URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS CHANGING PARADIGMS A CASE STUDY OF JAIPUR CITYJournal For Research
There is widespread concern about understanding and curbing urban sprawl, which has been cited for its negative impacts on natural resources, economic development and quality of life of the society. There is not, however, a universally accepted definition of urban sprawl. It has been described using quantitative measures, qualitative terms, attitudinal explanations, and landscapes patterns. The increasing pace of urbanization is usually associated with and driven by the population concentration in an urban area over the periods. The extent of urbanization and its growth drives the change in land use land cover patterns results to urban areas continue to expand over the periods. So, this present study deals with the quantifying the spatial patterns in Jaipur city, analysis based on primary and secondary data collected from different sources, using the spatial analysis technique like Entropy Model for the detection of change in spatial and temporal variability of urban sprawl and the degree of spatial concentration or dispersion of geospatial variable. The boundary less cities are the new paradigms of development and Jaipur is no exception. The process of urban sprawl has been resulted due to the continuous industrial and economic development in the rural – urban fringe of the study area.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
A presentation made by Dr. Joo-In Seong whilst visiting CCRI in October 2017.
Dr Joo-In Seong has worked for Korea Rural Economic Institute (KREI) since 2000 and stayed in England as a visiting researcher at CCRI from December 2016 to October 2017. KREI is a national policy research institute established in 1978 and belongs to the Prime Minister’s Office of Korea.
His academic background is in urban and regional planning with research interests in rural development and changes in Korean rural communities. While working in KREI, he has been involved in many researches on rural policy and wellbeing of rural people, commissioned by Korean government and regional authorities.
During his stay in CCRI, he has studied rural community issues and related policies in England, comparing with rural Korea which had experienced drastic changes since the beginning of modernisation and nation building in the latter half of the 20th century.
URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS CHANGING PARADIGMS A CASE STUDY OF JAIPUR CITYJournal For Research
There is widespread concern about understanding and curbing urban sprawl, which has been cited for its negative impacts on natural resources, economic development and quality of life of the society. There is not, however, a universally accepted definition of urban sprawl. It has been described using quantitative measures, qualitative terms, attitudinal explanations, and landscapes patterns. The increasing pace of urbanization is usually associated with and driven by the population concentration in an urban area over the periods. The extent of urbanization and its growth drives the change in land use land cover patterns results to urban areas continue to expand over the periods. So, this present study deals with the quantifying the spatial patterns in Jaipur city, analysis based on primary and secondary data collected from different sources, using the spatial analysis technique like Entropy Model for the detection of change in spatial and temporal variability of urban sprawl and the degree of spatial concentration or dispersion of geospatial variable. The boundary less cities are the new paradigms of development and Jaipur is no exception. The process of urban sprawl has been resulted due to the continuous industrial and economic development in the rural – urban fringe of the study area.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
A presentation made by Dr. Joo-In Seong whilst visiting CCRI in October 2017.
Dr Joo-In Seong has worked for Korea Rural Economic Institute (KREI) since 2000 and stayed in England as a visiting researcher at CCRI from December 2016 to October 2017. KREI is a national policy research institute established in 1978 and belongs to the Prime Minister’s Office of Korea.
His academic background is in urban and regional planning with research interests in rural development and changes in Korean rural communities. While working in KREI, he has been involved in many researches on rural policy and wellbeing of rural people, commissioned by Korean government and regional authorities.
During his stay in CCRI, he has studied rural community issues and related policies in England, comparing with rural Korea which had experienced drastic changes since the beginning of modernisation and nation building in the latter half of the 20th century.
ssessment of the Spaces between the Developed and Undeveloped Areas in Rongo ...inventionjournals
The establishment of any urban centres is always characterised by either commercial, industrial or administrative activities. Rongo Town is one of the towns that has attracted a large population and this has led to inadequate houses for the residents and general stress in the provision of social amenities. The general objective of the study was to analyse the socio-economic impacts of Rongo urban sprawl. The specific objective of the study was to assess the spaces between the developed and undeveloped area of Rongo Town. This was important because it projected the causes of inadequate housing units in Rongo Town. Concentric Urban Theory was used to guide the study. Cross sectional design method was used in the study. Quantitative and qualitative design methods were used to give the study a structure. The target population was 27,759. From this 6,095 households were used as respondents. Primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data was collected by use of questionnaires, observation checklist, photographs and sketches. Secondary data involved written articles by experts in urban growth and information in government offices and non-governmental organisations. This data was analysed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences which yielded descriptive and inferential statistics. This data was also analysed by content analysis through description. The spaces between the developed and undeveloped areas were found to be so large. The study recommended the construction of high density houses by filling in the spaces between the developed and undeveloped areas in Rongo Town with houses and other necessary infrastructures
Experiences with implementation of the Sustainable Intensification Assessment...africa-rising
Poster prepared by Lulseged Tamene, Wuletawu Abera, Kindu Mekonnen, Melkamu Derseh, Kifle Woldearegay and Simret Yasabu at the Africa RISING Program Learning Event, 5-8 February 2019
Yu Zhu (University of Kent, CEE)
Zhongmin Wu (Nottingham Trent University)
Liquan Peng, Laiyun Sheng (National Bureau of Statistics of China)
Meiyan Wang, Yang Du, Fang Cai (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)
Part of the Institute of Development Studies' China and Development Seminar Series presented at the Institute of Development Studies, January 15th 2009
ICRISAT Global Planning Meeting 2019:CGIAR Research Program new initiatives D...ICRISAT
Innovation in Agri-food Systems as a driver of Employment, Nutrition and Resilience in Fragile Drylands (Dry Arc). The ‘DryArc’ Initiative (ICARDA, ICRISAT, IFPRI, IWMI) aims to strengthen the resilience of rural communities and agri-food systems across the drylands of MENA, Central and West Asia, sub Saharan Africa.
Presentation at:
Meeting global food needs with lower emissions:
IPCC report findings on climate change mitigation in agriculture
A dialog among scientists, practitioners and financiers
April 16, 2014
World Bank, Washington, DC
Following the April 13th release of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on Mitigation, including Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU), this event will provided an opportunity to listen to IPCC authors summarize their findings and for all participants to join in a dialog with practitioners and financiers to discuss actionable steps for mitigation in the agricultural sector.
The event was a joint effort of the World Bank, the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases, and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
Soil erosion is one of the major challenges of Ethiopia deteriorating the productivity of land. Soil and water conservation (SWC) is the only practice to reverse the threat and protect the land. Over the last three decades, different soil and water conservation activities have been undertaken. However, soil erosion still persists and become major threats of Ethiopian farmers. Despite the massive mobilization of resources for SWC, only very few farmers have been practicing integrated soil and water conservation measures for restoration of degraded agricultural land. In addition, there is lack of information among farmers on the impact of SWC on soil fertility improvement and soil nutrient content dynamics. This study was conducted in Kofele district, which is one of AGP district, in West Arsi Zones of Oromia. The study was aimed to demonstrate the impact of integrated Soil and water conservation measures in restoring degraded agricultural land. Dasho and Elephant grasses were planted on graded soil bund as an integration measures at four farmers field. Farmer’s field visit was arranged two times in two years to share practical experiences among the farmers and DA. It was also identified that soil nutrient contents in terms of total nitrogen, available phosphorous, available potassium and soil organic carbon content showed an increasing trend since establishment (2016). On the other hand, this kind of soil and water conservation practices on agricultural land showed promising way of carbon sequestration as the climate change mitigation strategy. The study recommended the use of integrated soil and water conservation measures as strategy of rehabilitating degraded agricultural land as apart of integrated water shed management.
Sustainable Land Management: shielding the agriculture land with flood manage...Shamsuddin Ahmed
ABSTRACT:
This research explores the issues of shielding the agriculture lands that are affected by floods frequency while the wetlands habitats are dynamic for sustainable land management with infrastructure and environmental extenuation. Sustainable land management ought to be concomitant with flood action strategy merging the erstwhile lenient of agro-ecological entities and local environmental profile. Problems of deforestation, soil degradation, wetlands and surface drainage, and decreasing biodiversity are widespread. Flood action strategy for a region is obviously pertinent to the analysis of inundation area compartmentalisation with flood forecasting, flood proofing and flood response scenarios for long-term solutions, including five obligatory options such as appraisal, priority, delineation, originalities, and model for sustainable agriculture land. Consequently, the sustainable land management shielding the agriculture land with the dispensation of flood management and wetlands habitats is inexorable to investment priorities in infrastructure planning to prevent the upset from hazard and vulnerability.
KEYWORDS: agriculture land, flood management, land use policy, sustainable land management, wetlands
The policies of urban development and housing in India have come a long way since 1950s. The pressure of urban population and lack of housing and basic services were very much evident in the early 1950s. In some cities this was compounded by migration of people from Pakistan. However, the general perception of the policy makers was that India is pre-dominantly an agricultural and rural economy and that there are potent dangers of over urbanisation which will lead to the drain of resources from the countryside to feed the cities.
