The study cloned and analyzed the GJB6 gene, which encodes the connexin 30 protein, from 16 bat species and 4 other mammals. Analysis showed purifying selection on GJB6 in mammals generally, maintaining its important role in hearing. One amino acid substitution was unique to bats, and 10 were shared among artiodactyls. The cytoplasmic loop and carboxy terminus were more variable than other domains in all mammals. The results demonstrate evolutionary conservation of GJB6 in mammals but also lineage-specific rapid evolution in some domains.
This document reports on the isolation and analysis of a Hox gene, DoxC, from the dicyemid mesozoan Dicyema orientale. Analysis of the DoxC gene sequence indicates that it is most similar to the 'middle' group of Hox genes found in triploblasts. Additionally, the presence of a diagnostic peptide motif encoded near the homeodomain implies that Dicyema orientale is a member of the Lophotrochozoa and is related to phyla such as platyhelminths, molluscs, nemerteans, brachiopods and annelids. This leads the authors to conclude that dicyemids are secondarily simplified higher protost
Maddison D.R., Moore W., Baker M.D., Ellis T.M., Ober K.A., Cannone J.J., and Gutell R.R. (2009).
Monophyly of terrestrial adephagan beetles as indicated by three nuclear genes (Coleoptera: Carabidae and Trachypachidae).
Zoologica Scripta, 38(1):43-62.
This document discusses a study that found molecular and morphological evidence suggesting that the flagellate Ancyromonas is closely related to the common ancestor of metazoans, fungi, and choanoflagellates. Analyses of 18S rRNA gene sequences from major eukaryotic lineages using maximum likelihood, minimum evolution, and maximum parsimony supported Ancyromonas forming its own lineage, called Ancyromonadida, that is more closely related to opisthokonts than its nearest protist relatives. However, low bootstrap support for deep nodes limits the ability of 18S rDNA to fully resolve this aspect of eukaryotic phylogeny.
This document reports on several cases of anomalous scutation and morphology in turtles and lizards:
1) A three-toed box turtle with only one vertebral scute, representing an anomalous reduction.
2) A Brazilian slider turtle exhibiting kyphosis, or dorsal curvature of the carapace, representing the first reported case in this species.
3) Observations of predation including a centipede preying on a whiptail lizard, representing the first record of this predator-prey relationship, and a six-lined racer snake attempting to swallow a six-scaled tegu, providing a rare example of saurophagy in this genus of lizard.
The engrailed gene is a segment polarity gene in Drosophila melanogaster that plays several important roles during development. It defines the posterior region of each embryonic parasegment, establishing anterior-posterior polarity. The engrailed gene also helps pattern the brain by defining borders between regions and guiding neuronal axon growth. Comparisons of engrailed DNA and protein sequences across species show it is conserved and related genes can be found in vertebrates as well.
The study cloned and analyzed the GJB6 gene, which encodes the connexin 30 protein, from 16 bat species and 4 other mammals. Analysis showed purifying selection on GJB6 in mammals generally, maintaining its important role in hearing. One amino acid substitution was unique to bats, and 10 were shared among artiodactyls. The cytoplasmic loop and carboxy terminus were more variable than other domains in all mammals. The results demonstrate evolutionary conservation of GJB6 in mammals but also lineage-specific rapid evolution in some domains.
This document reports on the isolation and analysis of a Hox gene, DoxC, from the dicyemid mesozoan Dicyema orientale. Analysis of the DoxC gene sequence indicates that it is most similar to the 'middle' group of Hox genes found in triploblasts. Additionally, the presence of a diagnostic peptide motif encoded near the homeodomain implies that Dicyema orientale is a member of the Lophotrochozoa and is related to phyla such as platyhelminths, molluscs, nemerteans, brachiopods and annelids. This leads the authors to conclude that dicyemids are secondarily simplified higher protost
Maddison D.R., Moore W., Baker M.D., Ellis T.M., Ober K.A., Cannone J.J., and Gutell R.R. (2009).
Monophyly of terrestrial adephagan beetles as indicated by three nuclear genes (Coleoptera: Carabidae and Trachypachidae).
Zoologica Scripta, 38(1):43-62.
This document discusses a study that found molecular and morphological evidence suggesting that the flagellate Ancyromonas is closely related to the common ancestor of metazoans, fungi, and choanoflagellates. Analyses of 18S rRNA gene sequences from major eukaryotic lineages using maximum likelihood, minimum evolution, and maximum parsimony supported Ancyromonas forming its own lineage, called Ancyromonadida, that is more closely related to opisthokonts than its nearest protist relatives. However, low bootstrap support for deep nodes limits the ability of 18S rDNA to fully resolve this aspect of eukaryotic phylogeny.
This document reports on several cases of anomalous scutation and morphology in turtles and lizards:
1) A three-toed box turtle with only one vertebral scute, representing an anomalous reduction.
