This document summarizes gastrointestinal bleeding in infants and children. It presents a case study of a 3-week old infant with rectal bleeding, then discusses determining the severity of GI bleeding and differentiating between upper and lower GI bleeding. It provides tables outlining the differential diagnosis of GI bleeding based on clinical presentation and common causes by age group and appearance. Key points covered include approaches to evaluation, diagnostic testing, and potential etiologies of bleeding from various locations in the GI tract.
This document summarizes key aspects of jaundice and bilirubin metabolism. It discusses how bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of heme in senescent red blood cells, transported to the liver bound to albumin, and processed in the liver through conjugation and excretion. It describes the normal 5 steps of bilirubin metabolism and defines pre-hepatic, hepatic, and post-hepatic causes of jaundice. The document contrasts the pathophysiology of unconjugated versus conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and outlines clinical features of cholestasis.
Jaundice – a detailed view by Rxvichu :) :)RxVichuZ
Hello friends...............me ,Vishnu.......back to u all with a MEGA PPT..........................
This PPT, is terminalized by me as "MEGA" , coz It comprises DETAILED VERSIONS OF :
1. ADULT JAUNDICE
2. NEONATAL JAUNDICE
Surely will prove to be a great resource knowledge for anyone who go through this....................but mistakes and errors are humane.............so do share ur feedbacks and reviews..............
Will be back soon with a new ppt....
Keep studying well
#rxvichu-roar4more!!!
:)
This document discusses jaundice and ascites. It defines jaundice as the accumulation of bilirubin in tissues, describes the pathophysiology of bilirubin metabolism, and classifies jaundice as either conjugated or unconjugated. It then covers the evaluation, causes, and treatment of jaundice. The document also defines ascites as fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity, often due to liver disease, and discusses the evaluation, causes based on serum ascites albumin gradient, and treatment of ascites.
This document discusses jaundice and hyperbilirubinemia. It begins by defining jaundice as the yellowing of tissues from bilirubin deposition caused by liver disease or hemolytic disorders. It then covers bilirubin formation, metabolism, types of hyperbilirubinemia, etiologies of jaundice including prehepatic, hepatic and obstructive causes, and approaches to evaluating a patient with jaundice through history, exam, risk factors, symptoms, and investigations. Specific conditions discussed include Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Gilbert's syndrome, Dubin-Johnson syndrome, and Rotor syndrome.
1. Fahad Fayyaz Butt, a 6-year-old boy, presented with chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and reduced appetite for 6 months. Physical examination found pallor, mild clubbing, diffuse abdominal tenderness, and anal fistulas.
2. Initial investigations showed anemia, elevated inflammatory markers, and positive anti-gliadin antibodies. Endoscopy found patchy erythema in the esophagus, stomach, and colon.
3. He was diagnosed with Crohn's disease based on his clinical presentation and endoscopic findings. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are the two main types of inflammatory bowel disease.
This article discusses gastrointestinal bleeding in children. It describes the evaluation and treatment of a case involving an 11-year-old boy with GI bleeding from a duodenal ulcer and Helicobacter pylori infection. The summary discusses:
1) The causes of GI bleeding in children can range from minor bleeding from an anal fissure to severe bleeding from conditions like varices.
2) The initial evaluation focuses on stabilization and determining severity, and may include vital signs, physical exam, lab tests, and procedures like endoscopy to identify the source of bleeding.
3) Endoscopy allows direct visualization and potential treatment with methods like cautery, argon plasma coagulation lasers, or clips to control
Neonatal jaundice is common in newborns, occurring in 60% of term and 80% of preterm infants. It is usually caused by unconjugated bilirubin from the breakdown of red blood cells. Physiological jaundice is self-limiting and peaks by days 4-5 in term and 7-8 in preterm infants. Pathological jaundice requires further evaluation and treatment depending on the cause, which may include phototherapy, drug therapy, or exchange transfusion. Rh incompatibility occurs when an Rh-negative mother has an Rh-positive baby and develops antibodies, which can cause hemolytic disease of the newborn in subsequent pregnancies.
This document discusses the anatomy, functions, and disorders of the liver and biliary system. It provides details on:
- The liver's role in producing bile to aid digestion, regulating blood clotting factors, filtering toxins, and storing vitamins and minerals.
- The structure of the liver including lobules, hepatocytes, blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein, and bile duct network.
- Common liver disorders like hepatitis, cirrhosis, cancer, and how they impact liver function and cause symptoms like jaundice, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
- Tests used to evaluate liver function such as albumin, prothrombin time, and transaminase levels.
This document summarizes key aspects of jaundice and bilirubin metabolism. It discusses how bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of heme in senescent red blood cells, transported to the liver bound to albumin, and processed in the liver through conjugation and excretion. It describes the normal 5 steps of bilirubin metabolism and defines pre-hepatic, hepatic, and post-hepatic causes of jaundice. The document contrasts the pathophysiology of unconjugated versus conjugated hyperbilirubinemia and outlines clinical features of cholestasis.
Jaundice – a detailed view by Rxvichu :) :)RxVichuZ
Hello friends...............me ,Vishnu.......back to u all with a MEGA PPT..........................
This PPT, is terminalized by me as "MEGA" , coz It comprises DETAILED VERSIONS OF :
1. ADULT JAUNDICE
2. NEONATAL JAUNDICE
Surely will prove to be a great resource knowledge for anyone who go through this....................but mistakes and errors are humane.............so do share ur feedbacks and reviews..............
Will be back soon with a new ppt....
Keep studying well
#rxvichu-roar4more!!!
:)
This document discusses jaundice and ascites. It defines jaundice as the accumulation of bilirubin in tissues, describes the pathophysiology of bilirubin metabolism, and classifies jaundice as either conjugated or unconjugated. It then covers the evaluation, causes, and treatment of jaundice. The document also defines ascites as fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity, often due to liver disease, and discusses the evaluation, causes based on serum ascites albumin gradient, and treatment of ascites.
This document discusses jaundice and hyperbilirubinemia. It begins by defining jaundice as the yellowing of tissues from bilirubin deposition caused by liver disease or hemolytic disorders. It then covers bilirubin formation, metabolism, types of hyperbilirubinemia, etiologies of jaundice including prehepatic, hepatic and obstructive causes, and approaches to evaluating a patient with jaundice through history, exam, risk factors, symptoms, and investigations. Specific conditions discussed include Crigler-Najjar syndrome, Gilbert's syndrome, Dubin-Johnson syndrome, and Rotor syndrome.
1. Fahad Fayyaz Butt, a 6-year-old boy, presented with chronic diarrhea, abdominal pain, weight loss, and reduced appetite for 6 months. Physical examination found pallor, mild clubbing, diffuse abdominal tenderness, and anal fistulas.
2. Initial investigations showed anemia, elevated inflammatory markers, and positive anti-gliadin antibodies. Endoscopy found patchy erythema in the esophagus, stomach, and colon.
3. He was diagnosed with Crohn's disease based on his clinical presentation and endoscopic findings. Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are the two main types of inflammatory bowel disease.
This article discusses gastrointestinal bleeding in children. It describes the evaluation and treatment of a case involving an 11-year-old boy with GI bleeding from a duodenal ulcer and Helicobacter pylori infection. The summary discusses:
1) The causes of GI bleeding in children can range from minor bleeding from an anal fissure to severe bleeding from conditions like varices.
2) The initial evaluation focuses on stabilization and determining severity, and may include vital signs, physical exam, lab tests, and procedures like endoscopy to identify the source of bleeding.
3) Endoscopy allows direct visualization and potential treatment with methods like cautery, argon plasma coagulation lasers, or clips to control
Neonatal jaundice is common in newborns, occurring in 60% of term and 80% of preterm infants. It is usually caused by unconjugated bilirubin from the breakdown of red blood cells. Physiological jaundice is self-limiting and peaks by days 4-5 in term and 7-8 in preterm infants. Pathological jaundice requires further evaluation and treatment depending on the cause, which may include phototherapy, drug therapy, or exchange transfusion. Rh incompatibility occurs when an Rh-negative mother has an Rh-positive baby and develops antibodies, which can cause hemolytic disease of the newborn in subsequent pregnancies.
This document discusses the anatomy, functions, and disorders of the liver and biliary system. It provides details on:
- The liver's role in producing bile to aid digestion, regulating blood clotting factors, filtering toxins, and storing vitamins and minerals.
- The structure of the liver including lobules, hepatocytes, blood supply from the hepatic artery and portal vein, and bile duct network.
- Common liver disorders like hepatitis, cirrhosis, cancer, and how they impact liver function and cause symptoms like jaundice, abdominal pain, and fatigue.
- Tests used to evaluate liver function such as albumin, prothrombin time, and transaminase levels.
This document provides an overview of jaundice and its causes. It defines jaundice as a yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes. Jaundice can be classified as pre-hepatic (haemolytic), hepatocellular, or obstructive based on its underlying mechanism. Common causes discussed include viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, gallstones, and tumors. The document outlines approaches to evaluating a jaundiced patient through history, examination, and laboratory and imaging tests. It also describes treatment principles and specific therapies for acute viral hepatitis and liver failure.
This document discusses chronic diarrhea, defining it as diarrhea lasting more than 4 weeks. It classifies chronic diarrhea based on factors such as duration, volume, pathophysiology, and stool characteristics. Common causes include infections, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, malabsorption issues, and medication side effects. A thorough history, physical exam, and laboratory testing can help identify the underlying cause and guide management, which may include dietary changes, medications, or further testing and procedures.
This document discusses how to diagnose the cause of jaundice through taking a history, performing an examination, and ordering special tests. It outlines various causes of jaundice such as increased bilirubin load from conditions like hereditary spherocytosis or hepatitis, disturbed bilirubin uptake from viral hepatitis or drugs, and disturbed bilirubin excretion from gallstones, cirrhosis, or pancreatic cancer. The examination involves assessing a patient's general appearance, abdomen, liver, and spleen to identify signs that can indicate the cause of jaundice. Special tests are also needed to make an accurate diagnosis.
This document provides an overview of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), including its definition, prevalence, demographics, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, severity assessment, management, and prognosis. Some key points are:
- IBS is a functional bowel disorder characterized by abdominal pain associated with changes in bowel habits. It predominantly affects those aged 15-65 and is more common in women.
- The pathophysiology involves altered gut motility, visceral hypersensitivity, abnormal gas handling, low-grade inflammation, food sensitivities, abnormal gut microbiota, and central nervous system dysregulation.
- Diagnosis is based on symptoms meeting certain criteria and exclusion of organic diseases. Management focuses on
This document discusses bilirubin metabolism and the causes of jaundice. It covers:
1) How bilirubin is normally produced from the breakdown of red blood cells and eliminated from the body through the liver and bile.
2) Causes of jaundice like hepatitis, bile obstruction, and hemolytic anemia which disrupt the normal balance of bilirubin production and clearance.
3) The pathology of cholestasis or impaired bile flow, including characteristic lab findings, morphological changes in the liver, and ductular proliferation in response to bile stasis.
Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in infants and children can be caused by obstructive or hepatocellular conditions of the liver or biliary system. The most common causes are extrahepatic biliary atresia, an inflammatory condition affecting the biliary tree which requires early surgery to prevent liver damage; Alagille syndrome, a genetic disorder characterized by bile duct paucity and other organ system abnormalities; and alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, a genetic condition where abnormal protein retention in the liver can cause liver disease. Early identification of the underlying cause is important for prognosis and institution of appropriate treatment.
This document discusses the approach to evaluating a case of neonatal cholestasis. It emphasizes taking a thorough history including stool color and onset of jaundice. Initial tests should include viral markers, galactosemia screen, and TMS/acylcarnitine profile to check for metabolic diseases. Ultrasound and possible liver biopsy can provide additional information. For this case, viral markers and galactosemia screen were normal, but liver biopsy found giant cell hepatitis, suggesting idiopathic neonatal hepatitis as the likely diagnosis.
This document discusses jaundice, its types, and treatment. There are three main types of jaundice: prehepatic (hemolytic) jaundice caused by excessive red blood cell breakdown, hepatic jaundice caused by liver damage impairing bilirubin processing, and posthepatic (obstructive) jaundice caused by bile duct obstruction. Treatment depends on the underlying cause, and may involve antibiotics to treat infections, anthelmintics to treat parasites, or fluid therapy. The primary goals are to correct the underlying cause and manage symptoms like lethargy and yellow discoloration.
This document provides guidance on evaluating and managing a patient presenting with chronic diarrhea. It defines chronic diarrhea as lasting 4 weeks or longer. A thorough history and physical exam are important to determine the cause, which can include infections, inflammatory bowel disease, malabsorption issues, and functional disorders. Initial testing involves stool studies and bloodwork. Empiric treatment starts with loperamide and dietary changes, while specific therapies target the underlying cause, if identified.