Land Conversion for New Urban Growth and Its Impact –From Dwellers' Point of ...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Impacts of Land-use Transformationon Agriculture land in Afghanistan,Kabul ci...IEREK Press
The change in land-use over a certain period of time is inevitable. This paper investigates the issue of land use change on agricultural land that has become a phenomenon affecting the economy and environment in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. Agriculture is the main economic source of Afghan cities, however, due to rapid population growth, population densification, and inabilityto apply Kabul city’s master plan and regulations, a large portion of land cover transformed from agricultural areas to unplanned developmentsand have shifted the function of communities from productive societies into consumer and dependent societies. The study sheds light on Yakatoot as a study farmland area in Kabul city to present an alive example of what is happening in the reality of agricultural land in Kabul. Therefore, approaches for sustainable conversion of agricultural land in Kabul city is a vital quest that needs to be followed seriously. The study illustrates Afghanistan's land laws. It identifies the social, economic and environmental impacts of land-use change. This paper applies qualitative methods, where data and analysis worked by using field surveys, aerial photographs from Google Earth and data collected from CRIDA. It also investigates international experience regarding land-use change and sustainable solutions. Therefore, due to positive implications of urban agriculture practice as afeasible and sustainable approach to tackle the ongoing challenges related to land-use change in Kabul city, this paper suggests inducing this approach in Kabul city’s master plan and other urban initiatives because it will not only lead to environmental protection, but also, it will re-establish economic stability, enhance social welfare, revive city’s historic identity.
Land reforms to reduce disparity in Chongqing and ChengduLester Lim
A pdf file useful for understanding measures undertaken to reduce disparity in China. I found the document at http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/InternationalCooperation/SEPLS/SEPLS_Brussels2013/08-Yang-Effect_LandReform.pdf
1. INTRODUCTIONThe rapid of economic growth in China, is a fou.docxambersalomon88660
1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid of economic growth in China, is a foundation of urban expansion, associated with the rise in migrants in urban areas. According to data from Statistics Bureau in China, the urban proportion of the total populations reached 45.7% in 2008 compared to 17.9% in 1978, and is expected to reach 50% by 2020. The presence of a large number of rural labor force in the city, tend to look for adequate and affordable housing, which generate a peculiar outcome in most Chinese cities, urban villages. Urban villages, or Chengzhongcun in Chinese, they mean that the villages in the middle of the city, interact as urban expansion surrounded them (Chung, 2009).
According to land management law in China, the ownership of urban land is state, and the ownership of rural land is collective-owned the village. Besides, land belonging to the rural collectives can only used to solely agricultural and not allowed to sell in the land market. The earliest urban village emerged in China is due to the 1978 Economic Reforms. In order to fulfill the investment and development, the government tends to expropriated farmland in rural villages for urban use because of the limit of capital and time-consuming. Therefore, the settlement villages are been survived while their surrounding environment dramatically development, graduate leading to the formation of urban villages (Hao, et al, 2011).
On the other hand, rural migrants have been flooding into cities because of the demand of cheap labour force in urban areas and the states started to relax restrictions on rural-urban migration after Reforms, which generate great pressure on demand of housing. Generally, China's rental market can be segmented into three kinds: government provided credit houses; commercial residential building in the three level market; and renting houses in “villages” (Hang and Iseman, 2009). However, the social housing for low-income households provided by government are excluded them because of the “Hukou” system, which is the household registration system to different urban and rural population. During the city transformation in China, the government ignored the two weakest groups: villagers who do not have lands and workers from village. It is undeniable that urban villages provide a positive environment for slowing down the unemployment problems of the villagers and the housing problems of the latter (Hao, 2012).
Meanwhile, due to the weak government jurisdiction in urban villages, landlords find out this is a new way to substantially maximize income by providing low-rent accommodation to rural migrants. In the process of farmland requisition, the state does not provide the landlords any employment opportunities after they losing their basis of livelihood, which causes them to have no competitive power in the labour market in the city. The huge profits from house renting business enable them to gain considerable revenue and make a new livelihood. In addiction, some of urban vi.
ssessment of the Spaces between the Developed and Undeveloped Areas in Rongo ...inventionjournals
The establishment of any urban centres is always characterised by either commercial, industrial or administrative activities. Rongo Town is one of the towns that has attracted a large population and this has led to inadequate houses for the residents and general stress in the provision of social amenities. The general objective of the study was to analyse the socio-economic impacts of Rongo urban sprawl. The specific objective of the study was to assess the spaces between the developed and undeveloped area of Rongo Town. This was important because it projected the causes of inadequate housing units in Rongo Town. Concentric Urban Theory was used to guide the study. Cross sectional design method was used in the study. Quantitative and qualitative design methods were used to give the study a structure. The target population was 27,759. From this 6,095 households were used as respondents. Primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data was collected by use of questionnaires, observation checklist, photographs and sketches. Secondary data involved written articles by experts in urban growth and information in government offices and non-governmental organisations. This data was analysed by Statistical Package for Social Sciences which yielded descriptive and inferential statistics. This data was also analysed by content analysis through description. The spaces between the developed and undeveloped areas were found to be so large. The study recommended the construction of high density houses by filling in the spaces between the developed and undeveloped areas in Rongo Town with houses and other necessary infrastructures
Experiences with implementation of the Sustainable Intensification Assessment...africa-rising
Poster prepared by Lulseged Tamene, Wuletawu Abera, Kindu Mekonnen, Melkamu Derseh, Kifle Woldearegay and Simret Yasabu at the Africa RISING Program Learning Event, 5-8 February 2019
Yu Zhu (University of Kent, CEE)
Zhongmin Wu (Nottingham Trent University)
Liquan Peng, Laiyun Sheng (National Bureau of Statistics of China)
Meiyan Wang, Yang Du, Fang Cai (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences)
Part of the Institute of Development Studies' China and Development Seminar Series presented at the Institute of Development Studies, January 15th 2009
ICRISAT Global Planning Meeting 2019:CGIAR Research Program new initiatives D...ICRISAT
Innovation in Agri-food Systems as a driver of Employment, Nutrition and Resilience in Fragile Drylands (Dry Arc). The ‘DryArc’ Initiative (ICARDA, ICRISAT, IFPRI, IWMI) aims to strengthen the resilience of rural communities and agri-food systems across the drylands of MENA, Central and West Asia, sub Saharan Africa.
Presentation at:
Meeting global food needs with lower emissions:
IPCC report findings on climate change mitigation in agriculture
A dialog among scientists, practitioners and financiers
April 16, 2014
World Bank, Washington, DC
Following the April 13th release of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report on Mitigation, including Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Uses (AFOLU), this event will provided an opportunity to listen to IPCC authors summarize their findings and for all participants to join in a dialog with practitioners and financiers to discuss actionable steps for mitigation in the agricultural sector.
The event was a joint effort of the World Bank, the Global Research Alliance on Agricultural Greenhouse Gases, and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS).
Soil erosion is one of the major challenges of Ethiopia deteriorating the productivity of land. Soil and water conservation (SWC) is the only practice to reverse the threat and protect the land. Over the last three decades, different soil and water conservation activities have been undertaken. However, soil erosion still persists and become major threats of Ethiopian farmers. Despite the massive mobilization of resources for SWC, only very few farmers have been practicing integrated soil and water conservation measures for restoration of degraded agricultural land. In addition, there is lack of information among farmers on the impact of SWC on soil fertility improvement and soil nutrient content dynamics. This study was conducted in Kofele district, which is one of AGP district, in West Arsi Zones of Oromia. The study was aimed to demonstrate the impact of integrated Soil and water conservation measures in restoring degraded agricultural land. Dasho and Elephant grasses were planted on graded soil bund as an integration measures at four farmers field. Farmer’s field visit was arranged two times in two years to share practical experiences among the farmers and DA. It was also identified that soil nutrient contents in terms of total nitrogen, available phosphorous, available potassium and soil organic carbon content showed an increasing trend since establishment (2016). On the other hand, this kind of soil and water conservation practices on agricultural land showed promising way of carbon sequestration as the climate change mitigation strategy. The study recommended the use of integrated soil and water conservation measures as strategy of rehabilitating degraded agricultural land as apart of integrated water shed management.
Sustainable Land Management: shielding the agriculture land with flood manage...Shamsuddin Ahmed
ABSTRACT:
This research explores the issues of shielding the agriculture lands that are affected by floods frequency while the wetlands habitats are dynamic for sustainable land management with infrastructure and environmental extenuation. Sustainable land management ought to be concomitant with flood action strategy merging the erstwhile lenient of agro-ecological entities and local environmental profile. Problems of deforestation, soil degradation, wetlands and surface drainage, and decreasing biodiversity are widespread. Flood action strategy for a region is obviously pertinent to the analysis of inundation area compartmentalisation with flood forecasting, flood proofing and flood response scenarios for long-term solutions, including five obligatory options such as appraisal, priority, delineation, originalities, and model for sustainable agriculture land. Consequently, the sustainable land management shielding the agriculture land with the dispensation of flood management and wetlands habitats is inexorable to investment priorities in infrastructure planning to prevent the upset from hazard and vulnerability.
KEYWORDS: agriculture land, flood management, land use policy, sustainable land management, wetlands
The policies of urban development and housing in India have come a long way since 1950s. The pressure of urban population and lack of housing and basic services were very much evident in the early 1950s. In some cities this was compounded by migration of people from Pakistan. However, the general perception of the policy makers was that India is pre-dominantly an agricultural and rural economy and that there are potent dangers of over urbanisation which will lead to the drain of resources from the countryside to feed the cities.