2) A Brazilian slider turtle exhibiting kyphosis, or dorsal curvature of the carapace, representing the first reported case in this species.
3) Observations of predation including a centipede preying on a whiptail lizard, representing the first record of this predator-prey relationship, and a six-lined racer snake attempting to swallow a six-scaled tegu, providing a rare example of saurophagy in this genus of lizard.
The engrailed gene is a segment polarity gene in Drosophila melanogaster that plays several important roles during development. It defines the posterior region of each embryonic parasegment, establishing anterior-posterior polarity. The engrailed gene also helps pattern the brain by defining borders between regions and guiding neuronal axon growth. Comparisons of engrailed DNA and protein sequences across species show it is conserved and related genes can be found in vertebrates as well.
Genetic differentiation of Artemia feanciscana in Kenyan coastal saltworksErick Ogello
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the genetic differentiation between the native Artemia franciscana population from San Francisco Bay, USA and introduced populations in Kenyan coastal saltworks using molecular markers. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA and heat shock protein 70 gene sequences found evidence of genetic differentiation and haplotype diversity between populations, indicating evolutionary changes have occurred since introduction. Specifically, a private haplotype was found in samples from Fundisha saltworks, providing molecular evidence of genetic differentiation between populations, though not at a statistically significant level. The heat shock protein 70 gene sequences did not show unique signatures between Kenyan and source populations, suggesting other factors contribute to their increased thermotolerance. Further genetic study using larger DNA fragments was recommended
The document discusses neutral theory of molecular evolution, which holds that most genetic changes are due to neutral mutations that do not affect organismal fitness. It proposes that neutral mutations accumulate over time at a constant rate, allowing relative divergence times to be estimated. The theory aims to explain high genetic variation and presence of neutral substitutions between species. Several lines of evidence are presented, including comparative rates of evolution between functionally important and unimportant genes and gene regions.
This document contains a chapter reading quiz on genetics and evolution concepts. It includes questions about gene pools, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, genetic drift, natural selection, and microevolution. It also provides explanations of key terms like the modern synthesis, genetic variation, and relative fitness. Sample problems are worked through applying the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in populations.
Hidden generic diversity in neotropical birds molecular and anatomical data s...herculanoalvarenga
This document presents molecular and anatomical data that supports establishing a new genus for the Scytalopus indigoticus species group, which is currently classified within the genus Scytalopus. Analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences and anatomical features found strong evidence that Scytalopus is paraphyletic, with the S. indigoticus group forming a distinct clade separate from other Scytalopus species. The data supports elevating the S. indigoticus group to a new genus, questioning the presumed monophyly of the widely diverse genus Scytalopus. This highlights the importance of formally testing assumptions of monophyly, even for well-established bird groups.
Zebrafish are commonly used as a model organism in research due to their low cost, small size, rapid development and reproduction. They naturally live in schools for protection against predators. School size can vary depending on environmental conditions, with fish preferring larger or more active schools. Both males and females establish dominance hierarchies through aggressive behaviors like chasing and biting. Males court females through behaviors like nudging and leading them to spawn sites, where the male aligns to induce egg-laying.
Asexuality, hybridisation and comparative genomics of root knot nemtodesdavelunt
This document discusses research into the complex hybrid origins of root knot nematodes. Genomic analyses provide evidence that asexual root knot nematode species originated through ancient hybridization, rather than ancient asexuality. Comparative genomics of different root knot nematode species, including sequencing the genome of M. floridensis, shows signatures of hybridization such as duplicated gene regions within genomes. This supports the hypothesis that asexual root knot nematode species were formed through interspecific hybridization between ancestral sexual species like M. floridensis, rather than evolving anciently without sex and recombination.
This study examined cell proliferation in the chick forebrain after one-trial passive avoidance learning (PAL) using methylanthranilate (MeA). The following key findings were reported:
1. At 24 hours post-injection of the cell marker BrdU, there was a significant reduction in labeled cells in the dorsal hippocampus and area parahippocampalis of chicks that underwent MeA-based PAL compared to controls.
2. Double-labeling showed a reduction of newborn neuronal cells in the dorsal hippocampus of the PAL group at 24 hours.
3. By 9 days post-injection, there was no difference in hippocampal BrdU labeling between PAL and
This study investigated early post-hatching sex differences in cell proliferation, survival, and apoptosis in the quail telencephalon. The study found that in males, there were significantly higher numbers of newborn cells in the ventricular zone of the mesopallium at day 1 post-hatching compared to females. Long-term survival until day 20 showed higher numbers of labeled cells in the intermediate medial part of the mesopallium in males compared to females. Additionally, higher numbers of apoptotic cells were found in the intermediate medial part of the mesopallium in males at day 10, suggesting cell death plays a role in controlling regional cell density. The findings indicate sex-specific mechanisms stimulate increased cell genesis, survival
Introduction of Animal Genetics & History of GeneticsAashish Patel
This document provides an overview of genetics including key discoveries and scientists. It discusses Gregor Mendel's foundational work in 1866 and subsequent rediscovery of his principles. Important milestones are highlighted such as Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA structure in 1953. The document also covers branches of genetics, pre-Mendelian concepts of heredity, and applications of genetics in fields like taxonomy, veterinary medicine, and evolution.
