives: Personal Passives
• The agent is implied, not expressed, or expressed in an
oblique/adjunct role
• English (analytic passive):
– Olga baked a cake.
– The cake was baked by Olga.
• Swahili (morphological passive):
– kutuma ‘to employ’
– kutumwa ‘to be employed’
• German (Keenan & Dryer 2007:337):
– Das Haus wird verkauft
the house becomes sold
‘the house is being sold’
18. Passives: Impersonal Passive
• English: They say you shouldn’t eat raw meat.
There will be dancing later.
• Spanish: ol. ‘Spanish is spoken here.’
• German (Payne 1997:206):
– Es wird hier ge-tanzt.
it be here PASS-dance
‘Dancing takes place here.’
• Russian (Keenan & Dryer 2007:334)
– doma strojat-sja rabočimi
houses build-REFL workers.INSTR
‘houses are built by workers’
• Latin (Keenan & Dryer 2007:347)
– Legibus (a bonis civibus) pare-tur.
laws by good citizens obey-3SG.PASS
‘(By good citizens) there is obeying laws.’
19. Passives: Adversative Passive
• Japanese has a plain passive (Payne 1997:208):
– Taro-ga Hanako-o nagut-ta
Taro-NOM Hanako-ACC hit-PAST
‘Taro hit Hanako’
– Hanako-ga (Taro-ni) nagu-rare-ta
Hanako-NOM Taro-OBL hit-PASS-PAST
‘Hanako was hit by Taro’
• Also with intransitives as an adversative passive:
– Tomodachi-ga ki-ta
friend-NOM come-PAST
‘his friend came’
– Taro-ga tomodachi-ni ki-rare-ta
Taro-NOM friend-OBL come-PASS-PAST
‘Taro was arrived by his friend (to Taro’s disadvantage)’
20. Middle Voice
• Involves detransitivization – neither passive nor
active
• Express a transitive situation as though it were a
process that the undergoer does
• English: The man broke the vase.
The vase broke (*by the man).
• Classical Greek: -omai
stop-MID.1SG
‘I am stopped / I stop’
21. Antipassives & Object Demotion
• Instead of downplaying the actor (like passives), this downplays the
undergoer, and reduces valency
• English (Payne 1997:220):
– Transitive: The hunter shot the deer.
– Object demotion: The hunter shot at the deer.
• upiaq
– aġna-m niġi-gaa punni-q
woman-ERG eat-3SG.TRANS bread-ABS
‘the woman is eating the bread’
– aġna-q niġi-ruq punniġ-mik
woman-ABS eat-3SG.INTRbreak-INSTR
‘the woman is eating (some) bread’
‘the woman is eating with some bread’
22. Noun Incorporation
• A core argument becomes ‘incorporated’ into the verb
• Reduces valency
• English: I went fox-hunting.
This medicine is doctor-recommended.
• Chukchi (Sibera; Comrie 1978, cited in Foley 2007:437)
– tumg-e n-antəwat-ən kupre-n
friend-ERG 3PL.ERG-set-3SG.ABS.AOR net-ABS
‘the friends set the net’
– tumg-ət kupr-antəwat-gːat
friend-PL.ABSnet-set-3PL.ABS.AOR
‘the friends were net-setting’
23. Creek
ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it’ Active
ck-i-s ‘it is cut’ Middle -k-
choː- s ‘they/people are cutting it’ Impersonal
plural -ho-
n- ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it for him/her’ Dative
applicative
im-
s- ːc s
- ‘s/he is cutting it with it’ Instrumental
applicative is-
tac- peyc- s ‘s/he is making him/her cut it’Indirect
causative -
ipeyc-
(Martin 2000)
25. Sources
• Foley, William A. 2007. A typology of information packaging in the clause. In
Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Vol. I: Clause Structure, 2nd edn., ed.
Timothy Shopen, 362-446. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Jesperson, Otto. 1924. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: George Allen &
Unwin.
• Keenan, Edward L. & Matthew S. Dryer. 2007. Passive in the world’s languages. In
Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Vol. I: Clause Structure, 2nd edn., ed.
Timothy Shopen, 325-361. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Kittila, Seppo. 2010. Transitivity typology. In The Oxford Handbook of Linguistic
Typology, ed. Jae Jung Song, 346-367. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Martin, Jack B. 2000. Creek voice: Beyond valency. In Changing Valency: Studies in
Transitivity, eds. R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, 375-403. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
• Payne, Thomas E. 1997. Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide for Field Linguists.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.