Land Conversion for New Urban Growth and Its Impact –From Dwellers' Point of ...inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
Impacts of Land-use Transformationon Agriculture land in Afghanistan,Kabul ci...IEREK Press
The change in land-use over a certain period of time is inevitable. This paper investigates the issue of land use change on agricultural land that has become a phenomenon affecting the economy and environment in Kabul, the capital city of Afghanistan. Agriculture is the main economic source of Afghan cities, however, due to rapid population growth, population densification, and inabilityto apply Kabul city’s master plan and regulations, a large portion of land cover transformed from agricultural areas to unplanned developmentsand have shifted the function of communities from productive societies into consumer and dependent societies. The study sheds light on Yakatoot as a study farmland area in Kabul city to present an alive example of what is happening in the reality of agricultural land in Kabul. Therefore, approaches for sustainable conversion of agricultural land in Kabul city is a vital quest that needs to be followed seriously. The study illustrates Afghanistan's land laws. It identifies the social, economic and environmental impacts of land-use change. This paper applies qualitative methods, where data and analysis worked by using field surveys, aerial photographs from Google Earth and data collected from CRIDA. It also investigates international experience regarding land-use change and sustainable solutions. Therefore, due to positive implications of urban agriculture practice as afeasible and sustainable approach to tackle the ongoing challenges related to land-use change in Kabul city, this paper suggests inducing this approach in Kabul city’s master plan and other urban initiatives because it will not only lead to environmental protection, but also, it will re-establish economic stability, enhance social welfare, revive city’s historic identity.
Land reforms to reduce disparity in Chongqing and ChengduLester Lim
A pdf file useful for understanding measures undertaken to reduce disparity in China. I found the document at http://eusoils.jrc.ec.europa.eu/InternationalCooperation/SEPLS/SEPLS_Brussels2013/08-Yang-Effect_LandReform.pdf
1. INTRODUCTIONThe rapid of economic growth in China, is a fou.docxambersalomon88660
1. INTRODUCTION
The rapid of economic growth in China, is a foundation of urban expansion, associated with the rise in migrants in urban areas. According to data from Statistics Bureau in China, the urban proportion of the total populations reached 45.7% in 2008 compared to 17.9% in 1978, and is expected to reach 50% by 2020. The presence of a large number of rural labor force in the city, tend to look for adequate and affordable housing, which generate a peculiar outcome in most Chinese cities, urban villages. Urban villages, or Chengzhongcun in Chinese, they mean that the villages in the middle of the city, interact as urban expansion surrounded them (Chung, 2009).
According to land management law in China, the ownership of urban land is state, and the ownership of rural land is collective-owned the village. Besides, land belonging to the rural collectives can only used to solely agricultural and not allowed to sell in the land market. The earliest urban village emerged in China is due to the 1978 Economic Reforms. In order to fulfill the investment and development, the government tends to expropriated farmland in rural villages for urban use because of the limit of capital and time-consuming. Therefore, the settlement villages are been survived while their surrounding environment dramatically development, graduate leading to the formation of urban villages (Hao, et al, 2011).
On the other hand, rural migrants have been flooding into cities because of the demand of cheap labour force in urban areas and the states started to relax restrictions on rural-urban migration after Reforms, which generate great pressure on demand of housing. Generally, China's rental market can be segmented into three kinds: government provided credit houses; commercial residential building in the three level market; and renting houses in “villages” (Hang and Iseman, 2009). However, the social housing for low-income households provided by government are excluded them because of the “Hukou” system, which is the household registration system to different urban and rural population. During the city transformation in China, the government ignored the two weakest groups: villagers who do not have lands and workers from village. It is undeniable that urban villages provide a positive environment for slowing down the unemployment problems of the villagers and the housing problems of the latter (Hao, 2012).
Meanwhile, due to the weak government jurisdiction in urban villages, landlords find out this is a new way to substantially maximize income by providing low-rent accommodation to rural migrants. In the process of farmland requisition, the state does not provide the landlords any employment opportunities after they losing their basis of livelihood, which causes them to have no competitive power in the labour market in the city. The huge profits from house renting business enable them to gain considerable revenue and make a new livelihood. In addiction, some of urban vi.
Multifunctionality of Peri-Urban Agriculture: A Case Study in Trau Quy Commun...AI Publications
The emergence of the concept of multifunctionality responds to a wide range of concerns about significant, worldwide changes in agriculture, particularly in peri-urban areas. Multifunctionality at farm level means that farms not only provide agricultural goods and food, but also services to the community as well as public goods. For two recent decades, rapid urbanization in peri-urban area of Vietnam has strongly impacted on livelihood of people whose livelihood used to be farm-based. The peri-urban residents have been facing with food insecurity and underemployment, particularly those who could not seek new jobs and constructed new livelihood strategies. Based on data collected from a survey of 60 peri-urban households who continue farming together with other off-farm economic activities in Trau Quy commune, this paper showed that farmers’ maintenance of farming at different scales make agriculture play multifunctional roles such as income diversification, job creation, land conservation, food security, food safety, social network maintenance, greening and scenic services. In order to enhance the multi-functions of agriculture in peri-urban areas, governmental policy need to create the proper framework conditions for optimal development.
Dimension of Land Use Conversion in Ado-Ekiti Metropolisijceronline
Over the years land use has ever been dynamics due to many factors such as economics, environmental, socio- political, legal among others. In Ado-Ekiti metropolis, due to urbanization the quantum of developable land available continue to decrease daily, hence the high rate of land use conversion. This paper examined land use pattern in Ado- Ekiti and then identified the direction of land use conversion in the study area. Primary data were collected with questionnaire administered on 76 individual property owners who have their properties converted. It was discovered that all the identified properties were originally meant for residential use. The results showed that land use conversion from residential-commercial (68%) was identified followed by residential-institutional (16%), residential-recreational (12%), while residential-others (4%). This study concluded that going by the rate at which residential properties are been converted to other uses in Ado-Ekiti metropolis in the recent time, may lead to serious housing shortage. The implication of this is that house rents will continue to rise to the extent that, low and even medium income earners may not be able to afford accommodation within the study area, unless urgent government intervention.
CHANGING URBAN LAND USE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD QUALITY: EVIDENCE FROM FEDERAL CAPI...IAEME Publication
Land use change in more recent times is becoming a natural phenomenon in cities
of developing countries. Its causes and consequences were investigated with respect to
FCT, Abuja, Nigeria. The responses of registered estate surveying firms (ESFs)
practicing in FCT Abuja on the pattern of land use dynamics were obtained and
analysed by descriptive statistics such as simple distribution frequency (SDF) and
mean weighted score (MWS). Four major findings were discovered. Firstly, the
predominantly changing land use were agrarian and residential, secondly the
direction of change in land use revolves around public land use, residential, retail and
office property with prevailing observations of new development and redevelopment
involving renovations/rehabilitations and modifications/alterations. Thirdly the major
determinants of land use change were identified as economic and spatial political
factors and lastly the noticeable consequences had been arbitrary land/rental value,
landscape distortion and pressure on urban infrastructure among others. The study
recommended that policymakers and private stakeholders should encourage and
adhere to land use control measures to strike a balance between economic
development and land administrative system to foster a sustainable urban cities.
Implications of Present Land Use Plan on Urban Growth and Environmental Susta...Agboola Paul
Land use, urban development, and environmental sustainability have become an interesting research arena as urban development would change the city landscape as well as generate environmental degradation. This paper looks at the missing link between land use planning and urban growth, and its implications for environmental sustainability in a selected sub-Saharan Africa city of Kaduna, Nigeria. We assessed urban growth from historical GIS data of the city to evaluate the urban expansion. At the same time, regression analysis was used to established relationship between carbon emission and traffic volume in the city.
Study on Impact of Land Fragmentation in Agriculture-A Case of Rajshahi Distr...paperpublications3
Abstract:The study was conducted in Rajshahi district to get clear picture on the status of land fragmentation. Total 30 respondents were interviewed to know about the status of land fragmentation in Rajshai, impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, environment, economics and sustainable development. This study was conducted with the view to assess the impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, land uses as well as on society, and in particular, challenges for the agricultural land. Several factors were recognized and it is happening due to alterations in physiographic and social-economic conditions and population growth. The land use pattern of Bangladesh is changing very rapidly due to unplanned human settlement and industrialization. Bangladesh is a small country but it supports a huge population, resulting in a very high density of population and very high intensity of land and resource use The following factors are driving country’s overall scenario of economic development and environment imbalance include: i) unexpected population growth; ii) human settlement; iii) increased number of nuclear family; and iv) scarcity of land for ever increasing demand of food. As a result, agricultural land is decreasing remarkably. Results showed that the land fragmentation of Rajshahi district is changing, especially the agricultural land is decreasing in an alarming rate and now it is becoming more and more vulnerable. The agricultural land of the study area is losing each and every year. The agricultural production also is decreasing due to lack of agricultural land, industrialization, decreasing soil fertility and making soils toxics by using chemicals. If this rate continues, the agricultural land will be totally exhausted within the next couple of years. Moreover the fragmentation of land is impacting sustainable development of the study area frequently. If the perceived problems could be solved by raising awareness among the people, go for vertical uses of land, motivate family to live in the extend family, adopting appropriate policy for human settlements and land use planning.
Keywords:Extend family; land fragmentation; nuclear family; vertical scope; sustainable development.
Analysis of factors affecting urban per capita housing area in ChinaIJAEMSJORNAL
Housing problems have become one of the hottest topics, influencing people's livelihood and national economy. This paper intends to re-analyze the per capita housing area, which characterizes the residents' happiness index, in order to measure the basic living condition. Taking into account of the large expansion of the floating population in the process of urbanization, we choose “urban resident population” to amend the “registration population”, which is the denominator of the index. We selected the data of residential investment, urban residents' consumption level and residential completion area from 1978 to 2015 to analyze the influence of independent variables on the per capita housing area, we found the volatility of housing price, which reduces the average level of urban per capita housing empirically.
Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Changes in Land Use in Lushan City over the ...PriyankaKilaniya
In the past two decades, with rapid urbanization and economic development, the land use structure of Lushan City has undergone significant changes, posing challenges to ecological security and food supply. It is necessary to explore its spatiotemporal dynamics and driving factors to optimize land management. This study is based on land use data from 2000 to 2020 and uses GIS to analyze the spatiotemporal changes and transfer status of land use types. The main method is to use the land use transfer matrix and the single land use dynamic degree to study the land use change and its driving forces. The results indicate that the land use change in Lushan City is characterized by the conversion of arable land into construction land and the conversion of wetlands into water bodies. The area of arable land and wetlands has significantly decreased, while construction land and water bodies continue to increase. From the perspective of spatial distribution, the increase in construction land is concentrated in the central part of Lushan City. The driving factors of land use change in the city include the policy of returning farmland to forests and lakes, rapid economic development, changes in population, and the continuous promotion of the tourism industry.
Visual Style and Aesthetics: Basics of Visual Design
Visual Design for Enterprise Applications
Range of Visual Styles.
Mobile Interfaces:
Challenges and Opportunities of Mobile Design
Approach to Mobile Design
Patterns
Hello everyone! I am thrilled to present my latest portfolio on LinkedIn, marking the culmination of my architectural journey thus far. Over the span of five years, I've been fortunate to acquire a wealth of knowledge under the guidance of esteemed professors and industry mentors. From rigorous academic pursuits to practical engagements, each experience has contributed to my growth and refinement as an architecture student. This portfolio not only showcases my projects but also underscores my attention to detail and to innovative architecture as a profession.
Technoblade The Legacy of a Minecraft Legend.Techno Merch
Technoblade, born Alex on June 1, 1999, was a legendary Minecraft YouTuber known for his sharp wit and exceptional PvP skills. Starting his channel in 2013, he gained nearly 11 million subscribers. His private battle with metastatic sarcoma ended in June 2022, but his enduring legacy continues to inspire millions.
Can AI do good? at 'offtheCanvas' India HCI preludeAlan Dix
Invited talk at 'offtheCanvas' IndiaHCI prelude, 29th June 2024.
https://www.alandix.com/academic/talks/offtheCanvas-IndiaHCI2024/
The world is being changed fundamentally by AI and we are constantly faced with newspaper headlines about its harmful effects. However, there is also the potential to both ameliorate theses harms and use the new abilities of AI to transform society for the good. Can you make the difference?
Connect Conference 2022: Passive House - Economic and Environmental Solution...TE Studio
Passive House: The Economic and Environmental Solution for Sustainable Real Estate. Lecture by Tim Eian of TE Studio Passive House Design in November 2022 in Minneapolis.
- The Built Environment
- Let's imagine the perfect building
- The Passive House standard
- Why Passive House targets
- Clean Energy Plans?!
- How does Passive House compare and fit in?
- The business case for Passive House real estate
- Tools to quantify the value of Passive House
- What can I do?
- Resources
Between Filth and Fortune- Urban Cattle Foraging Realities by Devi S Nair, An...Mansi Shah
This study examines cattle rearing in urban and rural settings, focusing on milk production and consumption. By exploring a case in Ahmedabad, it highlights the challenges and processes in dairy farming across different environments, emphasising the need for sustainable practices and the essential role of milk in daily consumption.
EASY TUTORIAL OF HOW TO USE CAPCUT BY: FEBLESS HERNANEFebless Hernane
CapCut is an easy-to-use video editing app perfect for beginners. To start, download and open CapCut on your phone. Tap "New Project" and select the videos or photos you want to edit. You can trim clips by dragging the edges, add text by tapping "Text," and include music by selecting "Audio." Enhance your video with filters and effects from the "Effects" menu. When you're happy with your video, tap the export button to save and share it. CapCut makes video editing simple and fun for everyone!
2. expected a share proportional to the land area they contributed, while
the new land owners or the developers demanded for an un-pro-
portionally larger share on the basis of their belief that the added value
was created by their investment. The local government also argued for a
larger share for their planning and infrastructure efforts. The rural
collective sought for compensation to their loss of property right, to be
calculated according to differential rent. Apparently, rural land is a
highly contested asset, and poor management of the process has already
resulted in social and political instabilities (Pils, 2016; Lin et al., 2018).
This paper provides a systematic account on the farmers’ complaints
in the contexts of rights and procedures in the BAR policy im-
plementation, by examining farmland reclamation in Chongqing - one
of the 24 local governments chosen by the central government to pio-
neer the BAR policy. Chongqing represents a unique case where a ‘land
coupon’ approach has been introduced since 2008 to run in parallel
with the ‘quota turnover’ (zhibiao zhouzhuan) approach3
. Both ap-
proaches need to balance the changes between farmland and urban
built-up area, but they are different as the former requires reclamation
of rural construction land before converting farmland to urban-land on
a city-wide scale, while the latter allows urban encroachment to
farmland to occur first within districts and counties. Moreover, the
‘quota turnover’ approach is administrative in nature but the ‘land
coupon’ approach is market-driven (Gu et al., 2014)4
. This paper
identifies and discusses complaints of the participating farmers in using
the ‘land coupon’ approach. A brief review of farmland reclamation is
presented before reviewing the rights and procedures in reclamation of
rural housing land, followed by an outline of the conceptual framework
and data, discussion of the empirical findings and a conclusion of the
study.
2. Farmland reclamation as a solution to urban land shortage and
a source of rural conflicts
2.1. The context
Since 1978, China has been urbanized at an extraordinary pace.
More than 600 million rural residents moved to cities and towns in the
period 1978–2015, resulting in a sharp increase in the level of urba-
nization from 17.9% to 56.1% (National Bureau of Statistics of China,
1979, 2016). This rapid urbanization has created enormous pressure on
land supply for sustaining urban expansion nation-wide, as the in-
creasing population and economic activities in cities demand for more
spaces for housing, industrial parks, facilities and services, as well as
infrastructure. These demands have been met largely by greenfield
development, which encroaches into farms and takes arable land away
from food production. Land cover change studies reveal that 14.6
million hectares of arable land was taken away from farming in the
period 1978–2015 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 1979, 2016).
In addition, China’s arable land has been reduced by rural housing
construction. It is ironic that the decline of rural population had not
reduced the demand for rural housing.5
Rather, it was widely observed
that peasants who migrated to cities sent back cash and re-built their
rural houses (Liu and Chen, 2010). The demand for rural housing was
further strengthened by the changing family structure, i.e., the tradi-
tional large families dissolved into small ones, and the rising income
level (Liu and Fang, 2014). Statistics from the Ministry of Land and
Resources (MLR) show that in 1996, the rural built-up area was
164,500 km2 whilst in 2010, it was 182,100 km2. In contrast, the urban
built-up areas were 26,500 km2 and 40,300 km2 respectively. There
were a total of 31,400 km2 additional built-up areas in China in the
period 1996–2010, where urban expansion contributed 13,800 km2
and rural construction contributed 17,600 km2 (MLR, 1997, 2011).
The combined effect of urban expansion and rural housing con-
struction was that the amount of arable land in China had been reduced
to its threshold level. According to calculations for food security, China
needs at least 1.8 billion mu6
arable lands; this threshold amount has
been seriously observed in government land policies (Long et al., 2012;
Liu, 2018; Han and Wei, 2015).
2.2. Farmland reclamation
The Land Management Act 1998 made it clear that ‘…non-agri-
cultural development using arable land with permission must be ac-
companied by reclamation of the same amount of land as taken; the
work-unit which initiates the development is responsible for the re-
clamation’. This practice is generally known as zhanbu pingheng
(Balance between Taken-for-construction and Reclamation, or, BTR).
Researchers claim that on surface, BTR ‘has made significant progress in
slowing the farmland losses’ but due to illegal construction and the
Return Farmland to Forrest Program ‘the Chinese government did not
effectively control the rapidly decreasing amount of farmland’ (Xin and
Li, 2018)7
. In 2004, the BAR policy was introduced in order to further
explore the potential of reclaiming rural construction land (Long et al.,
2012; Han and Wei, 2015; Zhao and Zhang, 2017). The main difference
between BTR and BAR is that reclamation in BTR is not necessarily from
rural construction land, whilst BAR is active in seeking rural con-
struction land to be reclaimed in order to accommodate urban expan-
sion (Tan, 2014).
Anecdotal evidences show that the BAR policy has not been received
well by farmers. Long et al (2012) show that the policy has inherited
problem of its top-down design thus has failed to engage local actors in
dealing with hollowed villages. Zhao and Zhang (2017) demonstrate
that the ‘planned’ policy benefits are not appreciated by the farmers.
These issues not only reduce the effectiveness of the policy but also lead
to conflicts. In the Chinese language publications, some commentators
debated on the possibility of discarding the BAR policy but others
proposed changes for improvement (Ren and Zhou, 2013). A notably
dominant angle of the comments is from a macro-level strategic per-
spective focusing on how the policy addresses national and local de-
velopment concerns. None of the existing publications has examined
the policy implementation process from the farmers’ perspective.