Unveiling Hidden Treasures of Indigenous Cattle In Zambia Using MacrosatilltesMSIMUKO ELLISON
1. The study analyzed genetic diversity in three indigenous cattle breeds in Zambia (Angoni, Tonga, and Barotse) using 32 microsatellite markers.
2. Results showed moderate genetic diversity within breeds and low differentiation between breeds, indicating gene flow between populations.
3. Bayesian cluster analysis grouped the Tonga and Barotse breeds together, separating them from the Angoni breed, suggesting two genetic populations rather than three.
Female Bias for Enlarged Male Body and Dorsal Fins in Xiphophorus variatusjohndgagnon
This article summarizes an experiment that tested female preferences in Xiphophorus variatus fish. The experiment had 3 parts that tested preferences for: 1) body size while holding dorsal fin size constant, 2) dorsal fin size while holding body size constant, and 3) dorsal fin to body size ratio while holding total lateral projection area constant. In all parts, researchers used dummy fish that varied one trait while holding others constant. Females spent more time near dummies with larger bodies and dorsal fins. However, females showed no preference based on dorsal fin to body size ratio when total area was held constant. This provides additional support that female preference in this species is for increased total lateral projection area rather than a specific trait or
Morphological and molecular analysis was used to identify parasites collected from Lake Winnibigoshish in Minnesota. Parasites were stained and examined under microscopy to measure morphological characteristics, which supported identification as Cotylurus brevis, Cotylurus flabelliformis, and Apatemon gracillis based on comparisons to previous studies. Genetic sequencing of the COX1 gene was initiated but not completed. Results from staining were consistent with identification of the three species based on features such as testis shape, ovary placement, and body ratios being within reported ranges. Molecular analysis may further support identifications but has not been finished.
The document summarizes an experiment that studied the effects of natural selection on core promoter regions (CPRs) of gene regulatory regions in Drosophila melanogaster. Researchers obtained sequence and transcriptome data from 29 lines of D. melanogaster from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel. They analyzed single nucleotide polymorphisms, gene expression levels, and linkage between CPRs and surrounding regions. The results showed that nucleotide changes in CPRs caused gene expression variation and were influenced by both positive and balancing selection. Sex-biased gene expression was also common but CPRs were not dependent on sex-specific expression. In conclusion, CPRs are a source of natural selection and gene expression variation within populations of D. melanogaster.
This document is a thesis by Jonas Danielson from Lund University in 2010 on the topic of plant Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIPs), also known as aquaporins. It provides an introduction to MIPs and their structure and function. It then focuses on plant MIPs, discussing the large family of MIP isoforms in plants, their evolution and diversity across plant species. It aims to expand knowledge of plant MIP diversity and the roles of different subfamilies and isoforms using both traditional molecular biology approaches and comparative genetics methods.
This document summarizes research on the larval stages of palinurid and scyllarid lobsters collected in the South China Sea. It describes 15 species of lobster larvae representing various developmental stages. For each species, key distinguishing morphological features are outlined and comparisons are made to other studies of lobster larvae where relevant. The goal is to aid in identification of lobster larvae in this region and other areas by documenting the characteristics of commonly encountered species in the South China Sea.
The researchers analyzed the genetic structure of eastern mud snail populations from Fort Wadsworth and Plumb Beach in New York to determine if they are from the same or different populations. They extracted and sequenced DNA from the cytochrome c oxidase I gene of mud snails collected from both locations. Analysis showed very low genetic divergence between the two populations and a phylogenetic tree grouped the DNA sequences together rather than into separate clades. This supports the hypothesis that the mud snail populations are from the same population and do not need to be managed separately.
The document describes a meta-analysis of microbial community samples collected by the Earth Microbiome Project (EMP) that used coordinated protocols and analytical methods to explore patterns of diversity at an unprecedented scale. By tracking individual bacterial and archaeal ribosomal RNA gene sequences across multiple studies, the analysis resulted in both a reference database providing global context to DNA sequence data and an analytical framework for incorporating future study data to further characterize Earth's microbial diversity. The meta-analysis found that standardized environmental descriptors and new analytical methods, particularly using exact sequences instead of clustered operational taxonomic units, enabled comparisons across studies and exploration of large-scale ecological patterns.