A 7 month old female infant presented with persistent jaundice since 2 weeks of life, high colored urine, and normal colored stools. On examination, she had deep icterus, hepatomegaly, and failure to thrive. Initial tests showed conjugated hyperbilirubinemia. Further workup included normal thyroid function, urine tests, TORCH titers, and alpha-1 antitrypsin level. Liver function tests showed elevated enzymes. Imaging showed hepatomegaly. Differentials included genetic and infectious causes of neonatal cholestasis.
Jaundice is a condition characterized by yellowing of the skin and eyes due to high bilirubin levels in the blood. Bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of red blood cells and processed by the liver; jaundice can occur when there is excessive bilirubin production, impaired liver function, or blockage of bile flow from the liver. The document discusses the causes, types, signs, tests, and treatments for jaundice.
Dioscorea Villosa- A Homoeopathic medicine prepared from Wild Yam having various affinities.
Action of Diosgenin and Homoeopathic pathogenesis of Dioscorea villosa
Jaundice, or yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes, is caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood. It can be a sign of several underlying diseases affecting the production, metabolism, or excretion of bilirubin in the liver or gallbladder. Jaundice is classified as pre-hepatic, hepatic, or post-hepatic depending on where in the process the underlying pathology occurs. Diagnosis involves physical examination, blood tests, and imaging tests to determine the specific cause. Treatment targets the underlying cause and aims to correct complications like infection, coagulopathy, or organ damage.
Direct hyperbilirubinaemia in neonate by Dr. Tareq Rahmantareq rahman
This document discusses neonatal cholestasis, defined as prolonged conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in newborns. It reviews definitions, pathophysiology, prevalence, etiologies, evaluation, management, and prognosis. The most common causes are neonatal hepatitis, biliary atresia, and idiopathic neonatal hepatitis. Evaluation involves initial labs and imaging to determine if the cause is intrahepatic or extrahepatic. Specific treatments depend on the underlying condition, such as surgery for biliary atresia or liver transplantation for decompensated liver disease. Prognosis depends on factors like etiology, age at treatment, and progression to cirrhosis.
This document provides an overview of gallbladder disease in children. It discusses gallbladder physiology, bile formation, and the pathophysiology of gallbladder disease including cholecystitis and cholelithiasis. Risk factors for gallbladder disease in children include prolonged parenteral nutrition, obesity, rapid weight loss, and certain medical conditions or medications. Gallbladder abnormalities that may be seen in children include sludge, polyps, septation, and changes in size or wall thickness. The document also presents data on 211 children evaluated for changes in BMI and fatty liver disease who were subsequently found to have gallbladder abnormalities.
1. Hemoglobin is broken down through a series of steps after red blood cells are destroyed. This produces the yellow pigment bilirubin.
2. Jaundice occurs when bilirubin levels in the blood rise above normal. It can be caused by increased red blood cell breakdown, liver problems filtering bilirubin, or blockages in the bile ducts.
3. There are three main types of jaundice - pre-hepatic from too much red blood cell breakdown, hepatic from liver issues, and post-hepatic from bile duct blockages. They are distinguished by urine/stool pigments and liver function test results.
This document discusses a case of neonatal liver failure that was ultimately diagnosed as neonatal hemochromatosis. It provides background on neonatal liver failure and outlines the diagnostic challenges. It describes the patient's presentation and initial workup. Additional testing revealed elevated ferritin and iron saturation levels suggestive of hemochromatosis, though initial MRI and liver biopsy were negative. Confirmation came from a salivary gland biopsy showing iron deposits. The discussion reviews genetic and metabolic causes of neonatal liver failure and highlights the difficulty in diagnosis given tests may not be fully sensitive or specific.
1) A 1 month old girl presented with progressive jaundice and clay colored stools. Investigations showed elevated liver enzymes and direct hyperbilirubinemia.
2) Ultrasound showed hepatomegaly but normal biliary ducts. HIDA scan showed poor excretion. MRCP suggested biliary atresia. Kasai procedure found secondary biliary cirrhosis.
3) The presentation highlighted that attributing cholestasis to an isolated infection like CMV could miss treatable causes like biliary atresia. A few key investigations are needed to differentiate causes of neonatal cholestasis.
This document discusses the approach to evaluating a case of neonatal cholestasis. It emphasizes taking a thorough history including stool color and onset of jaundice. Initial tests should include viral markers, galactosemia screen, and TMS/acylcarnitine profile to check for metabolic diseases. Ultrasound and possible liver biopsy can provide additional information. In many cases the exact cause remains idiopathic neonatal hepatitis, highlighting the need for continued research to identify underlying causes.
Este artículo discute las definiciones del asma en niños. Aunque es la enfermedad inflamatoria crónica más común en la edad pediátrica, existen diferentes definiciones. La estrategia global para el asma (GINA) lo define como una inflamación crónica de las vías respiratorias mediada por células y moléculas inflamatorias, asociada con hiperreactividad bronquial y episodios recurrentes de sibilancias, disnea y tos, generalmente con obstrucción reversible de las vías aéreas. Para ni
This document discusses chronic diarrhea in children. It defines chronic diarrhea as diarrhea lasting longer than 2 weeks. It describes how viral causes of diarrhea typically last less than 2 weeks, while bacterial causes can sometimes lead to prolonged diarrhea due to damage to the intestinal mucosa or persistence of the infection. It also mentions rare congenital causes and factitious diarrhea. The goal is to help practitioners properly diagnose and treat cases of prolonged diarrhea in children.
This document provides an overview of jaundice and its causes. It defines jaundice as a yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes. Jaundice can be classified as pre-hepatic (haemolytic), hepatocellular, or obstructive based on its underlying mechanism. Common causes discussed include viral hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, gallstones, and tumors. The document outlines approaches to evaluating a jaundiced patient through history, examination, and laboratory and imaging tests. It also describes treatment principles and specific therapies for acute viral hepatitis and liver failure.
This document discusses chronic diarrhea, defining it as diarrhea lasting more than 4 weeks. It classifies chronic diarrhea based on factors such as duration, volume, pathophysiology, and stool characteristics. Common causes include infections, inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, malabsorption issues, and medication side effects. A thorough history, physical exam, and laboratory testing can help identify the underlying cause and guide management, which may include dietary changes, medications, or further testing and procedures.
This document discusses how to diagnose the cause of jaundice through taking a history, performing an examination, and ordering special tests. It outlines various causes of jaundice such as increased bilirubin load from conditions like hereditary spherocytosis or hepatitis, disturbed bilirubin uptake from viral hepatitis or drugs, and disturbed bilirubin excretion from gallstones, cirrhosis, or pancreatic cancer. The examination involves assessing a patient's general appearance, abdomen, liver, and spleen to identify signs that can indicate the cause of jaundice. Special tests are also needed to make an accurate diagnosis.
This document provides an overview of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), including its definition, prevalence, demographics, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, severity assessment, management, and prognosis. Some key points are:
- IBS is a functional bowel disorder characterized by abdominal pain associated with changes in bowel habits. It predominantly affects those aged 15-65 and is more common in women.
- The pathophysiology involves altered gut motility, visceral hypersensitivity, abnormal gas handling, low-grade inflammation, food sensitivities, abnormal gut microbiota, and central nervous system dysregulation.
- Diagnosis is based on symptoms meeting certain criteria and exclusion of organic diseases. Management focuses on
This document discusses bilirubin metabolism and the causes of jaundice. It covers:
1) How bilirubin is normally produced from the breakdown of red blood cells and eliminated from the body through the liver and bile.
2) Causes of jaundice like hepatitis, bile obstruction, and hemolytic anemia which disrupt the normal balance of bilirubin production and clearance.
3) The pathology of cholestasis or impaired bile flow, including characteristic lab findings, morphological changes in the liver, and ductular proliferation in response to bile stasis.
Conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in infants and children can be caused by obstructive or hepatocellular conditions of the liver or biliary system. The most common causes are extrahepatic biliary atresia, an inflammatory condition affecting the biliary tree which requires early surgery to prevent liver damage; Alagille syndrome, a genetic disorder characterized by bile duct paucity and other organ system abnormalities; and alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, a genetic condition where abnormal protein retention in the liver can cause liver disease. Early identification of the underlying cause is important for prognosis and institution of appropriate treatment.
This document discusses the approach to evaluating a case of neonatal cholestasis. It emphasizes taking a thorough history including stool color and onset of jaundice. Initial tests should include viral markers, galactosemia screen, and TMS/acylcarnitine profile to check for metabolic diseases. Ultrasound and possible liver biopsy can provide additional information. For this case, viral markers and galactosemia screen were normal, but liver biopsy found giant cell hepatitis, suggesting idiopathic neonatal hepatitis as the likely diagnosis.
This document discusses jaundice, its types, and treatment. There are three main types of jaundice: prehepatic (hemolytic) jaundice caused by excessive red blood cell breakdown, hepatic jaundice caused by liver damage impairing bilirubin processing, and posthepatic (obstructive) jaundice caused by bile duct obstruction. Treatment depends on the underlying cause, and may involve antibiotics to treat infections, anthelmintics to treat parasites, or fluid therapy. The primary goals are to correct the underlying cause and manage symptoms like lethargy and yellow discoloration.
This document provides guidance on evaluating and managing a patient presenting with chronic diarrhea. It defines chronic diarrhea as lasting 4 weeks or longer. A thorough history and physical exam are important to determine the cause, which can include infections, inflammatory bowel disease, malabsorption issues, and functional disorders. Initial testing involves stool studies and bloodwork. Empiric treatment starts with loperamide and dietary changes, while specific therapies target the underlying cause, if identified.
A 7 month old female infant presented with persistent jaundice since 2 weeks of life, high colored urine, and normal colored stools. On examination, she had deep icterus, hepatomegaly, and failure to thrive. Initial tests showed conjugated hyperbilirubinemia. Further workup included normal thyroid function, urine tests, TORCH titers, and alpha-1 antitrypsin level. Liver function tests showed elevated enzymes. Imaging showed hepatomegaly. Differentials included genetic and infectious causes of neonatal cholestasis.
Jaundice is a condition characterized by yellowing of the skin and eyes due to high bilirubin levels in the blood. Bilirubin is produced from the breakdown of red blood cells and processed by the liver; jaundice can occur when there is excessive bilirubin production, impaired liver function, or blockage of bile flow from the liver. The document discusses the causes, types, signs, tests, and treatments for jaundice.
Dioscorea Villosa- A Homoeopathic medicine prepared from Wild Yam having various affinities.
Action of Diosgenin and Homoeopathic pathogenesis of Dioscorea villosa
Jaundice, or yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes, is caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood. It can be a sign of several underlying diseases affecting the production, metabolism, or excretion of bilirubin in the liver or gallbladder. Jaundice is classified as pre-hepatic, hepatic, or post-hepatic depending on where in the process the underlying pathology occurs. Diagnosis involves physical examination, blood tests, and imaging tests to determine the specific cause. Treatment targets the underlying cause and aims to correct complications like infection, coagulopathy, or organ damage.
Direct hyperbilirubinaemia in neonate by Dr. Tareq Rahmantareq rahman
This document discusses neonatal cholestasis, defined as prolonged conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in newborns. It reviews definitions, pathophysiology, prevalence, etiologies, evaluation, management, and prognosis. The most common causes are neonatal hepatitis, biliary atresia, and idiopathic neonatal hepatitis. Evaluation involves initial labs and imaging to determine if the cause is intrahepatic or extrahepatic. Specific treatments depend on the underlying condition, such as surgery for biliary atresia or liver transplantation for decompensated liver disease. Prognosis depends on factors like etiology, age at treatment, and progression to cirrhosis.
This document provides an overview of gallbladder disease in children. It discusses gallbladder physiology, bile formation, and the pathophysiology of gallbladder disease including cholecystitis and cholelithiasis. Risk factors for gallbladder disease in children include prolonged parenteral nutrition, obesity, rapid weight loss, and certain medical conditions or medications. Gallbladder abnormalities that may be seen in children include sludge, polyps, septation, and changes in size or wall thickness. The document also presents data on 211 children evaluated for changes in BMI and fatty liver disease who were subsequently found to have gallbladder abnormalities.
1. Hemoglobin is broken down through a series of steps after red blood cells are destroyed. This produces the yellow pigment bilirubin.
2. Jaundice occurs when bilirubin levels in the blood rise above normal. It can be caused by increased red blood cell breakdown, liver problems filtering bilirubin, or blockages in the bile ducts.