2.3. Farmers in farmland reclamation
Farmers have played a passive role in the policy design and im-
plementation processes but are placed under spotlight in land-related
3
Yep and Forrest (2016, p477) translate ‘dipiao’ to ‘land bill system’ in re-
cognition of that the essence of Chongqing’s ‘dipiao’ is financialisation and
securitization of land-use rights but the alterative translations such as ‘land
voucher’ or ‘land coupon’ ‘have a connotation of subsidy attached or con-
sumption related’. This paper acknowledges the lack of consensus in translation
and chooses to use the term ‘land coupon’ to represent ‘dipiao’. In urban eco-
nomics, ‘development coupon’ has been used as a tool to manage development
right transfer (O’Sullivan, 1996, pp 296-8), which plays a similar functional role
of ‘dipiao’ in Chongqing’s land market.
4
This approach allows urban development into greenfield to occur after ob-
taining a ‘turnover quota’ from the central government. The reclamation of
rural construction land will follow at a later stage. There were evidences to
show that heavy financial burden of urban development often meant that the
land reclamation plan could not be carried out, and the farmers would not be
fully compensated.
5
This was so in the period at least until 2010. More recent evidences show
that apartments in small cities and towns have been attractive to farmers in the
real estate market.
6
Mu is an area measurement used in China. 1 ha = 15 mu.
7
Xin and Li (2018) argue that ‘China should not massively reclaim new
farmland’ on the basis of a possible false alarm of food insecurity, scarcity of
non-farmland to be claimed, high economic cost of reclamation and inefficient
use even abandonment of existing farmland. There isn’t any official decision to
discard the BTR policy.
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
371
3. disputes. The starting point of rural land reclamation policy was a
macro-level national food security concern aggravated by rapid urba-
nization. This has placed the central government, rather than the
farmers, in a leading and active role in policy formulation. In policy
implementation, it has been the local governments which are keen to
evacuate farmers from their rural ‘homesteads’8
for the purpose of
boosting their land-use quota and money-making opportunities
(Lichtenberg and Ding, 2009; Zhao and Zhang, 2017). Though playing a
passive role in policy design and implementation, many farmers,
especially those who have little alternative income sources other than
farming, are highly sensitive to land reform (Luo and Timothy, 2017).
Lin et al (2018) summarize from the literature that more than 65% of
farmers’ petition in China are land-related, and the issues spread widely
into the various stages of land acquisition such as the overall project
purpose, procedure, compensation and settlement. Land-acquisition
induced protests threat social stability, some of which (e.g. the Wukan
village uprising in 2011) attracted international attention (Yep and
Forrest, 2016; Zhao and Zhang, 2017; Lin et al., 2018).
An assessment of farmers’ satisfaction with rural land consolidation
programs in three government-designated experimental townships in
Zhejiang, Hunan and Guizhou provinces show that more than three
quarter of the correspondents (76.5%) were happy with the outcomes
(Luo and Timothy, 2017). However, other programs showed less-posi-
tive outcomes. For example, Zhao and Zhang (2017) demonstrated
‘some potential problems’ in a village in Shaanxi Province, including
high cost, weak influence on farmers’ quality of life, little change in
agricultural production, insufficient consideration of industrial devel-
opment, and limited improvement in rural ecology. From a farmers’
perspective, their willingness to withdraw from their homesteads were
shaped by convenience of transportation, level of compensation, dis-
tance from their new housing to work which could be the farm or non-
agricultural jobs, the services and facilities available at the new housing
location, and the quality (i.e., whether or not the house is structurally
sound) of their homesteads to be reclaimed (Chen et al., 2017). Ap-
parently, some imagined benefits (e.g., the provision of biogas which
replaces plant stalks burning for cocking) were not appreciated by
farmers because of the high cost (Zhao and Zhang, 2017). Farmers’
dissatisfaction were always associated with the government, such as
their misconducts (e.g. land acquisition with no agreement, low or no
compensation), their corruptive officials, and the unclear land owner-
ship under their care (Zhao and Zhang, 2017).
3. Critical rights and procedures
3.1. Farmers’ rights to land for rural housing
It is not always clear about the rights to land and housing in rural
China due to policy changes over time. In the first 1950s, all farmers
were given the right to own their houses and the associated land blocks.
This ownership right was affirmed by a certificate - a legal document -
issued in most areas in the Mainland. In 1962, the Central Government
amended its policy and authorized the removal of the land ownership
right from farmers (State Council, 1962). Rural collectives has become
the land owners since then and this arrangement was affirmed in the
Chinese Constitution 1975 and 1982.
Farmers’ right to their homestead land has thus turned into a user-
ship right since 1962. Under this arrangement, farmers have the right to
occupy and use their ‘homestead’ land blocks permanently. However,
farmers are not the only user group with such a right. In 1982, the State
Council stipulated that both urban and rural residents would have the
right to use land for rural housing (State Council, 1982). Though in
reality land for rural housing was mainly used by farmers, it was not
until 1998 that the then newly endorsed Land Administration Act made
it official, i.e., only farmers have the right to use land for permanent
rural housing.
The size of homestead land blocks is another area with changing
definitions. The Land Administration Act 1986 stipulated that the size
of land block for rural housing should not exceed the standard imposed
by the respective governments in provinces, autonomous regions, and
municipalities. If the land block exceeded the standard size, the rural
collective would take back the excessive land when the siting farmer
decided to demolish or reconstruct their house or to resettle. The Land
Administration Act 1998 introduced for the first time the ‘one land
parcel for one household’ principle and stipulated that the construction
of rural housing has to conform to the long-term and annual land-use
plan. It pronounces that land blocks exceeding the standard must be
returned to rural collectives. As to the right of obtaining homestead
land, only the local residents are qualified. Non rural residents are
prohibited from using rural land for housing.
In 2008, after almost five decades without a land right certificate,
the Ministry of Land Resource (2008) decided to push forward the re-
gistration of rural land-use right and to make clear about land-use
standards for rural housing. Three scenarios were provided to guide the
registration process. 1) Land occupied for rural housing before the
implementation of the 1982 policy without further expansion since
then would be registered according to its existing area of usage. This
means that it is legal to have some homestead land blocks larger than
the standard size. 2) For land blocks brought into use during the period
1982–1987, the land area exceeding the standard should be registered
according to the existing area of usage after adjustment abiding to re-
levant regulations issued then by national and local governments.
Practically, there was rarely any guidance for adjustment so the official
records reflect the existing usage. 3) For homestead land blocks occu-
pied since 1987, the excessive area should be noted in the land regis-
tration and land-use right certificate. Land blocks in this group should
be re-registered according to relevant regulation and standards when
the household is to construct another house, to resettle, or to upgrade
the present house. In this scenario, the excess remains until the existing
land and housing is to change.
Farmers’ right to their houses has been more consistent than that to
the land. They have kept the housing ownership right since 1949, and
maintained the right to lease, sell and inherent the houses. However,
according to Land Administrative Act 1998, farmers are prohibited
from selling rural house to urban residents. They have the right to be
properly compensated and to be resettled well if their houses were
expropriated, though no details are given about what constitutes an
appropriate compensation and/or a good resettlement. Together with
the return of land-use registration, the certificate of housing ownership
have been issued since 1998.
3.2. Land coupon in Chongqing
3.2.1. Shortage of land supply
Chongqing has a mountainous topography which limits land avail-
able for large urban projects (Han and Wang, 2001). The master plan of
Chongqing 2006 has posed further restrictions to land supply, as
Chongqing has been set to slightly increase the amount of its arable
land while its additional construction area has been planned to increase
by 1084 km2
in the period 2006 – 2020. These targets meant that
Chongqing would be allocated a land-use quota smaller than that al-
located to the previous planning period (i.e., 1997–2005). Chongqing
obtained 104 km2
land-use quota per annum during the periods 1997 -
2005. For the period 2006–2020, the Central Government would only
allocate 72.27 km2
land-use quota to the city per year. Ceteris paribus,
the annual shortage of 32 km2
meant that Chongqing wouldn’t maintain
the same rate of urban development and industrialization in the current
plan period.
8
Many researchers translate the Chinese phrase zhaijidi (literally ‘land for
peasants’ housing’) into ‘rural homestead’. For example, see Chen et al (2018)
and Kong et al (2018).
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
372
4. The BAR policy came from the central government in the right time
and provided a foundation to experiment with barter and quota trans-
action approaches. In 2009, the State Council approved Chongqing’s
plan to "steadily implement BAR, set up the Chongqing Rural Land
Trade Market, and build a market on unified urban and rural con-
struction land" (State Council, 2009). A Chongqing version of BAR using
"land coupon", coupled with the land “quota turnover” system has been
put in place since then.
3.2.2. The land coupon approach
The BAR policy in Chongqing is implemented with the aims of
achieving “true reclamation” and “timely compensation” on “legal
property” with “accurate measurement” and “just price” (Chongqing
Municipal Government 2008). A 603-day process was used in its initial
years until 2012 when it was shortened to a 307-day process involving
20 steps organized into 5 stages within 3 phases for efficiency (Table 1).
Farmers are involved directly in 9 out of the 20 steps.
There had been a popular response to the land coupon initiative. In
its first six years of implementation, there were 152,600 mu rural
housing land blocks involved in the trade, amounting to a total of RMB
30.76 billion yuan (Huang, 2015). By 2018, some 258,000 mu rural
housing blocks were reclaimed, registering a total of RMB 50.5 billion
yuan traded (Xie and Bai, 2018). This was about 172 km2 for the 10
years 2008-2018. On an annual basis, the land coupon scheme
Table 1
The 307-day process in land coupon generation, trade and compensation.