This document discusses evidence of lateral transfer of a group IE intron between fungal and red algal small subunit rRNA genes. It finds that a group IE intron inserted at position 989 in the nuclear SSU rRNA gene of the red alga Hildenbrandia rubra is closely related to similar fungal IE introns, providing evidence the intron was laterally transferred rather than vertically inherited. Phylogenetic analysis of intron sequences and comparisons of intron secondary structures support a relationship between the red algal intron and fungal introns, making lateral transfer the most likely explanation for the intron's presence in H. rubra.
photo of moss by Angie Jane Gray (1).pdfFamilyGray1
This study analyzed phylogenetic relationships within the class Sphagnopsida (peat mosses) using nucleotide sequences from the nuclear, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes. The results resolved three lineages within the Sphagnopsida: 1) Sphagnum sericeum, 2) S. inretortum plus Ambuchanania leucobryoides, and 3) all remaining species of Sphagnum. While sister relationships among these three clades could not be determined, the results indicate that the divergent morphology of A. leucobryoides is derived rather than ancestral. Based on these findings, a new classification of the Sphagnopsida is proposed with one order, three families,
This study analyzed DNA sequences from nine genes (three plastid, three mitochondrial, and three nuclear) from 100 plant species to better understand relationships among basal angiosperms. Phylogenetic analyses strongly supported Amborella, Nymphaeaceae, and Austrobaileyales as the earliest diverging lineages of flowering plants. The analyses also supported magnoliids as a monophyletic group consisting of Magnoliales, Laurales, Piperales, and Canellales. However, relationships among Ceratophyllum, Chloranthaceae, magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots were mostly unresolved with low support. Examination of substitution patterns supported placement of Amborella and others
Genetic differentiation of Artemia feanciscana in Kenyan coastal saltworksErick Ogello
This document summarizes a study that analyzed the genetic differentiation between the native Artemia franciscana population from San Francisco Bay, USA and introduced populations in Kenyan coastal saltworks using molecular markers. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA and heat shock protein 70 gene sequences found evidence of genetic differentiation and haplotype diversity between populations, indicating evolutionary changes have occurred since introduction. Specifically, a private haplotype was found in samples from Fundisha saltworks, providing molecular evidence of genetic differentiation between populations, though not at a statistically significant level. The heat shock protein 70 gene sequences did not show unique signatures between Kenyan and source populations, suggesting other factors contribute to their increased thermotolerance. Further genetic study using larger DNA fragments was recommended
The document discusses neutral theory of molecular evolution, which holds that most genetic changes are due to neutral mutations that do not affect organismal fitness. It proposes that neutral mutations accumulate over time at a constant rate, allowing relative divergence times to be estimated. The theory aims to explain high genetic variation and presence of neutral substitutions between species. Several lines of evidence are presented, including comparative rates of evolution between functionally important and unimportant genes and gene regions.
This document contains a chapter reading quiz on genetics and evolution concepts. It includes questions about gene pools, Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, genetic drift, natural selection, and microevolution. It also provides explanations of key terms like the modern synthesis, genetic variation, and relative fitness. Sample problems are worked through applying the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele and genotype frequencies in populations.
Hidden generic diversity in neotropical birds molecular and anatomical data s...herculanoalvarenga
This document presents molecular and anatomical data that supports establishing a new genus for the Scytalopus indigoticus species group, which is currently classified within the genus Scytalopus. Analyses of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequences and anatomical features found strong evidence that Scytalopus is paraphyletic, with the S. indigoticus group forming a distinct clade separate from other Scytalopus species. The data supports elevating the S. indigoticus group to a new genus, questioning the presumed monophyly of the widely diverse genus Scytalopus. This highlights the importance of formally testing assumptions of monophyly, even for well-established bird groups.
Zebrafish are commonly used as a model organism in research due to their low cost, small size, rapid development and reproduction. They naturally live in schools for protection against predators. School size can vary depending on environmental conditions, with fish preferring larger or more active schools. Both males and females establish dominance hierarchies through aggressive behaviors like chasing and biting. Males court females through behaviors like nudging and leading them to spawn sites, where the male aligns to induce egg-laying.
Asexuality, hybridisation and comparative genomics of root knot nemtodesdavelunt
This document discusses research into the complex hybrid origins of root knot nematodes. Genomic analyses provide evidence that asexual root knot nematode species originated through ancient hybridization, rather than ancient asexuality. Comparative genomics of different root knot nematode species, including sequencing the genome of M. floridensis, shows signatures of hybridization such as duplicated gene regions within genomes. This supports the hypothesis that asexual root knot nematode species were formed through interspecific hybridization between ancestral sexual species like M. floridensis, rather than evolving anciently without sex and recombination.
This study examined cell proliferation in the chick forebrain after one-trial passive avoidance learning (PAL) using methylanthranilate (MeA). The following key findings were reported:
1. At 24 hours post-injection of the cell marker BrdU, there was a significant reduction in labeled cells in the dorsal hippocampus and area parahippocampalis of chicks that underwent MeA-based PAL compared to controls.