3. There are three main types of jaundice - pre-hepatic from too much red blood cell breakdown, hepatic from liver issues, and post-hepatic from bile duct blockages. They are distinguished by urine/stool pigments and liver function test results.
This document discusses a case of neonatal liver failure that was ultimately diagnosed as neonatal hemochromatosis. It provides background on neonatal liver failure and outlines the diagnostic challenges. It describes the patient's presentation and initial workup. Additional testing revealed elevated ferritin and iron saturation levels suggestive of hemochromatosis, though initial MRI and liver biopsy were negative. Confirmation came from a salivary gland biopsy showing iron deposits. The discussion reviews genetic and metabolic causes of neonatal liver failure and highlights the difficulty in diagnosis given tests may not be fully sensitive or specific.
1) A 1 month old girl presented with progressive jaundice and clay colored stools. Investigations showed elevated liver enzymes and direct hyperbilirubinemia.
2) Ultrasound showed hepatomegaly but normal biliary ducts. HIDA scan showed poor excretion. MRCP suggested biliary atresia. Kasai procedure found secondary biliary cirrhosis.
3) The presentation highlighted that attributing cholestasis to an isolated infection like CMV could miss treatable causes like biliary atresia. A few key investigations are needed to differentiate causes of neonatal cholestasis.
This document discusses the approach to evaluating a case of neonatal cholestasis. It emphasizes taking a thorough history including stool color and onset of jaundice. Initial tests should include viral markers, galactosemia screen, and TMS/acylcarnitine profile to check for metabolic diseases. Ultrasound and possible liver biopsy can provide additional information. In many cases the exact cause remains idiopathic neonatal hepatitis, highlighting the need for continued research to identify underlying causes.
Este artículo discute las definiciones del asma en niños. Aunque es la enfermedad inflamatoria crónica más común en la edad pediátrica, existen diferentes definiciones. La estrategia global para el asma (GINA) lo define como una inflamación crónica de las vías respiratorias mediada por células y moléculas inflamatorias, asociada con hiperreactividad bronquial y episodios recurrentes de sibilancias, disnea y tos, generalmente con obstrucción reversible de las vías aéreas. Para ni
This document discusses chronic diarrhea in children. It defines chronic diarrhea as diarrhea lasting longer than 2 weeks. It describes how viral causes of diarrhea typically last less than 2 weeks, while bacterial causes can sometimes lead to prolonged diarrhea due to damage to the intestinal mucosa or persistence of the infection. It also mentions rare congenital causes and factitious diarrhea. The goal is to help practitioners properly diagnose and treat cases of prolonged diarrhea in children.
Este documento resume las generalidades sobre la diarrea aguda infecciosa. Explica que la diarrea aguda se define por deposiciones más frecuentes y blandas, y que sigue siendo una causa importante de morbilidad infantil. Las causas más comunes son bacterias, virus y parásitos. También clasifica las diarreas según su duración, etiología y patogenia. Finalmente, describe brevemente algunos agentes comunes como el rotavirus, Shigella y Escherichia coli.
Este documento presenta un consenso nacional chileno sobre el manejo de la fibrosis quística. La fibrosis quística es una enfermedad hereditaria letal que afecta múltiples sistemas y se transmite de forma autosómica recesiva. El documento discute aspectos genéticos como las mutaciones que causan la enfermedad, el diagnóstico molecular y sus usos. También aborda el cuadro clínico, tratamiento, complicaciones y pronóstico. El promedio de sobrevida en Chile es bajo, de solo 12 años
This document provides guidelines from the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) for evaluating cholestatic jaundice in infants aged 2 to 8 weeks. It recommends that any infant noted to be jaundiced at 2 weeks of age be evaluated for cholestasis with a total and direct bilirubin measurement. For breastfed infants who can be reliably monitored and have a normal exam and history, reevaluation at 3 weeks is acceptable if jaundice persists. The guidelines provide recommendations on further diagnostic testing including ultrasound and liver biopsy if the etiology remains unknown. They aim to decrease time to diagnosis of conditions like biliary atresia through standardized
The document discusses the growing epidemic of childhood overweight and obesity in the United States. Some key points:
- The percentage of overweight children has more than doubled from the late 1970s to 2000, and tripled for adolescents. Close to 1 in 5 children are now overweight or obese.
- This increase in overweight is associated with significant health impacts, including increased risk for conditions like hypertension, diabetes, and heart disease. Medical costs of obesity are substantial.
- Factors contributing to the rise in childhood overweight include decreases in physical activity and increases in caloric intake from foods like snacks, soft drinks and fast food. Children on average spend much more time engaged in sedentary activities now compared to the past.
Este documento presenta tres casos clínicos de lactantes con deshidratación. En el primer caso, el lactante de 6 meses presenta vómitos, fiebre y diarrea, con signos de deshidratación leve. En el segundo caso, un lactante de 6 meses también presenta vómitos y diarrea por 48 horas, con signos de deshidratación moderada. En el tercer caso, un lactante de 7 meses tiene los mismos síntomas por 48 horas, con signos de deshidratación severa. Se pide diagnosticar el grado de
Este documento discute las infecciones recurrentes en niños y los mecanismos de defensa del sistema inmunológico infantil. Explica que entre 6-10 infecciones respiratorias virales al año son consideradas normales en lactantes, pero que más infecciones o infecciones bacterianas podrían indicar un problema inmunológico. También describe cuatro categorías de niños con infecciones frecuentes: probablemente sanos, alérgicos, con una enfermedad crónica, o con una inmunodeficiencia primaria. Rec
Stool Analysis Interpretation
Through this presentation, I try to help family physicians to better understand and utilize the stool analysis.
references include http://www.labpedia.net
This document defines anemia, outlines the criteria and severity classifications for anemia, and describes how anemia is evaluated and classified. It defines anemia as a decrease in red blood cells and hemoglobin below normal levels. It provides the World Health Organization and other criteria for determining anemia based on hemoglobin levels and age/sex. It also describes how anemia is classified based on red blood cell morphology into microcytic, normocytic and macrocytic types, and etiologically into impairments in red blood cell production or increased red blood cell destruction.
Acute diarrhea is defined as three or more loose stools in 24 hours lasting less than 7 days. It is commonly caused by infectious agents like rotavirus, norovirus, and bacteria like E. coli. Acute diarrhea can lead to dehydration in children, causing hundreds of thousands of deaths worldwide each year. The key aspects of treatment are oral rehydration with solutions containing glucose and electrolytes, and early refeeding. Probiotics and zinc supplementation may shorten the duration of acute diarrhea. Antibiotics are only recommended for specific bacterial infections. Hospitalization is necessary if the child has severe dehydration, neurological issues, or is very young.
- The patient is a 47-year-old Filipino woman who presented to the emergency room with dizziness, loss of consciousness, and altered mental status.
- She underwent various tests and was diagnosed with upper gastrointestinal bleeding caused by a gastric ulcer, as seen during an upper endoscopy. She also has a history of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and benign anemia.
- She was admitted and treated with antibiotics, serum glucose control, and underwent further procedures like dialysis catheter insertion to manage her conditions.
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding in children can be caused by variceal sources such as portal hypertension or non-variceal sources like ulcers. Initial management involves hemodynamic resuscitation and endoscopy to identify the source of bleeding. For variceal bleeding, pharmacologic therapy with vasoactive drugs and endoscopic variceal ligation or sclerotherapy can help stop bleeding. Surgical options are considered if conservative measures fail. Prognosis is poorer if the bleeding site cannot be identified, coagulation disorders are present, or significant blood loss occurs without intervention.
Management of Neonatal Cholestasis: In dept Analysisdoctor350343
This document discusses neonatal cholestasis, including its definition, epidemiology, causes, clinical presentation, investigations, differential diagnosis, and management. Key points include: neonatal cholestasis is defined as prolonged conjugated hyperbilirubinemia beyond 14 days of life; the most common causes vary by region but often include biliary atresia, genetic disorders, and infection; workup involves history, exam, liver tests, imaging, and genetic testing to determine the underlying etiology; timely diagnosis and treatment of conditions like biliary atresia is important to improve outcomes.
A 46-year-old man with uncontrolled diabetes presented with abdominal pain, weight loss, and fever. Imaging revealed a large liver abscess. Blood and abscess cultures grew Lactobacillus species. Lactobacillus typically inhabits the gastrointestinal tract but can cause infection in immunocompromised individuals. The patient underwent catheter drainage of the abscess and received antibiotics. Follow-up imaging showed resolution of the abscess. Uncontrolled diabetes likely caused endothelial injury and bacterial translocation leading to Lactobacillus bacteremia and liver abscess in this case.
The urinalysis is one of the most commonly ordered tests in pediatrics due to the ease of urine collection and testing. The urine dipstick test screens for various disorders and remains a common test performed in primary care clinics. Abnormal dipstick results can be due to pathological or non-pathological causes, and false positives and negatives are also common. It is important to consider the clinical context and perform repeat testing or microscopic analysis when abnormal dipstick results are found.
This document discusses direct jaundice and neonatal cholestasis. It begins by defining direct jaundice and noting that it indicates cholestasis and hepatobiliary dysfunction. The causes of neonatal cholestasis are then outlined, including extrahepatic (e.g. biliary atresia), intrahepatic (e.g. PFIC), and hepatocellular disorders (e.g. metabolic and infections). The diagnostic evaluation, management, and specific conditions like biliary atresia and choledochal cyst are then reviewed over multiple sections.
UGIB in children can have various causes. This case discusses a 1.5 year old male presented with bloody vomiting for 2 days. His history revealed splenomegaly since 2 weeks of age, anemia, and recurrent malaria attacks. Imaging showed splenomegaly, peri-portal fibrosis, portal vein thrombosis, and collateral formation; findings suggestive of non-cirrhotic portal hypertension likely due to chronic portal vein thrombosis. The child was managed conservatively with medications while further workup including endoscopy and biopsy were pending.
L2. Diarrhoea disease and Food poisoning.pptxdanielmwandu
This document discusses diarrhea diseases and food poisoning. It begins with an introduction defining different types of diarrhea and the global burden. It then covers topics like the normal host defenses in the GI tract, diagnosing the cause of diarrhea through clinical history, physical exam and laboratory analysis of stool samples. The document outlines approaches to laboratory diagnosis of pathogens in stool through microscopy, stains, antigen detection and culture. It describes selective media used to recover different diarrheal agents. Treatment focuses on rehydration and appropriate use of antibiotics.
A fecal occult blood test detects hidden blood in stool, which can indicate colon cancer or other digestive issues. There are two main types of tests - traditional guaiac smear tests done by a doctor, and newer flushable reagent pad tests available without a prescription. A positive test result requires follow up with a colonoscopy to identify the source of bleeding. Diet and medications can impact test accuracy.
A 20-year-old girl presented with chronic diarrhea, fever, weight loss, and loss of appetite for 4 weeks. Colonoscopy and biopsy revealed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the duodenum and stomach. Imaging showed thickening and nodularity of the third part of the duodenum with enlarged lymph nodes. The patient was diagnosed with primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the duodenum and stomach, stage II, and started on CHOP chemotherapy.
It is fluid which is present in
the abdominal cavity.
The peritoneal cavity is a potential
space lined by mesothelium of the
visceral n parietal peritoneum.
The document provides information about the liver and liver function tests. It discusses what the liver is and its key functions. These include excretion of bile, metabolic functions, hematological functions, storage of vitamins and minerals, and detoxification. It also describes jaundice, the metabolism of bilirubin, different types of liver function tests, and common liver diseases like acute viral hepatitis, chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver failure, and alcoholic liver disease. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis is also mentioned.
1. Neonatal cholestasis is defined as conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in a newborn. It can be caused by intrahepatic or extrahepatic conditions.
2. Common etiologies include biliary atresia, metabolic diseases like galactosemia, and infections. Biliary atresia is the most common cause of extrahepatic cholestasis.
3. Evaluation involves history, physical exam, lab tests including liver function tests and imaging, and may require liver biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause but may include surgical intervention or lifestyle changes.
This document contains multiple questions about diagnosis and management of gastrointestinal conditions. Question 14 describes a case of a young Hispanic man with early satiety and weight loss found to have extensive thickening of the stomach wall and signet ring cell adenocarcinoma. His two brothers also had early-onset gastric cancer. The underlying genetic defect in this family is a CDH1 gene mutation which causes hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. Question 15 describes a woman with hepatitis C, anemia, and melena found to have findings in her stomach antrum. Biopsy revealed reactive gastropathy and dilated capillaries containing fibrin thrombi. The most appropriate management is proton pump inhibitor therapy.