Stages & main steps Person/organization in charge Farmers’ participation Length (days)
Phase 1: Land coupon generation 244
1. Application
(1)Policy explanation Village leaders To acknowledge reading of notice
(2)Reclamation Application Sitting farmers To complete the application form
(3)Application processing Village leaders
(4)Application processing and public notification Town officials
(5)Application approval County land administration bureau
2. Rehabilitation 159
(6)Land boundary specification and survey County land administration bureau To give consent to the land boundary
identified
(7)Survey data review and filing Registered survey agency; district and county
bureau
(8)Public notification, contract sign off Town and township, district and county
administration
To sign off the contract
(9) Formulation of project execution plan County land administration bureau
(10)Archiving City land administration bureau
(11)Carrying out reclamation project Construction company or town and/or
township administration
To be informed about project commencement
3. Acceptance 85
(12)Acceptance review application and survey Construction company; district and county
administration
(13)Review and revision of completion survey Registered survey agency; district and county
administration
(14)Acceptance checking by district and county, distribution of
completion certificate
District and/or county land administration
bureau
To be informed about official outcomes of
reclamation projects
(15)Acceptance checking by City City land administration bureau
Phase 2. Trade & Compensation 63
4. Land coupon trade 48
(16)Application for land coupon trading County land exchange institute & commercial
banks
To submit bank account information
(17)Execution of trade County land exchange institute
(18)Payment accounting County land exchange institute
5. Compensation 15
(19)Compensation confirmation County land exchange institute To be informed the amount of compensation
(20)Payment transfer County land exchange institute
Commercial banks To receive the payment
Phase 3. Land coupon utilization
Fig. 1. Framework of research.
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
373
5. contributed 17.2 km2 extra land quota for urban expansion. This was
about half of the annual shortage in reference to the land quota allo-
cated for 1997–2005 (refer to Section 3.2.1).
4. Framework and data
4.1. Framework of analysis
Fig. 1 shows the framework of inquiry for this study. At the core of
this inquiry is the relationship between farmers and their usership right
to their homestead land, which is to be changed through generation and
trade of land coupons for the purpose of supporting a continuous urban
land expansion. Farmers’ complaints are raised mainly to the local
governments which implement the central government BAR policy.
These complaints could focus on step-specific and non-step-specific is-
sues as well as the effects of the policy implementation on their quality
of life. Within these foci, broad policy purposes could be a part of the
non-step-specific concerns.
4.2. Data
Data were collected from the Chongqing Network Platform for
Residents’ Participation in Governance which was developed by the
Chongqing Municipal Government in July 2010. As a repository the
Network Platform provides residents an opportunity to clarify, ques-
tion, complain and appeal government policies, decisions and projects.
Anyone who wishes to voice a concern can do so after registering with
his/her mobile phone (thus no post is anonymous because mobile
numbers are linked to personal IDs in China). Technically, registered
members could post multiple messages, as long as no inappropriate
language (i.e. cursing and swearing) is used. However, those messages
deemed by the government as politically sensitive, hostile or embar-
rassing could be blocked out through a nation-wide automatic filtering
process using selected keywords. On the other side of the platform, all
government departments could be involved to investigate and respond
depending on the nature of the inquiry, and their actions are recorded
and linked to the triggering messages.
By using keyword search among the entries, a total of 1631 pages
were captured with usage of ‘reclamation (fugeng)’ and ‘homestead
land (zhaijidi)’ in the title and/or text. These represent 1631 entries of
raw data covering the period August 2010 to August 2018. After
eliminating the repeating records, incomplete records and empty posts,
1455 pages were selected for analysis. One of the 1455 data entries is a
re-posted message as it was deleted the first round due to a language
problem in the original inquiry. Each raw data entry includes two parts:
the inquiry detailed by its title, author, issue, and the authority assigned
if any to answer the inquiry, as well as the response given by either the
Network Platform or the authority in charge.
The Network Platform data are open to the public thus are partially
transparent. However, anyone who uses these data has to be mindful
that 1) there was no way to be entirely sure that all records were kept in
the dataset. We didn’t have access to the data log book; but even there
was such access, log books could be modified too; 2) there was no of-
ficial list of keywords which were declared as politically sensitive or
hostile or embarrassing. Messages were filtered out in a black-box and
no one knew whether there was any messages denied from being
posted, and if there were, how many; 3) there might be age, gender,
income, and/or geography divide in Internet literacy so not all residents
had equal access to the Platform. In addition, some would-be partici-
pants might be scared off by village/town officials – as revealed in the
latter sections, residents were sometimes threatened by losing com-
pensation if they complained. Despite these limitations, the open nature
of the Platform provides an opportunity to any determined residents to
write in, thus the dataset is sufficiently representative of the collective
sentiment.
5. Farmers’ complaints
Empirical results show that farmers’ complaints concentrated on
step-specific issues (602 entries) and non-step-specific issues (1292
entries). 439 of the complaints included both step-specific and non-
step-specific concerns. There was no complaints extending to broader
policy goals of either the central (i.e. maintaining 1.8 billion mu arable
land as minimum) or local (i.e., stimulating economic growth) gov-
ernments. There was neither complaint to the quality of life, nor con-
cerns about how their homestead land would be used after reclamation.
The three issues relating to explanation of the land coupon scheme,
registration for participation, and compensation attracted majority of
the complaints.
5.1. Step-specific complaints
Problems arose in 6 out of the 9 official steps. They are policy ex-
planation, reclamation application, land boundary specification and
survey, site work of demolition and clearance, distribution of comple-
tion certificate, and compensation payment (Table 2).
Table 2
Number of step-specific complaints.
Steps 2011*
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
sub-total
(8-12) (1-8)
1) (1)Policy Explanation 1 1 1 13 13 6 35
2) (2)Reclamation Application 1 5 21 36 33 35 35 10 176
2a.Qualification criteria not clear 1 3 7 9 3 23
2b.Housing omitted in official base map 1 4 6 7 2 1 1 22
2c.Homestead land used by emigrant farmers 9 13 12 13 7 3 57
2d.Rural construction land for collective purposes 1 1 4 7 13 10 2 38
2e.Conflicts between neighbors 4 6 12 3 4 29
2f. Reclamation deposit 1 1 4 1 7
3) (6)Land boundary specification and survey (surveyor boosting the area for a high survey fee) 2 1 2 3 1 3 12
4) (11) Site work on demolition and clearance (farmers were asked to pay the demolition company or to
demolish by themselves)
3 5 1 3 1 13
5) (14)Distribution of completion certificate 5 18 13 25 19 10 1 91
14a.compensation area is smaller than expected 5 18 13 25 18 8 87
14b. surveyor asking for a fee in exchange of a manipulated outcome, i.e. a larger area 1 2 1 4
6) (20)Payment transfer 1 5 6 18 101 109 35 275
20a.Not receiving compensation 1 1 55 72 22 151
20b.Compensation paid to village leaders’ account 1 5 5 17 46 37 13 124
Subtotal 2 13 48 63 81 172 171 52 602
* No data was available for the entire year. The months covered by data are listed in parentheses.
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
374
6. Almost half of the 602 complaints (45.6%) were associated with
compensation payment; and 30% were about reclamation application.
The third largest group (15.1%) was related to the distribution of
completion certificate. Complaints associated with the other three steps
accounted for about 10% of the total. Over time, the complaints had
increased. However, the trends vary among the issues. Complaints as-
sociated with policy explanation (step 1) and payment transfer (step
20) increased; those relating to mapping such as step 14 and the base
map used in step 2 decreased; the combined outcome of step 2 (re-
clamation application) was rather constant from 2014.
1) Policy explanation
35 complained that village leaders exaggerated the benefits of the
scheme in order to persuade farmers to participation. The unrealistic
high expectation of compensation boosted the participation numbers.
This helped village and town officials to demonstrate a desirable per-
formance level in carrying out the BAR policy; it also helped these of-
ficials to reclaim rural construction land under collective usership by
obtaining the compulsory minimum number (i.e. 30) of participating
farmers – this would create rent-seeking opportunities for some.
Nevertheless, unrealistically high expectations were not achievable thus
invited complaints.
2) Reclamation application
The 176 complaints relating to reclamation application focused on
six issues (Table 2). Reclamation applications for homestead land used
by emigrants and those used by collective facilities formed the two
largest concerns. 57 complaints were about village leaders who filed
reclamation application on behalf of the emigrant farmers without their
authorization, or, those who manipulated the land and housing area to
benefit themselves at the expense of the emigrant farmers. The latter
was possible due to redefinition of land block standards (refer to Sec-
tion 3.1) for rural housing. The excessive ‘homestead’ land might not be
compensated to the siting farmer but to a collective account controlled
by village leaders.
38 complaints were about that village leaders applied for the re-
clamation of land on which collectively-owned structures sat but
without the required majority consent from two-thirds collective
members. Though not abiding to the policy, the village leaders were
eager to proceed because the potential income could be used under
their discretion. Due to the absence of auditing and low risk of being
penalized, it was tempting for village leaders to cheat for monetary
gain.
There were 29 complaints associated with disputes between
neighbors due to shared building structure. Farmers who owned houses
built next to each other and separated by a common wall often ran into
situations in which one household might want to participate in the
reclamation project but their neighbor might not. Complaints were
raised by farmers whose houses became structurally unstable because of
the demolition of the neighboring house, or, by those who wished to
demolish for reclamation but were not allowed to by the authority
because of the potential damage to their neighbors’ property.
23 complained about they not being given the chance to participate
because their homestead land was not adjacent to an existing farm, thus
the potentially reclaimed land would end up as an isolated patch. These
farmers argued that it was not fair to them to be excluded from parti-
cipation.