2. Double-labeling showed a reduction of newborn neuronal cells in the dorsal hippocampus of the PAL group at 24 hours.
3. By 9 days post-injection, there was no difference in hippocampal BrdU labeling between PAL and
This study investigated early post-hatching sex differences in cell proliferation, survival, and apoptosis in the quail telencephalon. The study found that in males, there were significantly higher numbers of newborn cells in the ventricular zone of the mesopallium at day 1 post-hatching compared to females. Long-term survival until day 20 showed higher numbers of labeled cells in the intermediate medial part of the mesopallium in males compared to females. Additionally, higher numbers of apoptotic cells were found in the intermediate medial part of the mesopallium in males at day 10, suggesting cell death plays a role in controlling regional cell density. The findings indicate sex-specific mechanisms stimulate increased cell genesis, survival
Introduction of Animal Genetics & History of GeneticsAashish Patel
This document provides an overview of genetics including key discoveries and scientists. It discusses Gregor Mendel's foundational work in 1866 and subsequent rediscovery of his principles. Important milestones are highlighted such as Watson and Crick's discovery of DNA structure in 1953. The document also covers branches of genetics, pre-Mendelian concepts of heredity, and applications of genetics in fields like taxonomy, veterinary medicine, and evolution.
Unveiling Hidden Treasures of Indigenous Cattle In Zambia Using MacrosatilltesMSIMUKO ELLISON
1. The study analyzed genetic diversity in three indigenous cattle breeds in Zambia (Angoni, Tonga, and Barotse) using 32 microsatellite markers.
2. Results showed moderate genetic diversity within breeds and low differentiation between breeds, indicating gene flow between populations.
3. Bayesian cluster analysis grouped the Tonga and Barotse breeds together, separating them from the Angoni breed, suggesting two genetic populations rather than three.
Female Bias for Enlarged Male Body and Dorsal Fins in Xiphophorus variatusjohndgagnon
This article summarizes an experiment that tested female preferences in Xiphophorus variatus fish. The experiment had 3 parts that tested preferences for: 1) body size while holding dorsal fin size constant, 2) dorsal fin size while holding body size constant, and 3) dorsal fin to body size ratio while holding total lateral projection area constant. In all parts, researchers used dummy fish that varied one trait while holding others constant. Females spent more time near dummies with larger bodies and dorsal fins. However, females showed no preference based on dorsal fin to body size ratio when total area was held constant. This provides additional support that female preference in this species is for increased total lateral projection area rather than a specific trait or
Morphological and molecular analysis was used to identify parasites collected from Lake Winnibigoshish in Minnesota. Parasites were stained and examined under microscopy to measure morphological characteristics, which supported identification as Cotylurus brevis, Cotylurus flabelliformis, and Apatemon gracillis based on comparisons to previous studies. Genetic sequencing of the COX1 gene was initiated but not completed. Results from staining were consistent with identification of the three species based on features such as testis shape, ovary placement, and body ratios being within reported ranges. Molecular analysis may further support identifications but has not been finished.
The document summarizes an experiment that studied the effects of natural selection on core promoter regions (CPRs) of gene regulatory regions in Drosophila melanogaster. Researchers obtained sequence and transcriptome data from 29 lines of D. melanogaster from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel. They analyzed single nucleotide polymorphisms, gene expression levels, and linkage between CPRs and surrounding regions. The results showed that nucleotide changes in CPRs caused gene expression variation and were influenced by both positive and balancing selection. Sex-biased gene expression was also common but CPRs were not dependent on sex-specific expression. In conclusion, CPRs are a source of natural selection and gene expression variation within populations of D. melanogaster.
This document is a thesis by Jonas Danielson from Lund University in 2010 on the topic of plant Major Intrinsic Proteins (MIPs), also known as aquaporins. It provides an introduction to MIPs and their structure and function. It then focuses on plant MIPs, discussing the large family of MIP isoforms in plants, their evolution and diversity across plant species. It aims to expand knowledge of plant MIP diversity and the roles of different subfamilies and isoforms using both traditional molecular biology approaches and comparative genetics methods.
This document summarizes research on the larval stages of palinurid and scyllarid lobsters collected in the South China Sea. It describes 15 species of lobster larvae representing various developmental stages. For each species, key distinguishing morphological features are outlined and comparisons are made to other studies of lobster larvae where relevant. The goal is to aid in identification of lobster larvae in this region and other areas by documenting the characteristics of commonly encountered species in the South China Sea.
The researchers analyzed the genetic structure of eastern mud snail populations from Fort Wadsworth and Plumb Beach in New York to determine if they are from the same or different populations. They extracted and sequenced DNA from the cytochrome c oxidase I gene of mud snails collected from both locations. Analysis showed very low genetic divergence between the two populations and a phylogenetic tree grouped the DNA sequences together rather than into separate clades. This supports the hypothesis that the mud snail populations are from the same population and do not need to be managed separately.