This 6-week-old puppy presented with vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia and abdominal pain. It was found to have multiple concurrent infections including Ehrlichia canis, Babesia canis, Hepatozoon canis, Isospora spp., Giardia spp. and Dipylidium caninum. Despite treatment, the puppy developed further complications including anemia, thrombocytopenia, hypoalbuminemia, and intestinal intussusception, and ultimately succumbed to septic peritonitis. This case demonstrates the challenges of managing a young animal with complex coinfections acquired from its environment and the risks of more severe disease in immunocompromised puppies.
Este documento trata sobre el VIH-SIDA en niños, niñas y adolescentes. Explica que el diagnóstico precoz y tratamiento oportuno son cruciales, y que se debe realizar screening en mujeres embarazadas. Describe las formas de transmisión del VIH, su patogenia, manifestaciones clínicas según grupos etarios y el sistema de clasificación clínica. Detalla los exámenes de diagnóstico, el manejo de niños infectados incluyendo prohibición de lactancia y uso de fórmula, y el tratamiento y control
Este documento presenta las normas actualizadas para el manejo ambulatorio de la malnutrición por déficit y exceso en niños menores de 6 años. Participaron expertos del Ministerio de Salud y de la V Región. Se revisan los criterios para la evaluación y diagnóstico nutricional, así como las recomendaciones para el manejo de la malnutrición por déficit y exceso. El objetivo es mejorar la calidad de vida de los niños a través de la promoción de una adecuada nutrición.
Este documento presenta la información sobre el curso de Pediatría y Cirugía Infantil del quinto año de Medicina para el año 2011. Incluye detalles sobre las fechas del curso, las encargadas, la metodología docente que consiste en clases, seminarios, talleres y casos clínicos, los niveles de aprendizaje, las evaluaciones que incluyen pruebas teóricas y un examen final, y los requisitos de asistencia.
Casos clínicos alumnos 5to año medicinaPediatriasur
Este documento presenta el caso clínico de un niño de 18 meses con retraso en el desarrollo psicomotor. Tuvo un embarazo y parto normales sin complicaciones. A los 18 meses no camina solo ni se sienta solo, pero puede agarrar objetos y llevarlos a la boca. También presenta vómitos recurrentes desde los 3 meses y bajo peso para su edad. En el examen físico se observa hipotonía generalizada leve.
Este documento presenta tres casos clínicos de infecciones del SNC en pediatría. El primer caso es de un lactante con fiebre, vómitos y irritabilidad diagnosticado con meningitis bacteriana. El segundo caso es de un escolar con cefalea y fiebre diagnosticado con meningitis bacteriana pos-traumática. El tercer caso es de un escolar con malestar general, cefalea y vómitos cuya prueba de LCR sugiere meningitis viral.
Este documento resume la constipación en niños. La constipación es una causa frecuente de consulta pediátrica y gastroenterológica. Puede ser funcional o orgánica. El diagnóstico se basa en criterios clínicos. El tratamiento de la constipación funcional incluye desimpactación, modificaciones conductuales, dietéticas y uso de laxantes. La enfermedad de Hirschsprung es una causa orgánica que requiere cirugía. El pronóstico general es bueno si se trata de manera tempran
This document discusses neonatal jaundice. It begins by outlining the objectives of understanding bilirubin metabolism, risk factors for hyperbilirubinemia, causes of jaundice, and guidelines for managing jaundice. It then presents a case study of a infant who developed acute and chronic bilirubin encephalopathy (kernicterus). The document explains the physiologic mechanisms that cause neonatal jaundice, including increased bilirubin load, decreased hepatic uptake and conjugation, and impaired excretion. It emphasizes that kernicterus is preventable but clinicians must understand bilirubin physiology and have a consistent approach to managing jaundiced newborns.
This document provides an overview of conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in older infants and children. It begins with an introduction to jaundice and bilirubin metabolism. The main causes of conjugated hyperbilirubinemia discussed are extrahepatic biliary atresia, "idiopathic" neonatal hepatitis, and Alagille syndrome. Extrahepatic biliary atresia is the most common cause and involves a progressive inflammatory process affecting the biliary tree. "Idiopathic" neonatal hepatitis refers to cases where no clear cause is identified. Alagille syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by bile duct paucity and other cardiac, facial and skeletal abnormalities. The document provides details on
Este documento discute la hemorragia digestiva alta en pediatría. Define la hemorragia digestiva alta y su epidemiología. Explica que las causas comunes incluyen úlceras, varices esofágicas, gastritis y esofagitis. Detalla la evaluación y diagnóstico incluyendo exámenes físicos, de laboratorio y endoscopías. Finalmente, cubre el manejo terapéutico enfocándose en la estabilización hemodinámica, tratamientos farmacológicos y procedimientos endoscó
Este documento trata sobre las enfermedades respiratorias crónicas. Presenta información sobre la fibrosis quística, incluyendo su epidemiología, diagnóstico, tratamiento y complicaciones. También discute la bronquiolitis obliterante, su fisiopatología, presentación clínica, diagnóstico e imágenes radiológicas. El documento provee detalles sobre el manejo de las exacerbaciones y la infección en la fibrosis quística.
Este documento presenta una guía clínica para el manejo ambulatorio de las infecciones respiratorias agudas bajas (IRAB) en menores de 5 años. Define las IRAB y patologías incluidas, y establece recomendaciones basadas en evidencia para el diagnóstico, tratamiento y seguimiento de estas enfermedades, con el objetivo de mejorar la calidad de atención y reducir su impacto en la salud infantil. Describe la magnitud del problema de salud pública que representan las IRAB en Chile y factores de riesgo
1) Childhood obesity has more than doubled in the past few decades and poses significant health risks.
2) Early identification of excessive weight gain is important through tracking BMI percentiles over time.
3) Pediatricians should discuss healthy eating and physical activity with families during routine visits to promote prevention and early recognition of obesity issues.
The document summarizes evidence on childhood obesity from various studies and reviews. Key findings include:
1) The prevalence of childhood overweight and obesity is increasing globally, with psychological and current and future health risks for affected children.
2) Family-based programs that focus on behavior modification, improved diet, and increased physical activity can help reduce weight in obese pre-adolescent children, though effects are modest.
3) School-based programs show potential for obesity prevention by decreasing sedentary behaviors and improving diet, but schools are not well-suited for treatment due to stigma. Overall the evidence indicates multicomponent lifestyle interventions tailored to individual families are most effective for managing childhood obesity.
El documento presenta la Estrategia Global Contra la Obesidad (EGO) en Chile. Propone intervenciones en ámbitos sanitario, familiar, escolar, empresarial y académico para prevenir la obesidad. Incluye guías sobre alimentación saludable, actividad física y evitar el consumo de tabaco, con recomendaciones como comer frutas y verduras, beber agua, caminar 30 minutos diarios y realizar pausas activas en el trabajo.
Este documento presenta normas para el manejo ambulatorio de la malnutrición por déficit y exceso en niños menores de 6 años. Incluye recomendaciones para la evaluación nutricional, calificación y diagnóstico nutricional de los niños, así como criterios para diagnosticar riesgo de desnutrición, desnutrición, sobrepeso u obesidad. También entrega pautas para la atención de niños con malnutrición por déficit y un programa para niños con malnutrición por exceso.
El documento describe las estrategias que ha implementado el equipo de salud neonatal del Hospital Clínico San Borja Arriarán para mejorar la asistencia a recién nacidos con Síndrome de Down y brindar apoyo a sus padres. Se ha visto un aumento en la incidencia de esta condición, por lo que se desarrollaron nuevos enfoques como modificar el lenguaje al dar la noticia, respetar las etapas emocionales de los padres, entregar material informativo y facilitar el apoyo afectivo. El objetivo es lograr
El documento describe las actividades preventivas recomendadas para niños con Síndrome de Down. Explica que estos niños requieren atención médica general más supervisión de problemas de salud específicos como cardiopatías, alteraciones auditivas y oculares, y trastornos endocrinos. Proporciona una guía de actividades preventivas recomendadas por grupo de edad para mejorar el desarrollo, salud y calidad de vida de los niños con Síndrome de Down.
This document provides health supervision guidelines for pediatricians caring for children with Down syndrome. It covers topics from prenatal visits through adolescence. Key points include:
- Discussing prenatal testing results and prognosis with expectant parents.
- Evaluating newborns for common conditions like heart defects, hearing loss, vision issues.
- Providing anticipatory guidance on development, supportive services, and recurrence risks.
- Performing regular screening exams in infancy and childhood for growth, thyroid function, hearing, vision and more.
- Addressing psychosocial needs of parents and siblings through counseling and support groups.
The guidelines aim to help children with Down syndrome achieve their full potential through
This document summarizes key information about pediatric pneumonia. It discusses the definition, pathophysiology, epidemiology, etiology, and specific considerations of Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most common cause of bacterial pneumonia in young children. Pneumonia is diagnosed in approximately 4% of children per year in the US based on clinical signs or radiographic findings. The causes vary by age, with viruses most common under 2 and bacteria like S. pneumoniae predominant in younger children. Diagnosis of the exact cause is difficult. Antibiotic resistance of S. pneumoniae has increased significantly in recent decades.
Este documento presenta recomendaciones para el tratamiento antimicrobiano empírico de las neumonías adquiridas en la comunidad (NAC) en niños. Discute la etiología más frecuente según la edad, los criterios clínicos para diferenciar neumonías bacterianas de virales, y la importancia creciente de S. pneumoniae resistente a penicilina. Recomienda el uso de amoxicilina como tratamiento inicial para cubrir S. pneumoniae, con una duración de 7 a 10 días. También destaca la dis
2. Article gastroenterology
Gastrointestinal Bleeding in
Infants and Children
John T. Boyle, MD*
Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to:
1. Develop a differential diagnosis based on the clinical presentation of gastrointestinal
Author Disclosure (GI) blood loss.
Dr Boyle did not 2. Discuss the age-related causes of upper and lower GI bleeding.
disclose any financial 3. Delineate the sequence of evaluation and decision process in a child who has GI
relationships relevant bleeding.
to this article. 4. Describe new medical therapies and endoscopic maneuvers to control GI bleeding.
Case Study
A previously well 3-week-old female infant presented with a 2-day history of rectal bleeding.
Her parents described three to five loose stools per day mixed with bright and dark red blood and
mucus. Associated symptoms included episodic nonbilious, nonbloody emesis and an erythem-
atous rash on her arms and legs. The infant was receiving standard cow milk formula. Her
weight gain and linear growth were excellent. The abdominal examination revealed no
tenderness or organomegaly, and there were no anal fissures. Stool was guaiac-positive. The
complete blood count (CBC) revealed normal hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV),
platelet count, and white blood cell count. The total eosinophil count was mildly increased at
0.55 10 3/mm3. The stool culture was negative. Clostridium difficile toxin was present. Three
days after having been switched to a protein hydrolysate formula, the infant’s bowel frequency
decreased to twice a day. Although the baby continued to appear well, with good weight gain
and growth, her stools still contained gross strands of blood and mucus intermittently over the
next 3 weeks. Flexible sigmoidoscopy at that time revealed moderate nodular lymphoid
hyperplasia in the rectosigmoid region (Fig. 1). The colonic mucosa appeared normal other-
wise. Biopsies from the sigmoid and rectum showed six eosinophils per high-power field, normal
crypt architecture, and lymphoid nodules. The infant continued to receive the protein hydro-
lysate formula, and gross bleeding gradually resolved over the next 2 weeks.
Determining Severity of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding
GI bleeding may present as bright red blood on toilet tissue after passage of a hard bowel
movement, strands or small clots of blood mixed within emesis or normal stool, bloody
diarrhea, vomiting of gross blood (hematemesis), grossly bright or dark red bloody stools
(hematochezia), or tarry black stools (melena). In cases of occult bleeding, the clinical
presentation may be unexplained fatigue, pallor, or iron deficiency anemia. The treatment
sequence for a child who has GI bleeding is to assess (and stabilize if necessary) the
hemodynamic status of the patient, establish the level of bleeding, and generate a list of
likely diagnoses based on clinical presentation and age of the patient.
Severity of the acute presentation is determined by the physical appearance and
hemodynamic status of the patient, the estimated volume of blood lost, and the color of
the blood lost. Worrisome signs and symptoms include pallor, diaphoresis, restlessness,
lethargy, and abdominal pain. The best indicator of significant blood loss is orthostatic
changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Orthostatic change is defined as an increase in
pulse rate by 20 beats/min or a decrease in systolic blood pressure of 10 mm Hg or more
on moving the patient from the supine to the sitting position.
Fresh blood quickly changes color to brown in an acid environment. Intestinal bacteria
*Clinical Professor of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa; Division of Pediatric
Gastroenterology, Hepatology & Nutrition, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa.
Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008 39
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3. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
indication to passage of an NG tube. Persistent red or
pink aspirate suggests ongoing bleeding and the need for
more emergent diagnostic evaluation.
Is It Blood?
Chemical testing of the vomitus or stool is essential to
verify the presence of blood. A number of substances may
simulate bright red blood (food coloring, colored gelatin
or children’s drinks, red candy, beets, tomato skins,
antibiotic syrups) or melena (bismuth or iron prepara-
tions, spinach, blueberries, grapes, licorice). The widely
available guaiac test is the current recommended quali-
tative method for confirming the presence of gross or
occult blood in vomitus or stool. Guaiac is a naturally
occurring phenolic compound that can be oxidized to
quinine by hydrogen peroxide in hemoglobin with de-
Figure 1. Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia: multiple submucosal tectable color change. Rarely, hemoglobin and myoglo-
nodules in the rectosigmoid area against a background of bin in meat or ascorbic acid in uncooked fruits and
normal colonic mucosa. vegetables give false-positive test results. With newer
guaiac test kits, exogenous iron preparations no longer
give false-positive reactions. The newer method uses a
oxidize hemoglobin to hematin, giving blood a tarry
buffered stabilized hydrogen peroxide solution to im-
appearance. Coffee-ground emesis or melena suggests a
prove detection of blood in gastric aspirate or vomitus.
lower rate of bleeding; bright red blood may indicate
Immunochemical tests that detect only human blood
either a low or a very high rate of upper GI bleeding. The
have been proposed to improve sensitivity and specificity
hematocrit is an unreliable index of the severity of acute
of detecting fecal occult blood in adults being screened
GI bleeding because of the delay in compensatory he-
for colon cancer. Immunochemical tests are the method
modilution after acute blood loss. A low MCV of red
cells on an automated CBC suggests a more chronic of choice to confirm that red or tarry intestinal secretions
duration of bleeding, although the clinical presentation are, indeed, human blood. However, the high sensitivity
may appear as an acute GI hemorrhage. of these tests may be a problem in pediatric patients, in
whom minute blood loss associated with passage of stool
Upper Versus Lower GI Bleeding or perianal dermatitis may yield a positive test, leading to
Upper GI bleeding refers to bleeding above the ligament unnecessary diagnostic procedures. Additional studies
of Treitz; lower GI bleeding is defined as bleeding distal are needed to determine the sensitivity and specificity of
to the ligament of Treitz. In most patients, the clinical immunochemical tests compared with the guaiac-based
presentation indicates the level of bleeding. Hemateme- tests as screens for occult blood loss in the evaluation of
sis is the classic presentation of upper GI bleeding. children who have chronic GI complaints such as chronic
Bloody diarrhea and bright red blood mixed or coating abdominal pain, vomiting, and failure to thrive.
normal stool are the classic presentations of lower GI
bleeding. Hematochezia, melena, or occult GI blood
loss could represent upper or lower GI bleeding. In cases Differential Diagnosis Based on Clinical
of acute-onset hematochezia or melena, the level of Presentation
bleeding can be confirmed by passage of a nasogastric Most reviews of GI bleeding in children have focused on
(NG) tube. Not only is the presence of blood in the the differential diagnosis by age group, but causative
stomach diagnostic of upper GI bleeding (including disorders overlap considerably between age groups. This
significant duodenal hemorrhages that usually reflux into review focuses on the differential diagnosis based on
the stomach), but clearing of aspirated fluid during re- clinical presentation (Table 1). Table 2 lists common
peated NG lavage suggests that bleeding has stopped. causes of GI bleeding based on age group and clinical
Suspicion of bleeding esophageal varices is not a contra- appearance of the child.
40 Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008
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4. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding Based
Table 1.
on Clinical Presentation
Hematemesis
● Swallowed blood
Epistaxis, sore throat, breast feeding, dental work, or tonsillectomy
● Vitamin K deficiency in neonate
● Erosive esophagitis
● Mallory-Weiss tear
● Hemorrhagic gastritis
Trauma, surgery, burns, or severe systemic stress (patients in intensive care units)
● Reactive gastritis
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID gastropathy), alcoholic gastritis, cocaine ingestion, ingestion of caustic
substances, stress, mechanical trauma, viral infection, Crohn disease, vasculitis (Henoch-Schonlein), radiation, bile
¨
reflux, bezoar, hiatal hernia, prolapse of the gastroesophageal junction, or congestive gastropathy (associated with
portal hypertension)
● Peptic ulcer
● Variceal bleeding: associated with portal hypertension
● Submucosal masses
Lipoma, stromal tumors, duplication
● Vascular malformation
Angiodysplasia, hemangioma, Dieulafoy lesion
● Hemobilia
Hematochezia, Melena
● Intestinal ischemia
Complicating intussusception, mid-gut volvulus, incarcerated hernia, or mesenteric thrombosis
● Meckel diverticulum
● Upper GI source: see hematemesis
● Vasculitis
Henoch-Schonlein purpura
¨
● Sloughed polyp
● Intestinal or colonic ulcer
NSAID gastropathy, Crohn disease
● Ulcerative colitis
● Vascular malformation
Rectal Bleeding With Signs of Colitis (Bloody Diarrhea, Tenesmus, Nighttime Stooling)
● Infectious colitis
Consider Salmonella, Shigella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Aeromonas
hydrophilia, Klebsiella oxytoca, Clostridium difficile, Neisseria gonorrhea, cytomegalovirus, Entamoeba histolytica,
Trichuris trichiura
● Hemolytic-uremic syndrome
● Necrotizing enterocolitis
● Eosinophilic proctocolitis
● Inflammatory bowel disease
Ulcerative colitis, Crohn disease
Rectal Bleeding With Normal Stool Pattern
● Juvenile polyp
● Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
● Eosinophilic colitis
● Inflammatory bowel disease
● Vascular malformation
(continued)
Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008 41
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5. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal (GI) Bleeding Based
Table 1.
on Clinical Presentation—Continued
Bright Red Blood Coating Normal or Hard Stool
● Anal fissure
● Beta-hemolytic streptococcal cryptitis
● Ulcerative proctitis
● Rectal prolapse
● Solitary rectal ulcer
● Internal hemorrhoids
Occult GI Blood Loss
● Esophagitis
● Reactive gastritis
● Acid peptic disease
● Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, colitis
● Celiac disease
● Inflammatory bowel disease
● Polyposis
● Meckel diverticulum
● Vascular malformation
Hematemesis surgery, burns, or severe medical problems requiring
CAUSES. Hematemesis (or acute hematochezia or hospitalization in an intensive care unit. Associated co-
melena with positive NG aspirate for blood) may result agulopathy is not uncommon. Localized reactive gastritis
from swallowed blood, upper GI mucosal lesions, is more common and may be associated with nonsteroi-
variceal bleeding, or rarely, hemobilia (hemorrhage into dal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID gastropathy), alco-
the biliary tract). Swallowed blood may be seen in con- holic gastritis, cocaine ingestion, ingestion of caustic
junction with epistaxis, sore throat, or breastfeeding or substances, Helicobacter pylori infection, viral infection,
may follow dental work or tonsillectomy. Mucosal le- Crohn disease, vasculitis (Henoch-Schonlein purpura),
¨
sions include esophagitis, Mallory-Weiss tear, reactive radiation exposure, bile reflux, bezoar, hiatal hernia,
gastritis, stress ulcer, and peptic ulcer. A history of prolapse of the gastroesophageal junction, or congestive
chronic heartburn, chest pain, epigastric abdominal pain,
gastropathy (associated with portal hypertension). Reac-
vomiting, oral regurgitation, or dysphagia suggests reflux
tive gastritis may coexist with duodenal erosive lesions.
esophagitis or peptic ulcer disease. Persistent vomiting,
Bleeding from localized gastritis usually manifests as
as seen in infants who have pyloric stenosis or older
coffee-ground emesis.
children who have cyclical vomiting, pancreatitis, or
Peptic ulcers are rare in children, perhaps related to
postviral gastroparesis, may result in acute erosive esoph-
agitis. Infectious esophagitis, pill esophagitis, and eosin- the current liberal use of acid reduction therapy in this
ophilic esophagitis rarely present with GI bleeding. population. Helicobacter pylori gastritis (Fig. 2) is an
A Mallory-Weiss tear is an acute mucosal laceration of important cause of peptic ulcer in both children and
the gastric cardia or the gastroesophageal junction. The adults, but bleeding from the gastritis alone is rare.
classic presentation is hematemesis following repeated Ulcers bleed when they erode into the lateral wall of a
forceful retching, vomiting, or coughing. Abdominal vessel. Foreign body ingestion is a rare cause of traumatic
pain is uncommon and, if present, more likely to be ulcer. A more common cause of gastric mucosal trauma is
musculoskeletal in origin due to forceful emesis. Such ulceration or erosions caused by tips of indwelling gas-
vomiting episodes usually are linked to a concurrent viral trostomy tubes or NG tubes.
illness. Rare mucosal lesions that may present with hemate-
Reactive gastritis may be diffuse or localized in the mesis or melena include submucosal masses that extend
stomach. Significant hemorrhage may be seen with dif- into and erode the mucosal surface (lipoma, stromal
fuse hemorrhagic stress gastritis associated with trauma, tumors, gastroduodenal duplication), hemangioma, and
42 Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008
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6. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
Differential Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Bleeding Based on Age,
Table 2.
Appearance of Child, and Rate of Bleeding
Well-appearing Child
Ill-appearing Child High Rate of Bleeding Low Rate of Bleeding
Infant Upper Tract
Hemorrhagic gastritis Reflux esophagitis
Stress ulcer Reactive gastritis
Vitamin K deficiency
Lower Tract
Infectious colitis Anal fissure
Necrotizing enterocolitis Eosinophilic proctocolitis
Hirschsprung enterocolitis Infectious colitis
Volvulus Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
2 to 5 years Upper Tract
of age Esophageal varices (liver disease) Esophageal varices Mallory-Weiss tear
Hemorrhagic gastritis Gastric/Duodenal ulcer Gastritis
Stress ulcer Reflux esophagitis
Lower Tract
Intussusception Meckel diverticulum Infectious colitis
Volvulus Sloughed juvenile polyp Juvenile polyp
Henoch-Schonlein purpura
¨ Ulcerative colitis Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia
Hemolytic-uremic syndrome Ulcerative colitis/Crohn disease
Perianal streptococcal cellulitis
Rectal prolapse/rectal ulcer
Older child Upper Tract
Esophageal varices Esophageal varices Mallory-Weiss tear
Hemorrhagic gastritis Bleeding ulcer Reflux esophagitis
Dieulafoy lesion Reactive gastritis
Hemobilia
Lower Tract
Infectious colitis Ulcerative colitis Infectious colitis
Ulcerative colitis Meckel diverticulum Ulcerative colitis/Crohn disease
Henoch-Schonlein purpura
¨ Juvenile polyp
Intestinal ischemia Hemorrhoid
Rare causes of bleeding: vascular malformation, hemobilia, intestinal duplication, submucosal mass, neutropenic colitis (typhlitis).
Dieulafoy lesion (a submucosal artery that aberrantly transfusion, chronic right heart failure, or disorders asso-
protrudes through a minute defect in the mucosa). ciated with extrahepatic portal vein thrombosis (history
Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST) are mesen- of abdominal surgery or neonatal sepsis, shock, exchange
chymal tumors arising from the GI wall, mesentery, transfusion, omphalitis, umbilical vein catheterization).
omentum, or retroperitoneum. Most GIST tumors are
found in the stomach (60% to 70%) and should be ASSESSMENT. Most previously well children who
considered in a patient who has neurofibromatosis. He- present with hematemesis are hemodynamically stable
mobilia is a rare complication of abdominal trauma, and usually describe hematemesis as coffee ground-like
biliary tumor, or parasitic infection (Ascaris). or bright red-tinged vomitus, again indicating a low rate
Upper gastrointestinal bleeding may be the initial of bleeding. Bleeding from mucosal lesions usually stops
presentation of esophageal varices. Variceal bleeding spontaneously. The initial laboratory evaluation reveals a
caused by portal hypertension should be considered in normal hematocrit, MCV, platelet count, coagulation
any child who has hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, ascites, profile, total and direct bilirubin, liver enzymes, total
jaundice, or scleral icterus. For the patient who has no protein, and albumin. Affected patients can be prescribed
previous history of liver disease, variceal bleeding is sug- oral inhibitors of gastric acid secretion and followed as
gested by a past history of jaundice, hepatitis, blood outpatients. A bleeding mucosal lesion can be diagnosed
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7. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
requirement). Most centers use general anesthesia and
control of the airway in children who have active upper
GI hemorrhage. Upper endoscopy during active bleed-
ing usually can identify the site of bleeding, distinguish
variceal from mucosal bleeding, and identify diffuse gas-
tritis. Esophageal varices run upward from the gastro-
esophageal junction (Fig. 3). The surface tends to have a
blue tint, and the outline usually is beaded. The greater
their diameters, the more prominent they appear. A clot
or cherry-red spot on a varix supports the occurrence of
recent variceal bleeding.