22 complaints were about the omission of houses on the base map,
which meant that the farmers could not apply for participation. This
was challenged as the omission was caused by government mistakes.
A few complaints (7) revealed disagreement about town officials or
village leaders who collected deposit in order to guarantee applicants
not withdrawing from the project once they signed up. The official
policy does not include a deposit requirement for the purpose of
securing farmers’ participation.
3) Land boundary specification and survey
14 farmers complained that their land blocks were deliberately
exaggerated because the survey agency was paid according to the size
of the area surveyed. This would not benefit the farmers because
compensation would be determined by a different survey outcome after
completion of the project. However, as both survey companies were
appointed by the government, the complaint farmers believed that they
should be paid according to the larger size.
4) Site work on demolition and clearance
Nine complaints were about site works which involved demolition
of the houses and conversion of the land to farms. By policy design site
works were to be carried out by a construction company contracted by
the county or town government, and the cost were paid after the land
coupon was traded. However, some construction companies asked for
payment from the sitting farmers. In other situations, farmers were
asked to contribute free labor to carry out the site works. There were
also complaints that site works failed to meet the official reclamation
standards. As a result of the shoddy site work, the sitting farmers were
harmed by having their houses demolished but being turned down by
the government for compensation.
5) Distribution of completion certificate
87 farmers complained that their land blocks were mapped smaller
on the survey outcome, some even deliberately by the survey company
as farmers did not respond to the hint to bribe the surveyor for an ex-
aggeration to the land size. Four complaints were specifically about
surveying companies asking for bribes in exchange of a manipulated
survey outcome to cheat on block size for more compensation payment.
These incidents happened in occasions outside the nine steps which
farmers were designated an official presence in the process. In reality,
site works including surveying would generate opportunities for the
farmers to be in touch with the fieldwork crew. Such incidents were
indicators to farmers that the process might not be fair.
6) Payment transfer
275 complaints pointed to the transfer of compensation payment.
The majority (151 out of 275) complained that they did not receive the
compensation payment. 124 complained that the compensation did not
go to the farmers’ (usually the emigrants) bank account but rather to
the village leaders’ pockets partially or wholly.
5.2. Non- step-specific complaints
Non-step-specific complaints doubled the number of complaints
associated with specific steps in the study period. Main issues of con-
cern include policy integrity, length of process, information transpar-
ency, trust-worthiness of village and town officials, and project delays
(Table 3).
1) Policy integrity
283 grievances pointed to inconsistency in policy delivery. One such
complaint reveals that
“In 2012 we took part in the rehabilitation project. Soon after the
survey was done, our old house was demolished. In 2013 the com-
pensation area was reconfirmed, which was consistent with the area
surveyed in 2012. At the end of 2013, we received the first instal-
ment of compensation payment in line with the policy. Four years
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
375
7. later in 2016, we were shocked to learn that the compensation area
of all reclamation sites was cut by half… Why should we short
changed in compensation payment?”
104 farmers complained the unlawful customization of the policies
associated with illegal or erratic behaviors of village or town officials.
One complaint reveals that
“The village leaders … told us that we would be compensated at
250,000 yuan per mu if we converted our household registration to
urban hukou and bought a house from the New Countryside
Construction project. For those who did not wish to convert their
hukou, they would be paid at 120,000 yuan per mu. According to
the policy about subsidizing the needy families, we were supposed
to get 5000 yuan per head. But village leaders told us that everyone
was compensated 3000 yuan instead, or, no money would be paid to
those who complained.”
The government responses to this complaint show that the village
leaders made their own policies. It was confirmed that first, the re-
habilitation compensation of rural housing had to conform to the
standard of 120,000 yuan per mu no matter whether the household
would convert to urban hukou or not. Second, if house purchase from
the New Countryside Construction Project was involved, the compen-
sation would be calculated by taking off the newly purchased land area
from the rehabilitation area. A subsidy was also said in place by the
policy for families that relocated to the New Countryside housing and
met criteria including income, the disability status, and housing con-
ditions (e.g., dilapidated housing) or location of residence (e.g., land-
slide areas). The response also acknowledged the poor publicity as an
area for future improvement on the government side.
The third group of complaints (53 in number) pointed to the lack of
technical specifications in defining the reclamation land area. For ex-
ample, there were usually small patches of greeneries and/or vegetable
farms next to the rural house and all the patches were considered part
of the homestead land. These small land patches were included in re-
clamation documentation but understandably (by the participating
farmers) they might not be compensated. However, knowing the policy
customization possibility by village leaders, farmers complained that it
was unclear whether the small patches generated land coupons and if so
who pocketed the compensation payment.
2) The lengthy process
337 farmers complained about the lengthy process from project
initiation to compensation payment. According to Table 3, the number
of complaints reached its peak in 2015. In particular, delays of 2–4
years before receiving compensation payment accounted for 76% of the
total complaints, whilst complaints of more than 5 years compensation
delay were rare (only 18 cases in the dataset). In contrast, one-year-
delay of compensation fallen from 15 cases in 2012 to 4 cases in 2015.
According to the Annual Bulletins (2008–2016) published by the
Chongqing Land Resource and Housing Management Bureau, the delays
was caused by oversupply of land coupons as a result of a land market
slump. The sale of land-use right increased steadily in the period
2008–2013, but since 2013 the sale had been declining. Though the
Municipal Government had a timeline to complete the payment pro-
cess, the empirical evidence showed that the market did not cooperate
thus some of the land coupons couldn’t be cashed out for compensation
payment.
3) Information transparency
301 complaints pointed to the lack of transparency especially re-
lating to public notification in the reclamation process. The problem
escalated over the years as the complaints increased consistently from
11 in 2012 to 41 in 2013 then to 73 in 2014 and reached its peak (104)
in 2015. One key complaint in this group was the lack of information
about project progress, which gave room for speculating the fate of
projects and spreading rumors. Some farmers were frustrated by being
kept in dark for too long in their reclamation application and other
steps of the process, thus wished to be informed about the progress in
all the steps. Some participating farmers were placed in a dilemma as
they did not want to spend money to improve their old houses which
were soon to be demolished, but the house structure might not be sound
enough to last without improvement for an unknown period of time. In
a response to such query about the timing of site work, village and town
officials explained that the existing large number of land coupons in
market caused uncertainty to the implementation and compensation
schedule.
4) Trust-worthiness of village and town officials
101 farmers complained about that village and town officials are
distrustful. Some of the complaints expressed anger of farmers who
were not comfortable with the idea that market auction was to de-
termine the compensation rate. They thought that the lack of a standard
compensation rate was due to village and town officials cunning ar-
rangement for their own benefit. Others expressed their fear about their
compensation payment being embezzled. To many, these complaints
were not baseless as some farmers had evidences in hand about cor-
ruptive officials. The complaints included 17 families that sued the
village and town officials for having distributed compensation payment
to some farmers but not all the participating farmers.
5) Project delays
113 complaints were about delays of rehabilitation after official
announcement of farmers’ participation to reclamation project. Many
farmers stopped investment on their housing maintenance after
Table 3
Non-step-specific complaints.
Issues 2011
(8-12)
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018*
sub-total
(1-8)
1) Policy Integrity 9 22 57 58 111 86 72 25 440
1.1) Inconsistency in policy delivery 1 9 8 10 28 35 13 104
1.2) Unlawful policy customization 9 21 46 45 92 43 21 6 283
1.3) Lack of technical specifications 2 5 9 15 16 6 53
2) Unacceptable length of the whole process 1 12 44 72 123 75 6 4 337
3) Lack of information 11 41 73 104 38 22 12 301
4) Project delays 1 3 2 15 47 32 10 3 113
5) Trust-worthiness of village and town officials 6 8 30 44 13 101
5.1) Doubt of compensation payment 5 7 29 44 13 98
5.2) Illegal conducts 1 1 1 3
Sub-total 11 48 144 224 393 261 154 57 1292
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
376
8. confirmation of homestead withdraw. Some lived in dilapidated
housing which could be just strong enough to sustain for the short time
period before the planned demolition. Any progress delay meant an
increased chance of experiencing a collapse, which was especially risky
under bad weather conditions. As such, some farmers were very upset
by project delays. Nevertheless, some project delays were unavoidable
because the land coupon trading was dependent on the land market,
which was affected by the overall economic situation in Chongqing, and
to a certain extent, in China and the world.
6. Discussion and conclusion
Chongqing’s land coupon approach provides an innovation to land
management in China. Since its inception and operation in 2008,
258,000 mu (172 km2) rural housing land has been reclaimed, con-
tributing half to the shortage of annual land-use quota and almost
quarter of the annual land quota allocated by the central government.
Apparently, in the first 10 years of implementation, rural housing land
reclaimed via land coupon initiative could not meet the need of urban
expansion in Chongqing. Nevertheless, the land coupon scheme is a
novel land management method as it blends the national goal of arable
land protection with local goals of economic development and in-
dividual goals of a just redistribution of income associated with land.
Different from the conventional quota turnover approach, the land
coupon scheme takes a bottom-up approach and allows farmers to play
an active role in its implementation.
Farmers travel through a lengthy process from application for par-
ticipation in rural housing land reclamation to reception of compen-
sation payment. This is a dynamic and complex process shaped by
historical bags of inconsistent policies, rent-seeking individuals and
organizations, and market uncertainties. For the past six decades,
peasants’ right to land and housing has changed, so has the standard of
land block for rural housing as well as the approaches to rectify pro-
blems. The discrepancies in policy directions and technical details have
generated confusions, uncertainties and conflicts. The situation has
been further complicated by the behavior of village and town leaders,
some of whom were keen to fulfill their own interest at the expense of
farmers. The rent-seeking behavior of some surveyors and demolition
contractors add on to farmers’ grievances. Furthermore, farmers have to
learn and be patient with market uncertainties and cycles in waiting for
their compensation payment.