The document describes a meta-analysis of microbial community samples collected by the Earth Microbiome Project (EMP) that used coordinated protocols and analytical methods to explore patterns of diversity at an unprecedented scale. By tracking individual bacterial and archaeal ribosomal RNA gene sequences across multiple studies, the analysis resulted in both a reference database providing global context to DNA sequence data and an analytical framework for incorporating future study data to further characterize Earth's microbial diversity. The meta-analysis found that standardized environmental descriptors and new analytical methods, particularly using exact sequences instead of clustered operational taxonomic units, enabled comparisons across studies and exploration of large-scale ecological patterns.
This document discusses evidence of lateral transfer of a group IE intron between fungal and red algal small subunit rRNA genes. It finds that a group IE intron inserted at position 989 in the nuclear SSU rRNA gene of the red alga Hildenbrandia rubra is closely related to similar fungal IE introns, providing evidence the intron was laterally transferred rather than vertically inherited. Phylogenetic analysis of intron sequences and comparisons of intron secondary structures support a relationship between the red algal intron and fungal introns, making lateral transfer the most likely explanation for the intron's presence in H. rubra.
photo of moss by Angie Jane Gray (1).pdfFamilyGray1
This study analyzed phylogenetic relationships within the class Sphagnopsida (peat mosses) using nucleotide sequences from the nuclear, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes. The results resolved three lineages within the Sphagnopsida: 1) Sphagnum sericeum, 2) S. inretortum plus Ambuchanania leucobryoides, and 3) all remaining species of Sphagnum. While sister relationships among these three clades could not be determined, the results indicate that the divergent morphology of A. leucobryoides is derived rather than ancestral. Based on these findings, a new classification of the Sphagnopsida is proposed with one order, three families,
This study analyzed DNA sequences from nine genes (three plastid, three mitochondrial, and three nuclear) from 100 plant species to better understand relationships among basal angiosperms. Phylogenetic analyses strongly supported Amborella, Nymphaeaceae, and Austrobaileyales as the earliest diverging lineages of flowering plants. The analyses also supported magnoliids as a monophyletic group consisting of Magnoliales, Laurales, Piperales, and Canellales. However, relationships among Ceratophyllum, Chloranthaceae, magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots were mostly unresolved with low support. Examination of substitution patterns supported placement of Amborella and others
AAPA Poster. Insights from developmental genetics and reproductive isolation ...Craig Knox
The document analyzes mechanisms of reproductive isolation in hominin species to determine the number of biological species represented in the human fossil record. It finds that chromosomal isolation, specifically changes to the Hoxd gene sequence on chromosome 2, best explains speciation events. Analysis of vertebrae phenotypes in fossils, regulated by Hoxd genes, suggests fewer hominin species existed than typically recognized, supporting models of 5 or fewer biological species. The hypothesis that changes to Hoxd gene regulation caused transitions like the origin of bipedality can be empirically tested through molecular evolution methods.
The document discusses the topic of phylogenetics. It begins with definitions of key terms like phylogeny, phylogenetic tree, clade, and orthologous genes. It then provides examples of how phylogenetic methods are used in fields like epidemiology, conservation biology, and pharmaceutical research. The document also discusses choosing appropriate genetic sequences to use in phylogenetic analysis and introduces molecular clock models.
This document describes the megalopae of Paraxanthus barbiger crab for the first time based on field-collected samples from Chile over a year. It finds high seasonal variation in size but consistent morphological characteristics. Molecular sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene from megalopae and adults confirms identification at the species level despite morphological plasticity. This validation technique and description of a dominant crab species' larvae aids population dynamics studies in the region.
Phylogenetic patterns in the genus Manihot (Euphorbiaceae) inferred from anal...CIAT
This study aimed to clarify the phylogenetic relationships among wild Manihot species using DNA sequence data from chloroplast regions, a nuclear gene, and two nuclear sequences from cassava ESTs. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses on the combined data supported some previously proposed species groupings but also showed inconsistencies with current taxonomic sections. Estimated divergence times placed the origin of the Manihot genus around 6.6 million years ago, coinciding with the origin of species in the Cerrado ecosystem of Brazil, where most Manihot species are found. The results support a recent and rapid diversification of the genus.
Some of our most basic questions about the history of life concern w.pdfaloeplusint
Some of our most basic questions about the history of life concern when major events occurred.