The quality of the stomach examination during active
bleeding, particularly the ability to see ulcers and vessels
within the ulcers or to identify a Dieulafoy lesion, may be
hampered by the presence of residual blood and clots in
the upper GI tract. The characteristic endoscopic appear-
ance of a Dieulafoy lesion is blood spurting from a
Figure 2. Multiple duodenal ulcers in a 12-year-old child who pinpoint mucosal defect without surrounding exudates,
has Helicobacter pylori gastritis. inflammation, or ecchymosis. Gastric varices seldom oc-
cur in the absence of esophageal varices.
presumptively on the basis of the history and physical The combination of gastric lavage and intravenous
examination; stool guaiac test usually is negative. erythromycin prior to endoscopy improves stomach
Generally, infants younger than 1 year of age or any cleansing. Erythromycin, a macrolide antibiotic, acts as a
patient who has a history of significant upper GI blood motilin receptor agonist that accelerates gastric emptying
loss, acute hematemesis associated with heme-positive by inducing gastric contractions within a few minutes
stool, or physical or biochemical evidence of possible after infusion. For optimal diagnostic results, endoscopy
portal hypertension should be hospitalized for observa- should be performed soon after active bleeding has
tion. If blood in the emesis of a well-appearing breastfed stopped. Elective upper endoscopy is indicated following
infant can be determined to be of maternal origin, ad- significant hematemesis; for a patient who has recurrent
mission is not indicated. The Apt-Downey test is based hematemesis, unexplained biochemical evidence of iron
on an infant’s blood containing more than 60% fetal deficiency, or presumed persistent peptic disease while
hemoglobin that is alkali-resistant. Blood of maternal
origin that may be swallowed during delivery or comes
from a fissure in the mother’s nipple contains adult
hemoglobin, which converts to brownish-yellow alkaline
hematin upon mixing with alkali. All neonates who have
hematemesis should be screened for coagulopathy due to
vitamin K deficiency from failure to administer prophy-
laxis postdelivery, maternal thrombocytopenic purpura,
hemophilia, and von Willebrand disease. However, co-
agulopathy in the absence of mucosal lesions or varices is
a rare cause of gross GI blood loss in older infants and
children.
Upper endoscopy is the test of choice for evaluating
hematemesis. The goals of endoscopy in upper GI bleed-
ing are to identify the site of the bleeding, diagnose the
specific cause of the bleeding, and initiate therapeutic
interventions when indicated. Emergency endoscopy is
necessary only when the patient continues to bleed at a
rate considered to be life-threatening (ongoing hemate-
mesis, hemodynamic instability, continuous transfusion Figure 3. Esophageal varices in the distal esophagus.
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8. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
receiving acid reduction therapy; and for any patient in purpura and may antedate skin lesions by up to 1 week.
whom portal hypertension is suspected, as indicated by a A more chronic history of abdominal pain antedating
history of liver disease, jaundice, hepatomegaly, spleno- hematochezia raises the possibility of inflammatory
megaly, elevated transaminases, hyperbilirubinemia, hy- bowel disease, Meckel diverticulum (with associated ul-
poalbuminemia, coagulopathy, or signs of hyper- cer), or GI tuberculosis.
splenism, including thrombocytopenia and leukopenia. Painless passage of blood per rectum suggests a
Meckel diverticulum, polyp, intestinal duplication, intes-
Hematochezia tinal submucosal mass (GIST), angiodysplasia/vascular
CAUSES. The differential diagnosis of hematochezia, malformation, or superior mesenteric artery aneurysm.
the passage of gross blood or melena per rectum, de- A Meckel diverticulum is a vestigial remnant of the
pends on the clinical presentation. The color of the omphalomesenteric duct located on the antimesenteric
blood, the age of the patient, the presence of abdominal border in the distal ileum that occurs in 1.5% to 2.0% of
pain or tenderness, and a history of altered bowel pattern the general population. A Meckel diverticulum that con-
are important factors in assessing a child who has hema- tains gastric mucosa may present as painless acute lower
tochezia. Although rare, blood from the upper GI tract GI bleeding. Bleeding from a Meckel diverticulum, 50%
may appear unchanged in the stool due to rapid intestinal of which occurs before the child is 2 years of age, some-
transit. Approximately 10% to 15% of mucosal or variceal times is severe. The passage of a large amount of bright to
hemorrhages from the upper GI tract may present with dark red blood by a well child should be considered
melena alone, without hematemesis. In children, the bleeding from a Meckel diverticulum until proven oth-
acute passage of melena or dark blood usually indicates erwise.
bleeding originating from the stomach, duodenum, Anemia and severe bleeding rarely occur from a juve-
small bowel, or proximal colon. In such cases, an NG nile polyp. Autoamputation of a juvenile polyp that has
tube should be passed to distinguish upper from lower outgrown its blood supply may cause significant hema-
GI bleeding, taking care not to mistake a small amount of tochezia. Parents may observe tissue in the blood. Rarely,
fresh clotted blood caused by passing the NG tube for painless bleeding from deep ulceration of the terminal
active upper GI hemorrhage. ileum or colon may be the initial presentation of Crohn
Acute hematochezia in an ill-appearing child (either disease. It also is important to remember that NSAIDs
extreme irritability or lethargy) who has acute abdominal may cause ulcerations in the small bowel and colon in
pain and tenderness suggests intestinal ischemia as a addition to the upper GI tract.
complication of intussusception, mid-gut volvulus (asso-
ciated with malrotation, mesenteric cyst, intestinal dupli- ASSESSMENT. All infants who experience acute he-
cation, or internal hernia), incarcerated hernia, or mes- matochezia should undergo abdominal flat plate and
enteric thrombosis. Intestinal bleeding is a late sign of either upright or cross-table lateral radiography to screen
acute intestinal obstruction that subsequently led to ve- for intestinal obstruction or pneumatosis intestinalis (gas
nous congestion, ischemia, and hemorrhagic necrosis of in the bowel wall, a radiologic finding in ischemic bowel
the affected area of bowel. Idiopathic intussusception disease). Several modalities are available to diagnose the
should be the working diagnosis for any child younger patient who is suspected of having intussusception. With
than 2 years of age in whom abdominal pain or tender- a high degree of suspicion in infants younger than 2 years
ness is associated with lower GI blood loss. The sudden of age, an air or water-soluble contrast enema is not only
onset of colicky abdominal pain and vomiting in the diagnostic, but also potentially therapeutic. The classic
setting of an antecedent viral illness followed by passage contrast enema finding is a “coiled spring,” which results
of “currant jelly” stool is an intussusception until proven when contrast coats the crevices between crowded haus-
otherwise. tra. When a contrast enema is performed for a suspected
Beyond age 2 years, intussusception is more likely to intussusception, a pediatric surgeon should be available
be associated with a lead point such as a Meckel divertic- in case complications occur. In the older child, the
ulum, polyp, nodular lymphoid hyperplasia, foreign differential diagnosis of intestinal ischemia may be
body, intestinal duplication, intramural hematoma, lym- broader. Therefore, abdominal computed tomography
phoma, or bowel wall edema in the presence of Henoch- (CT) scan or abdominal ultrasonography may be the
Schonlein purpura. Obvious hematochezia or melena in
¨ initial diagnostic choice after consultation with the pedi-
association with abdominal pain and distention occurs in atric surgical staff.
15% to 25% of children who have Henoch-Schonlein ¨ After excluding intestinal ischemia due to intussus-
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9. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
ception and other causes, the next step in the evaluation retention is the most serious complication. To prevent
of hematochezia is to perform a Meckel scan (99Tc- this complication, patients routinely should undergo a
pertectnetate nuclear scan) to look for a Meckel divertic- contrast small bowel enteroclysis prior to the capsule
ulum. The radionuclide binds rapidly to gastric mucosa study to rule out mass lesions or intestinal stricture.
within the diverticulum, resulting in a well-demarcated When no exact bleeding source can be identified and
focus, usually in the right lower quadrant. The radionu- melena or hematochezia continue, laparoscopy may be
clide also may be taken up by gastric heterotopia in the useful in ruling out missed Meckel diverticulum, intesti-
small bowel mucosa or enteric duplications. Some have nal duplication, or an abnormal-appearing gallbladder
advocated pretreatment with a histamine2-receptor an- suggesting possible hemobilia. Before proceeding with
tagonist prior to the Meckel scan to stimulate technetium laparoscopy in a patient who has obscure GI bleeding,
uptake by gastric mucosa. repeat upper endoscopy and colonoscopy should be con-
After excluding obstruction or Meckel diverticulum, sidered. In adults, approximately 30% of upper lesions
the algorithm to investigate hematochezia and melena and 3% of colonic lesions are missed during initial endos-
can be exhaustive and can include upper endoscopy, copy.
colonoscopy, nuclear medicine scans, contrast enterocly-
sis (radiologic procedure that uses modified contrast Rectal Bleeding With Signs of Colitis
agents to enhance visibility of the small bowel mucosa), CAUSES. Symptoms of colitis include bloody diar-
capsule endoscopy, push enteroscopy, angiography, rhea, tenesmus (urgency to defecate), nighttime stool-
laparoscopy, and intraoperative enteroscopy. ing, and abdominal pain. Acute onset of bloody diarrhea
Upper endoscopy and colonoscopy should be per- suggests an infectious colitis. In a well infant younger
formed at the same time. The diagnostic role of upper than 6 months of age, the cause of acutely bloody stools
endoscopy has been discussed. Colonoscopy can detect most likely is infectious colitis or eosinophilic proctoco-
polyps, angiodysplasia, and ulcers in the terminal ileum, litis. Late-onset necrotizing enterocolitis or Hirsch-
colon, and ileocolonic anastomotic site in patients who sprung disease with enterocolitis also must be considered
have had previous surgical ileocolostomy as well as vas- in an ill-appearing infant. The latter consideration is
culitis and inflammatory bowel disease. Endoscopic bi- especially important if there has been a preceding history
opsy from areas of bleeding or from ulcerations may be of constipation dating to early infancy.
diagnostic of vasculitis associated with Henoch- Beyond infancy, the two common causes of bloody
Schonlein purpura. The colon must be inspected for
¨ diarrhea are infectious colitis, which can be associated
vascular lesions during insertion of the endoscope be- with hemolytic-uremic syndrome in the case of Esche-
cause endoscopic manipulation often causes petechial richia coli and Shigella infections, and inflammatory
hemorrhage, which can be mistaken for angiodysplasias bowel disease. In 70% to 80% of children who have
on withdrawal. hemolytic-uremic syndrome, bloody diarrhea precedes
When bleeding persists and endoscopy fails to identify the recognition of hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia,
a bleeding site, radioisotope-tagged red blood cell scans and renal insufficiency by 3 to 16 days. Because most
using technetium 99m-sulfur colloid may be capable of bacterial colitis is self-limiting and resolves spontaneously
detecting the location of bleeding if the rate exceeds within 2 weeks, any patient who has a history of bloody
0.1 mL/min. Unfortunately, this modality has signifi- diarrhea for more than 2 weeks should be referred to a
cant false localization and false-negative rates. Angiogra- pediatric gastroenterologist for evaluation of inflamma-
phy is technically difficult in children but can be useful tory bowel disease. The presence of fever, fatigue, weight
when there is 1 to 2 mL/min of active bleeding. loss, arthralgia, or arthritis supports the diagnosis of
If bleeding has stopped, complete radiologic evalua- inflammatory bowel disease.
tion of the small bowel with barium contrast or CT Ischemic colitis or vasculitis should be considered in
enteroclysis may detect small structural mucosal, but not patients who have collagen vascular disease, a history of
vascular, lesions. Wireless capsule endoscopy has revolu- recent anesthesia, cardiac failure, uremia, or a history of
tionized evaluation of the GI tract and now is being taking birth control medications or digitalis. Radiation
applied in pediatrics. Adult studies have described this enterocolitis also must be considered in selected oncol-
technique as providing the highest diagnostic yield in ogy patients. Typhlitis is an acute inflammation or necro-
ongoing, overt, small bowel bleeding of obscure origin sis of the cecum, appendix, and terminal ileum associated
( 90%), with a lesser diagnostic yield in patients who with profound neutropenia and is seen most commonly
have heme-positive stools and anemia ( 40%). Capsule in children who have leukemia being treated with cyto-
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10. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
toxic drugs, although it also is associated with aplastic tention, abdominal pain, and sometimes fever or shock),
anemia, lymphoma, acquired immunodeficiency syn- or might have a condition requiring surgery or a surgical
drome, and immunosuppression following transplanta- complication.
tion.