Fluctuation of the real estate market led to changes in the number of
complaints over time, which peaked in 2015 for non-step-specific
concerns and in 2016–2017 for step-specific concerns. The downturn of
housing market since 2013 (Chongqing Land Resource and Housing
Management Bureau, 2008-2016; Chongqing Land Resource and
Housing Management Bureau, 2008) and of office market since 2015
(Savills, 2018) not only reduced demand for but also led to an over-
supply of construction land. These changes effectively slowed down the
cash out rate of land coupons. Major spurt of non-step-specific com-
plaints in 2015 was caused by farmers who became grumpy in the long
waiting process, whilst the spurts of step-specific complaints in 2016
and 2017 were caused by a combination of the long-wait and a rushed
delivery of partial and/or unjustified amount of compensation. A
common thread in the peak period complaints was that the expected
compensation payment did not arrive on time wholly or partially.
Although the complaints were results of different circumstances,
compensation payment was the focal point. Missing payment, delayed
funds transfer and inadequate compensation thus were all the top
concerns. Rent-seeking officials and organizations angered the farmers.
Any matters that affect compensation calculation, entry for participa-
tion, and expectation of financial return were also raised in the com-
plaints. Interestingly, none of the complaints went beyond farmers’
immediate financial interest from the land. There was no single com-
plaint that connects farmers’ experiences and/or unhappiness with the
national land policies, or, with local government ambitions for
economic development. There was no sign that the farmers cared about
the future of the land on which they lived for generations. These
findings point to a question for further research, i.e., do the Chinese
farmers care about intangible influences at local, national and global
levels and why?
The farmland reclamation process is a kaleidoscope in which a
range of players interplay with others at their own pace. Farmers were
given the opportunity to initiate the land coupon generation process
and actively participate in the phases and steps. However, the scope of
their participation, as reflected by their complaints, was rather limited
to the tangible financial losses and/or gains. Farmland reclamation
through the change of land-use right is a life and death issue to some as
they will be detached from the land which provides them security. The
Chongqing farmers who were brought to face this life and death issue
were accompanied in the process by various rent-seeking parties who
were keen to share the benefit associated with land reclamation. The
narrow focus of farmers’ concerns on receiving a compensation without
any interest on the broad policy directions pose a challenge to both the
government and the farmers themselves for making innovative policies
towards a secured future. At its current value, the compensation is
probably negligible compared to the security that land provides to the
Chinese farmers.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their
constructive comments. All the remaining errors, if any, are the re-
sponsibility of the authors’.
References
Chen, H.X., Zhao, L.M., Zhao, Z.Y., 2017. Influencing factors of farmers’ willingness to
withdraw from rural homesteads: a survey in Zhejiang, China. Land Use Policy 68,
524–530.
Chongqing Land Resource and Housing Management Bureau, 2008. The Annual Bulletin
of Chongqing Land Resource and Housing Management. access in the period June –
August 2018. http://www.cqgtfw.gov.cn/zwgkml/tjfx/gtfggb/.
Duan, L., Fu, H., 2011. Study on land ticket pattern and the transfer system of rural
collective construction lands: taking Chongqing as an example. J. Public Manage. 8
(2), 86–93 (in Chinese).
Gou, X.C., 2012. Farmer’s legal rights protection in construction land “zengjianguagou”
between urban and rural. Rural Econ. 4, 37–41 (in Chinese).
Gu, H.L., Feng, S.Y., Qu, F.T., 2014. Comparison of the two modes of the linkage between
urban construction land increase and rural residential land decrease in Chongqing.
China Land Sci. 28 (9), 11–16 24 (in Chinese).
Han, S.S., Wang, Y., 2001. City Profile: Chongqing. Cities: the International Quarterly on
Urban Policy. 18 (2). pp. 115–125.
Han, S.S., Wei, Q.L., 2015. A new pathway to urbanization in China? the land trading
policy and practice in Yandu Xincun, Xianghe County, Hebei Province. In: Wong, T.-
C., Han, S.S., Zhang, H.M. (Eds.), Population Mobility, Urban Planning and
Management in China. Springer, pp. 275–290.
Huang, Q.F., 2015. The Experiment and Effect of the Land Coupon Scheme – Thoughts
about Innovation of Land Trading in Chongqing (in Chinese). Accessed on 18
September 2018. https://www.guancha.cn/HuangQiFan/2015_05_09_318851.
shtml.
Lichtenberg, E., Ding, C., 2009. Local officials as land developers: urban spatial expansion
in China. J. Urban Econ. 66 (1), 57–64.
Lin, Q.W., Tan, S.K., Zhang, L., Wang, S.L., Wei, C., Li, Y.N., 2018. Conflicts of land
expropriation in China during 2006–2016: an overview and its spatio-temporal
characteristics. Land Use Policy 76, 246–251.
Liu, Y.S., 2018. Introduction to land use and rural sustainability in China. Land Use Policy
74, 1–4.
Liu, Y.S., Chen, Y., 2010. The process and driving forces of rural hollowing in China under
rapid urbanization. J. Geogr. Sci. 20 (6), 876–888.
Liu, Y.S., Fang, F., 2014. Key issues of land use in China and implications for policy
making. Land Use Policy 40, 6–12.
Long, H.L., 2014. Land consolidation: an indispensable way of spatial restructuring in
rural China. J. Geogr. Sci. 24 (2), 211–225.
Long, H.L., Liu, Y.S., 2016. Rural restructuring in China. J. Rural Stud. 47, 387–391.
Long, H.L., Li, Y.R., Liu, Y.S., Woods, M., Zou, J., 2012. Accelerated restructuring in rural
China fueled by ‘increasing vs. decreasing balance’ land-use policy for dealing with
hollowed villages. Land Use Policy 29, 11–22.
Luo, W.B., Timothy, D.J., 2017. An assessment of farmers’ satisfaction with land con-
solidation performance in China. Land Use Policy 51, 501–510.
Ministry of Land Resource, 1997. Bulletin on China’s Land Resource. Accessed on 18
September 2017. http://www.mlr.gov.cn/sjpd/gtzygb/201506/t20150629_
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
377
9. 1356120.htm.
Ministry of Land Resource, 2008. Notice on Accelerating the Registration and Certificate
Granting of Land User-Right for Rural Housing. Accessed on 18 September 2018.
http://www.mlr.gov.cn/xwdt/zytz/200807/t20080714_108191.htm.
Ministry of Land Resource, 2011. Bulletin on China’s Land Resource. Accessed on 18
September 2018. http://www.mlr.gov.cn/sjpd/gtzygb/201509/t20150914_
1381008.htm.
National Bureau of Statistics of China, 1979. China Statistics Yearbook, China Statistics
Press (Beijing).
National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2016. China Statistics Yearbook, China Statistics
Press (Beijing).
O’Sullivan, Arthur, 1996. Urban Economics, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York.
Pils, E., 2016. Assessing evictions and expropriations in China: efficiency, credibility and
rights. Land Use Policy 58, 437–444.
Ren, P., Zhou, J.M., 2013. The evolution and research tendency in the institution of
linking the increase in land used for urban construction with the decrease in land
used for rural construction. Chin. Agric. Sci. Bull. 29 (5), 97–102 (in Chinese).
Savills, 2018. Review of Chongqing’s Real Estate Market in the Past 10 Years and a
Forecast of the Future (in Chinese). Accessed on 12 December 2018. https://www.
jiemian.com/article/2470303.html.
State Council, 1962. The Amended Draft of the Regulations on Rural People’s Commune.
Accessed on 18 September 2018. http://jiuban.moa.gov.cn/zwllm/zcfg/flfg/
200601/t20060120_539366.htm.
State Council, 1982. Management Regulations for Land Used for Housing in Villages and
Towns. Accessed on 18 September 2018. https://wenku.baidu.com/view/
f706e226a4e9856a561252d380eb6294dd88226a.html.
State Council, 2009. Opinions on Promoting the Reform and Development of Urban and
Rural Areas in Chongqing. Accessed on 18 September 2018. http://www.gov.cn/
zwgk/2009-02/05/content_1222355.htm.
Tan, M., 2014. Strict control and incentive: evolution of the policy of linking decrease of
arable land with increase of construction land and its local implementation. China
Soc. Sci. 7, 125–142 (in Chinese).
Xie, B.R., Bai, W.Q., 2018. On the Ten Years of Land Coupon Scheme in Chongqing,
Report No 3 (in Chinese). Accessed on 18 September 2018. http://www.zrzyb.net/
difanglianbo/20180702_114929_3.shtml.
Xin, L.J., Li, X.B., 2018. China should not massively reclaim new farmland. Land Use
Policy 72, 12–15.
Yep, R., Forrest, R., 2016. Elevating the peasants into high-rise apartments: The land bill
system in Chongqing as a solution for land conflicts in China? J. Rural Stud. 47,
474–484.
Zhao, Q.L., Zhang, Z.L., 2017. Does China’s ‘increasing versus decreasing balance’ land-
restructuring policy restructure rural life? Evidence from Dongfan Village, Shaanxi
Province. Land Use Policy 68, 649–659.
S.S. Han and W. Lin Land Use Policy 83 (2019) 370–378
378