Some evolutionary events can be dated from the fossil record But what options are available
when fossil data are missing? In at least some instances, it should be possible to address
questions about timing by analyzing molecular traits that change at a steady rate. This
hypothesis, called the molecular clock, @ originated with Emile Zuckerkandl and Linus Pauling
(1962). There are reasons to expect that some types of DNA sequences change in a clocklike
fashion. Many mutations change an individual's DNA but not its phenotype In most cases,
mutations like these are not exposed to natural selection. Instead, these neutral @ changes evolve
by a random process called genetic drift As we will discuss elsewhere, the neutral theory of
molecular evolution predicts that neutral changes in DNA should accumulate in populations at a
rate equal to the mutation rate If the mutation rate stays reasonably constant, and if generation
times remain similar, then the number of neutral molecular differences between two taxa should
be proportional to the age of their most recent common ancestor By counting distinct neutral
mutations observed in two species and multiplying by a calibration rate representing how
frequently neutral changes occur per million years, researchers can estimate when the species
diverged. Although the possibility of dating events from estimates of genetic divergence is
tantalizing, there are several important caveats. For example, it is critical to realize that the
mutation rate to neutral alleles will vary from gene to gene and lineage to lineage, and even from
base to base. For reasons explained in another chapter, silent site changes in the third positions of
codons are more likely to be neutral with respect to fitness, and thus to accumulate at a clocklike
rate, than replacement changes that occur at the first and second positions in codons. And if
allele frequencies change rapidly due to strong selection at a particular gene, it is unlikely that
the mutations involved are accumulating in a clocklike fashion. Finally rates of change calibrated
for a particular gene and lineage are unlikely to work for other groups, which may have different
generation times and selection histories (Martin et al. 1992; Martin and Palumbi 1993; Hillis et
al. 1996). Even if clocklike change occurs in a particular gene and lineage, how can the rate be
determined? Investigators have to rely on the fossil or geological records. The idea is to measure
the genetic distance between two taxa whose divergence date is known from fossil or geological
data and then to use this calibration to date the divergence times of groups that have no fossil
record. As an example of how researchers use molecular clocks to date events, consider work by
Ralf Kittler and colleagues (2003, 2004) on the origin of human body lice Body lice (Pediculus
humanus corporis) are similar to head lice (.
This presentation contains basic information about the mouse being used as a model organism, its genome, how the genome of the mouse was sequenced and a comparison between mouse genome and human genome.
This research article discusses the lateral transfer of group I introns between red and brown algae. The researchers found that a group I intron inserted at position 516 in the small subunit rRNA contained a unique helical insertion in the P5b helix in both bangiophyte red algae and the brown alga Aureoumbra lagunensis, though the host cells are evolutionarily distant. They analyzed the secondary structure and phylogeny of these introns to understand their origin. The highly conserved structure of the insertion suggests it is important functionally, though its specific role is unknown. Their analyses support the scenario that the intron was laterally transferred between red and brown algae after their divergence, rather than being present in
1. The document discusses how zoology provides an essential foundation for understanding modern biological research, like genomics and parasitic diseases. It gives examples of how studying the taxonomy and biology of schistosomes and body lice has helped answer interesting evolutionary questions.
2. It then focuses on schistosomes, parasitic flatworms that cause schistosomiasis. Genomic studies have helped reveal genes involved in the parasite's complex lifecycle and ability to infect different hosts. However, drug resistance requires identifying new drug targets.
3. It also discusses how genomic analysis of the body louse determined that humans began regularly wearing clothing, by tracing the evolutionary divergence of head and body lice.
This document describes a study that analyzed the mitochondrial large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU rRNA) sequences and secondary structures of 10 mollusk species. The researchers determined the complete nucleotide sequences and inferred the secondary structure models for each species. They found substantial length variation among taxa, with gastropods having the shortest lengths. Phylogenetic analysis supported monophyly of several taxa. Most notably, they discovered phylogenetic signal in the secondary structure of mollusk rRNA, with some gastropods uniquely lacking stem/loop structures, explaining much of the observed length variation.
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Halobatidea
1. 'How would you calibrate a molecular clock
for the phylogeny of Hylobatidae and
Hominidae, and what would the results be?
What does the fossil record have to say about
it?'
By: Roya Shariati
The Australian National University (ANU)
2. phylogenetic relationships among these four major groups are still unknown. Most previous studies
have been based on morphology, vocalization, electrophoretic protein evidence, and karotyping and
have differed in their conclusions (Bruce and Ayala, 1979; Creel and Preuschoft, 1984; Geissmann,
1993, 2001; Groves, 1972; Haimoff et al., 1982; Liu et al., 1987; Shafer, 1986).
Although the monophyly of the gibbons
(family Hylobatidae) is widely accepted,
this is not the case for the taxonomy
adopted within the family
.In early studies on gibbon systematics,
the Hylobatidae were grouped into two
distinct genera, including the siamang
(Symphalangus)
on the one hand and all the remaining
gibbons (Hylobates) on the other (e.g.,
Napier and Napier, 1967; Schultz, 1933;
Simonetta, 1957). When gibbons were
studied in more detail,
however, it became clear that four, not
two, major hylobatid divisions needed to
be recognized.
These groups are generally accepted now
as four distinct subgenera (i.e.,
Symphalangus, Nomascus, Bunopithecus,
and Hylobates)
3. Even the use of molecular techniques based mainly on
mitochondrial DNA sequences was not able to resolve the
evolutionary relationships among the gibbon subgenera
Furthermore,
Most molecular studies did not include the subgenus
Bunopithecus and therefore presented an incomplete view on
gibbon evolution.