Rectal Bleeding in Which Blood is Mixed With
ASSESSMENT. Stool studies should include smear for Normal-appearing Stool
polymorphonuclear leukocytes; bacterial culture for Sal- CAUSES. Many times a parent or child reports blood
monella, Shigella, Yersinia enterocolitica, Campylobacter mixed within normal stool with or without mucus. It is
jejuni, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Aeromonas hydro- important to realize that colitis does not always present
philia, and Klebsiella oxytoca; and toxin assay for Clostrid- with diarrhea. In a well infant younger than 6 months of
ium difficile (both toxin A and B). In an adolescent, a age, blood mixed within stool may be a sign of eosino-
perianal culture for Neisseria gonorrhea should be ob- philic proctocolitis or nodular lymphoid hyperplasia. Be-
tained. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis can present with tween 2 and 6 years of age, a well child who passes small
bloody diarrhea and should be considered in an immu- amounts of bright-to-dark red blood mixed within a
nocompromised patient. CMV can be cultured from the stool or coated on the outside of a stool most likely has a
stool. Rotavirus rarely is associated with blood-tinged juvenile polyp. Juvenile polyps, which account for more
diarrhea. Enzyme immunoassay for rotavirus is indicated than 95% of all polyps found in children, are inflamma-
only in the clinical context of acute watery diarrhea, tory hamartomas that carry a very low, if any, malignant
which may be blood-tinged in a child 6 months to 3 years potential. Seventy percent of juvenile polyps occur in the
of age who has the associated symptoms of vomiting, left side of the colon and are solitary. Multiple polyps are
colicky abdominal pain, and low grade fever. associated with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome and multiple
If indicated by geography or recent travel, stool sam- juvenile polyposis coli. Peutz-Jeghers syndrome should
ples for Entamoeba histolytica and Trichuris trichiura be suspected when mucocutaneous pigmentation is
should be obtained. It is not unreasonable to obtain a noted during physical examination. Adenomatous polyp-
CBC with platelet count, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) osis syndromes are less likely to present with rectal bleed-
measurement, creatinine assessment, and urinalysis for all ing in the pediatric age range.
patients presenting with acute bloody diarrhea to screen Painless rectal bleeding in young children also can be
for hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Because bloody diar- caused by nodular lymphoid hyperplasia of the colon. In
rhea may precede renal manifestations of hemolytic- most children, such nodules are self-limiting and associ-
uremic syndrome by 3 to 16 days, repeat CBC with ated with preceding viral infection or eosinophilic
platelet count, BUN and creatinine measurements, and proctocolitis, but they may be associated with immuno-
urinalysis should be considered 14 days from the onset of deficiency (selective immunoglobulin A deficiency or
GI symptoms for patients who have culture-proven bac- hypogammaglobulinemia). The mechanism for the
terial colitis. bleeding is believed to be thinning of the surface of the
Colonoscopy is indicated for patients who show evi- mucosa over the enlarged hyperplastic submucosal lym-
dence of significant inflammation (greater than five phatic tissue, with subsequent small mucosal ulceration
grossly bloody stools per day, nighttime stooling, ane- and bleeding. Bleeding is most common when nodules
mia, tachycardia, hypoalbuminemia) or well-appearing are present in the sigmoid and rectum, suggesting fria-
patients who have persistent bloody diarrhea in excess of bility of the stretched mucosa unmasked by passage of a
2 weeks. Colonoscopy allows collection of colonic secre- bowel movement.
tions for culture and assay that are not contaminated with
urine, which might affect test results. Characteristic ASSESSMENT. Colonoscopy is indicated for any child
pseudomembranes may be seen with C difficile and Shi- who has unexplained rectal bleeding that is documented
gella infection. The goals for colonoscopy in patients either visually or by chemical testing. Juvenile polyps
who have inflammatory bowel disease are to define the occur most commonly in the left colon on a stalk and
extent of the inflammation, obtain biopsies to try to may be removed by snare and cautery. Endoscopic
distinguish Crohn disease from ulcerative colitis, and polypectomy of large colonic polyps ( 2 cm) increases
subjectively aid in planning initial therapy. Colonoscopy the risk of perforation because thermal energy delivered
is contraindicated if a child appears toxic, has signs of for polyp removal can traverse the thin muscular layer of
peritonitis, has toxic megacolon (a life-threatening con- the colon, resulting in tissue necrosis. Nodular lymphoid
dition characterized by a dilated colon, abdominal dis- hyperplasia has the gross appearance of multiple 1- to
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11. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
4-mm umbilicated submucosal nodules that may be hard toms (weight loss, growth retardation, arthralgia, fever);
to distinguish from aphthous ulcers. or unexplained iron deficiency anemia. The causes of
occult bleeding in children are similar to those of clini-
cally apparent GI bleeding discussed previously. The
Bright Red Blood Coating a Normal-appearing most common causes are inflammatory disorders (in-
Stool or Associated With Constipation cluding esophagitis), acid peptic disease, reactive gastri-
CAUSES. Bright red blood coating a normal- tis, eosinophilic gastroenteritis, celiac disease, Henoch-
appearing stool is suggestive of a perianal disorder, most Schonlein purpura, Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis,
¨
commonly an anal fissure, cryptitis, or proctitis. Anal polyps, and Meckel diverticulum. Rare causes of occult
fissures typically occur before age 1 year and usually are bleeding are vascular anomalies, infection, and neoplasia.
associated with a history of constipation or recent acute Infectious causes of occult GI blood loss include hook-
diarrhea. The blood almost always is of small amount and worm, ascariasis, amoebic infection, Strongyloides infec-
red and appears most often as a strip on the outside of the tion, and tuberculosis.
stool. The fissure usually starts when passage of hard
stool tears the sensitive squamous lining of the anal canal. ASSESSMENT. A patient who has occult GI blood loss
In a patient who has perianal erythema and an anal should undergo investigations directed toward identify-
fissure, beta-hemolytic streptococcal cellulitis should be ing pathologic processes that can explain both the symp-
considered and the anal canal cultured before applying toms and the blood loss. For example, it is reasonable to
bacteriostatic lubricant to perform a rectal examination. perform upper endoscopy alone in a 14-year-old patient
Beyond infancy, perianal disease or recurrent anal who has chronic epigastric abdominal pain, episodic
fissures should raise suspicion of inflammatory bowel vomiting, occult positive stool, and positive H pylori
disease or sexual abuse. A foreign body inserted into the serology. However, if symptoms suggest the possibility
rectum also may traumatize the rectal mucosa and pro- of Crohn disease (growth deceleration, diarrhea, arthral-
duce bleeding. Rectal prolapse, most often due to con- gia or arthritis, perianal skin tags or fistula) or if a patient
stipation and excessive straining, forces the anterior rec- has no symptoms other than occult-positive stool and
tal mucosa into the anal canal, causing congestion, iron deficiency anemia, it is reasonable to perform both
edema, and occasionally, ulceration. A solitary rectal upper endoscopy and colonoscopy.
ulcer is rare in childhood but can be a complication of
mucosal congestion and edema. Symptoms include dys- Therapeutic Considerations
chezia (difficult defecation), tenesmus, discharge of mu- Supportive Measures
cus, and rectal bleeding. External hemorrhoids are asso- Supportive measures include stabilization of hemody-
ciated with recurrent anal fissures and proctitis, but rarely namic status, correction of any coagulation or platelet
are a cause of bleeding unless irritated by excessive clean- abnormalities, blood transfusion if necessary, and iron
ing after bowel movements. Internal hemorrhoids are supplementation. Because both intravascular and ex-
rare in children and adolescents. travascular volumes are reduced in acute GI bleeding,
crystalloid (normal saline, Ringer lactate) is the solution
ASSESSMENT. In most cases, anal fissure can be diag- of choice for initial intravenous resuscitation. Colloid
nosed by careful examination of the perianal area. All solutions or blood are used only when blood loss is
patients who have perianal excoriation, multiple anal massive, in which case the patient is at risk for developing
fissures, or fissure resistant to conservative management respiratory insufficiency or shock lung because of a sig-
should have perianal culture for beta-hemolytic Strepto- nificant decrease in plasma oncotic pressure. Blood trans-
coccus. Anal trauma, internal hemorrhoids, proctitis, and fusion is the only method of restoring oxygen-carrying
solitary rectal ulcer may be diagnosed by proctosigmoid- capacity during active GI bleeding.
oscopy with retroflexion in the rectum. Intravenous acid suppression has been shown to im-
prove ulcer healing in adults. In children, pharmacoki-
netic studies have been performed with intravenous
Occult GI Blood Loss histmine2-receptor antagonists (Table 3). Tachyphylaxis
CAUSES. Occult blood in the stool is detected most to intravenous ranitidine is a significant problem if more
commonly by chemical testing during the evaluation of than 2 weeks of continuous therapy is required. Recent
chronic GI symptoms such as abdominal pain, vomiting, studies in adults have demonstrated improved outcomes
diarrhea, and constipation; unexplained systemic symp- after peptic ulcer bleeding by using an intravenous pro-
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12. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
Table 3. Pharmacologic Therapy of Gastrointestinal Bleeding
Indication Category of Drug Dosage*
Active Bleeding
Intravenous Inhibitors of
Gastric Acid Secretion
Ranitidine Histamine2 antagonist Continuous infusion, 1 mg/kg followed by
infusion of 2 to 4 mg/kg per day
Bolus infusions, 3 to 5 mg/kg per day
divided every 8 hours
Pantoprazole Proton pump inhibitor Children <40 kg: 0.5 to 1 mg/kg per day
IV once daily
Children >40 kg: 20 to 40 mg once daily
(maximum, 40 mg/d)
Intravenous Vasoactive Agents
Octreotide Somatostatin analog 1 mcg/kg IV bolus (maximum, 50 mcg)
followed by 1 mcg/kg per hour
May increase infusion rate every 8 hours
to 4 mcg/kg per hour (maximum,
250 mcg per 8 hours)
When bleeding is controlled, taper 50%
every 12 hours
May stop when at 25% of starting dose
Vasopressin Antidiuretic hormone 0.002 to 0.005 units/kg per
minute 12 hours, then taper over 24 to
48 hours (maximum, 0.2 units/min)
Prevention of Rebleeding
Oral Inhibitors of Gastric Acid
Secretion
Ranitidine Histamine2 antagonist 2 to 3 mg/kg per dose twice or three times
a day (maximum, 300 mg/d)
Famotidine Histamine2 antagonist 0.5 mg/kg per dose twice daily (maximum,
40 mg/d)
Lansoprazole Proton pump inhibitor 1 to 1.5 mg/kg per day once to twice daily
(maximum, 30 mg twice daily)
Omeprazole Proton pump inhibitor 1 to 1.5 mg/kg per day once to twice daily
(maximum, 20 mg twice daily)
Oral Adhesive Protection of
Ulcerated Mucosa
Sucralfate Local adhesive paste 40 to 80 mg/kg per day in 4 divided doses
(maximum, 1,000 mg/dose in 4 divided
doses)
Oral Prevention of Variceal
Rebleeding
Propranolol Reduced mesenteric 1 mg/kg per day in 2 to 4 divided doses
blood flow (beta- May increase every 3 to 7 days to
adrenergic blocker) maximum of 8 mg/kg per day to achieve
a 25% reduction from baseline pulse rate
*Evidence-based standard of care pediatric dosages for these medications are not well established. Dosages listed are taken from Pediatric Lexi Drug online
formulary. They do not necessarily apply to neonates or infants younger than 3 months of age. Higher doses may be used by individual pediatric
gastroenterologists based on peer-reviewed published case series and personal experience. Major adverse effects are listed in the text. Ranitidine and famotidine
dosages must be adjusted downward for patients who have renal impairment.
ton pump inhibitor (PPI). Dosing in children has been Control of Active Upper GI Bleeding
extrapolated from adult literature, although available There is no evidence that gastric lavage has any therapeu-
data suggest faster drug clearance and significant interin- tic role in controlling hemorrhage, and there is no benefit
dividual variability in pediatric patients (Table 3). to continuous lavage beyond 10 minutes if the NG
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13. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
return is not clearing. In fact, continued NG lavage in the has fewer complications, lower costs, and higher rates of
face of active bleeding might be deleterious by not allow- survival. With the development of multiband ligation de-
ing fibrin clots to form at the site of hemorrhage. Vaso- vices, which allow application of up to six bands per session,
active agents, including octreotide and vasopressin, are pediatric experience with this technique is encouraging.
used for both mucosal and variceal bleeding, usually as The inability to pass the band ligation apparatus in infants
adjunctive therapy to endoscopic hemostasis. Published and small children is the only limiting factor. When a child
experience in pediatric patients is limited to case reports is bleeding and hemodynamically unstable, both sclerother-
and small case series. These drugs decrease portal pres- apy and band ligation can be technically difficult. In such
sure by decreasing splanchnic blood flow. Octreotide is a cases, it is best to monitor the child in an intensive care unit,
synthetic octapeptide that has pharmacologic actions protect the airway with an endotracheal tube, sedate the
similar to those of the endogenous hormone somatosta- patient, and temporarily control the bleeding by passing a
tin. Octreotide has fewer hemodynamic adverse effects Sengstaken-Blakemore tube or Linton tube. These tubes
than vasopressin and is the drug of choice. Vasopressin allow mechanical balloon tamponade at the gastroesopha-
can cause disturbing peripheral vasoconstriction and may geal junction to stop bleeding before proceeding with ther-
trigger renal failure. The major adverse effect of oct- apeutic endoscopy.
reotide is hyperglycemia. Octreotide is initiated as a Angiography is employed most often when an addi-
bolus injection of 1 mcg/kg (up to a maximum of tional therapeutic component is needed, such as place-
50 mcg) followed immediately by continuous infusion of ment of a transjugular portosystemic shunt, selective
1 mcg/kg per hour, which may be increased hourly by infusion of a vasoactive agent into a bleeding vessel, or
1 mcg/kg per hour up to 4 mcg/kg per hour (Table 3). embolization of a bleeding vessel with gel foam or coils.
Endoscopic hemostasis of mucosal lesions includes
injection and thermal methods. Among the mucosal Control of Active Lower GI Bleeding
lesions amenable to endoscopic therapy are ulcers with Lower GI bleeding rarely is life-threatening. Meckel diver-
active bleeding, oozing from a clot overlying an ulcer, or ticulum is treated by surgical resection. Endoscopy can treat
an ulcer that has a visible vessel at its base. The injection colonic lesions such as polyps, bleeding ulcers, telangiecta-
method used most commonly in pediatric patients is sias, or small hemangiomas. Juvenile polyps are removed by
injection of 1:10,000 epinephrine in normal saline into snare polypectomy. As with upper GI bleeding, endoscopic
and near the periphery of an oozing lesion. Injection hemostasis of mucosal lesions includes injection and ther-
therapy may slow or stop active bleeding, but it should be mal methods. Because of the thin wall of the colon, the total
followed by contact thermal coagulation. Contact ther- number of joules applied to a bleeding colonic lesion should
mal methods achieve hemostasis by local tamponade and be lower than that used in the stomach.
coaptive coagulation, which involves fusing the walls of
blood vessels up to 2 mm in size. Common contact Prevention of Rebleeding
thermal methods are heater probe, bipolar probes, and For conditions that have a significant rate of rebleeding
BICAP cautery. The heater probe allows tamponade (variceal bleeding, chronic NSAID therapy, angiodyspla-
with firm direct pressure on a bleeding site, followed by sia), the goal is to decrease the rebleeding rate. Medical
delivery of two to four pulses of 15 to 30 J to coagulate therapy includes acid suppression with antacids,
the lesion. In adults, perforation has been reported in histamine2-receptor antagonists, or PPIs. In addition,
approximately 1% of patients and rebleeding in 18% of binding agents such as sucralfate have been shown to
patients after thermal methods. Endoscopic clip place- increase ulcer healing. Sucralfate is particularly effective
ment is a newer technique to capture and compress the for esophageal bleeding due to caustic or mechanical
tissue surrounding a bleeding vessel. forms of mucosal damage (Table 3).
The endoscopic therapies for acute variceal bleeding
include injection sclerotherapy and variceal band ligation Secondary Prophylaxis in Variceal Bleeding
therapy. Sclerotherapy in pediatrics employs 25-gauge nee- The risk of rebleeding following the initial episode of
dles to inject volumes of sclerosant based on patient weight. hemorrhage due to the rupture of esophageal varices is
The most common significant complication of injection 80%. Such rebleeding occurs most commonly within the
sclerotherapy is esophageal ulceration leading to stricture first 6 weeks after initial bleeding. Secondary prophylaxis
formation, which occurs in 15% of all children treated. to prevent variceal rebleeding is indicated for patients
Several controlled studies in adults have shown that band who have cirrhosis or cavernous transformation of the
ligation has a higher efficacy in preventing rebleeding and portal vein. Patients who have portal hypertension due to
50 Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008
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14. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
cavernous transformation of the portal vein have rela- In this case, the patient was treated for a working
tively normal liver parenchyma and function and tend to diagnosis of allergic colitis. For patients who have allergic
develop spontaneous portosystemic shunts over time. colitis, evidence of gross bleeding should resolve in
Thus, secondary prophylaxis bridges the time from pre- 3 weeks, although heme-positive stools may persist for
sentation until spontaneous shunts form or until the 6 to 12 weeks. Sigmoidoscopy is indicated if gross bleed-
patient’s age and radiographic evaluation predict success ing does not resolve in 3 weeks or occult bleeding does
from shunt surgery. not resolve by 12 weeks. Nodular lymphoid hyperplasia is
Secondary prophylaxis combines endoscopic and the most common cause of persistent visible blood in the
pharmacologic modalities. The endoscopic options in- stool of an infant who has allergic colitis.
clude injection sclerotherapy and variceal band ligation.
Successful obliteration of esophageal varices has been Summary
reported in 75% to 90% of pediatric patients following GI bleeding can occur in any area of the GI tract, from
multiple sessions of sclerotherapy. Several controlled the mouth to the anus. For severe bleeding, the sequence
studies in adults have shown that band ligation has a of management is first to stabilize the patient (including
higher efficacy in preventing rebleeding, fewer complica- establishing intravenous access), followed by identifying
tions, lower costs, and higher rates of survival. Pediatric the source of bleeding. The differential diagnosis is priori-
experience with this technique is encouraging. Case se- tized by addressing the clinical presentation of the bleeding
ries in children have reported ablation of esophageal and the age of the patient. Best outcomes are achieved by a
varices in fewer sessions compared with injection sclero- timely multidisciplinary approach, using the combined skills
therapy. Medical therapy for secondary prevention of of a pediatric gastroenterologist, radiologist, and surgeon.
variceal rebleeding includes nonselective beta blockers to With the availability of a broad array of endoscopic and
reduce cardiac output and splanchnic and portal blood radiologic techniques for accurate diagnosis and the advent
flow, leading to reduced portal pressure. Several studies of innovative methods for controlling GI bleeding, the
in adults show benefits of combined endoscopic and major challenge in the coming years will be to determine
medical therapies in patients who have cirrhosis without the optimal approach to the individual patient based on
increasing the risk of ascites or impaired renal function. assessment of risk status. As described in the case study,
Prophylactic use of beta blockers has not been studied management based on empiric diagnosis remains an accept-
rigorously in children. able approach for many of the conditions that cause GI
bleeding in children.
Case Study Summary
The presented case illustrates the evaluation and man-
agement of rectal bleeding in a healthy infant who has Suggested Reading
altered bowel histology. In the absence of an anal fissure, Allison JE, Tekawa IS, Ransom LJ, Adrian AL. A comparison of
fecal occult-blood tests for colorectal– cancer screening. N Engl
significant skin hemangioma, and evidence of pathogens J Med. 1996;334:155–159
in the stool, the conventional approach to this infant is to Donta ST, Myers MG. Clostridium difficile toxin in asymptomatic
make a presumptive diagnosis of allergic colitis and initi- neonates. J Pediatr. 1982;100:431– 434
ate therapy with a hypoallergenic formula (or eliminate Eroglu Y, Emerick KM, Whitington PF, Alonso EM. Octreotide
all cow milk protein from a breastfeeding mother’s diet). therapy for control of acute gastrointestinal bleeding in chil-
dren. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2004;38:41– 47
The presence of C difficile toxin can be a confounding McKiernan PJ, Beath SV, Davison SM. A prospective study of
variable; C difficile toxin has been found in the stool in endoscopic esophageal variceal ligation using a multiband liga-
10% of healthy neonates. Most infants who have C tor. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2002;34:207–211
difficile toxin in the stool are healthy, indicating the Melmed GY, Lo SK. Capsule endoscopy: practical applications.
coexistence of some protective antitoxic substance or Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3:411– 422
Shashidhar H, Langhans N, Grand RJ. Propranolol in prevention of
lack of appropriate toxin receptors in young infants. portal hypertensive hemorrhage in children: a pilot study. J Pe-
When a physician orders a test, he or she must have a clear diatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 199;29:12–17
idea of what to do with the information. In this case, the Xanthakos SA, Schwimmer JB, Melin-Aldana H, Rothenberg ME,
infant was healthy-appearing and feeding well, and Witte DP, Cohen MB. Prevalence and outcome of allergic
screening blood study results were normal. Patients who colitis in healthy infants with rectal bleeding: a prospective
cohort study. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 2005;41:16 –22
have pseudomembranous colitis associated with C diffi- Zargar SA, Javid G, Khan BA, et al. Endoscopic ligation compared
cile appear ill and frequently present with high fever, with sclerotherapy for bleeding esophageal varices in children with
leukocytosis, and hypoalbuminemia. extrahepatic portal hypertension. Hepatology. 2002;36:666 – 672
Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008 51
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15. gastroenterology gastointestinal bleeding
PIR Quiz
Quiz also available online at www.pedsinreview.org.
1. A previously healthy 2-year-old girl has been retching and vomiting for the past 12 hours. On the last
occasion, streaks of bright red blood were noted in the pale yellow emesis. Findings on her examination are
unremarkable. The most likely explanation of her hematemesis is:
A. Esophageal varices.
B. Hemorrhagic stress gastritis.
C. Mallory-Weiss tear.
D. Peptic ulcer.
E. Vitamin K deficiency.
2. A previously healthy 5-year-old boy presents with the acute onset of maroon-colored hematochezia.
Physical examination reveals a pale child who exhibits tachycardia. His mother reports that he has had
occasional unexplained abdominal discomfort in the past that did not affect his activity. The most likely
explanation of his symptoms is:
A. Henoch-Schonlein purpura.
¨
B. Infectious colitis.
C. Juvenile polyp.
D. Meckel diverticulum.
E. Superior mesenteric aneurysm.
3. A previously well 8-year-old boy has had diarrhea for the past 5 weeks, with occasional bright red and dark
red blood mixed with the stool. Associated symptoms include episodic vomiting, decreased appetite, and a
4-lb weight loss. He has not taken any antibiotics in the past 6 months and has had no recent travel.
Findings on physical examination include mild pallor and a small effusion in his right knee joint. His
hemoglobin is 9.2 g/dL (92 g/L) and mean corpuscular volume is 72 fL (normal, 78 to 102 fL). Of the
following, the most likely diagnosis is:
A. Allergic colitis.
B. Bacterial infectious colitis.
C. Cytomegalovirus colitis.
D. Pseudomembranous colitis.
E. Ulcerative colitis.
4. A previously healthy 6-year-old girl has had small amounts of bright red blood mixed with her otherwise
normal stools for the past 3 weeks. She generally has one soft stool each day. She has had no other
symptoms. She has no known allergies to medications. You have seen her twice. On both occasions, findings
on her examination have been normal. Her hemoglobin is 11.3 g/dL (113 g/L). Effective treatment most
likely will involve:
A. A 10-day course of oral penicillin.
B. An oral proton pump inhibitor.
C. Removal of milk from her diet.
D. Resection of a Meckel diverticulum.
E. Snare polypectomy.
5. A previously healthy 9-year-boy’s conjunctivae appear pale during a health supervision visit. His mother
reports that he has had episodic blood in his stool over the past 2 to 3 months, which she assumed had
been caused by hard stool associated with constipation. He has no other symptoms. Physical examination
reveals brown-black 1- to 2-mm macules on his lips. His hemoglobin is 9.1 g/dL (91 g/L). Indices are
consistent with iron deficiency anemia. A normal-appearing stool is guaiac-positive. The most likely cause
of the gastrointestinal blood loss is:
A. Colon polyp.
B. Hemangioma.
C. Intestinal neurofibroma.
D. Rectal prolapse.
E. Solitary rectal ulcer.
52 Pediatrics in Review Vol.29 No.2 February 2008
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16. Gastrointestinal Bleeding in Infants and Children
John T. Boyle
Pediatr. Rev. 2008;29;39-52
DOI: 10.1542/pir.29-2-39
Updated Information including high-resolution figures, can be found at:
& Services http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/29/2/39
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