The mitochondrial control region is known to evolve faster
than other parts of mtDNA and may therefore be more suited
to resolve a radiation which evolved over a short time span
than sequences used in previous studies (Garza and
Woodruff, 1992; Hall et al., 1998)
Therefore determined the DNA sequence of the complete
mitochondrial control region and adjacent phenylalaninetRNA (Phe-tRNA) of the four gibbon subgenera with the
intention of :
1-resolving the evolutionary relationships between the
subgenera and
2-comparing the distances between them with those between
the great ape genera Homo and Pan. (Garza and Woodruff,
1992; Hall et al., 1998; Hayashi et al., 1995; Zehr, 1999;
Zhang, 1997).
4. A New Generic Name for the Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobatidae)
Alan Mootnick1 and Colin Groves
The generic nomen Bunopithecus is not applicable to hoolock gibbons. Groves
(1968),
The concolor gibbons (formerly regarded simply as a species of Hylobates: H.
concolor) were at least as different from Hylobates and Symphalangus as they were
from each other.
Each subgenus has a distinctive karyotype.
The type of Bunopithecus sericu s is outside the range of modern Hylobatidae in its
dental characters.
The anterior fovea is much larger and less sharply demarcated in general, but with a
larger mesial crest; the entoconid is reduced; the hypoconulid is very large
the wide central basin so characteristic of modern gibbons is undeveloped and
encroached on by the surrounding cusps and grooves (Groves 2004), .
5. Five gibbon species representing the four major groups
within the Hylobatidae clade, Hylobates, Hoolock
(Bunopithecus),Symphalangus, and Nomascus, were
studied. All study animals or their parents were identified
by us using fur coloration and vocal characteristicsas
described in Geissmann (1995).
6.
7. Gibbons produce single offspring; twins are
very rare (Dal Pra & Geissmann, 1994;
Dielentheis et al., 1991; Geissmann,
1989).
Gibbon birth weights (mean ± standard
deviations) are 406±55 g (n=7)
for the genus Hylobates, 487±87 g
(n=3)
for Nomascus, and 551±88 g
for Symphalangus (Geissmann &
Orgeldinger, 1995).
The differences in birth weights between
the genera parallel those observed in
adult body weights.
No birth weights are available
for Hoolock but, to judge by adult body
weights, those can be expected be
similar to the birth weights
of Nomascus. Gestation length in all
gibbons appears to be around 7 months
(Geissmann, 1991), but no data are
available for Hoolock.
Ontogeny
8. Genetic Variances
Evolutionary shaping of the human α2- α1globin duplication units by retroposition
of Alu family repeats and
by simple DNA deletion events. The proposed
scheme of evolution has been deduced
from sequence comparison of the
duplication units between human and
gibbon.
The ancestral unit consisted of blocks X, I, IV,
II, Y, and Z.
The evolutionary origin of block III is
uncertain at the present time.
It could belong to the ancestral unit, but was
deleted from the α2-, but not α1-, globin
unit. Alternatively, it could have been
inserted into the α1-globin unit after the
duplication event.
9. Like other hominoids, gibbons exhibit relatively long pre-adult developmental
phases
After tandem duplication, independent
retroposition of different Alu family
repeats into the adult α-globin locus
occurred.
Of the four depicted repeats, Alu1, Alu2,
and Alu3 were inserted in the
human/gibbon ancestor, with the insertion
timing of Alu3 as early as prior to the
separation of gibbon/human from the Old
World monkeys (9, 14).
Alu4 is present in the gibbon lineage,
prior to or after the human/gibbon
divergence is unknown,
since the DNA region containing its
insertion site has been deleted from the
human genome.
10.
11. DNA was extracted from periphereal blood lymphocytes and hair samples (H. hoolock) by the
standard methods outlined in Sambrook et al. (1989) and Walsh et al. (1991), respectively. The
complete mitochondrial control region and adjacent Phe-tRNA from one individual each of H.
(Bunopithecus) hoolock, H. (Nomascus) leucogenys leucogenys, H. (Nomascus) gabriellae, and
H. (Symphalangus) syndactylus and two individuals of H. (Hylobates) lar were PCR-amplified
(Saiki et al., 1988) with the oligonucleotide primers L16007(59CCCAAAGCTAAAATTCTAA39) and H00651 (59-TAACTGCAGAAGGCTAGGACCAAACCT- 39) According to Kocher et
al. (1989), with H and L designating the heavy- and light-strand sequences of the mitochondrial
genome and the numbers indicating the 39 end of the primers according to the human reference
sequence (Anderson et al., 1981).
homo/1-954
CCTGAGTTGTAAAAAACTCCAGTTGACAC..AAAATAGACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAACAT
gorilla/1-949
CCTGAGTTGTAAAAAACTCCAGCTGATAT..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAATAT
chimp/1-949
CCTGAGTTGTAAAAAACTCCAGCTGATAC..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAACAC
bonono/1-950
CCTGAGTTGTAAAAAACTCCAGCTGATAC..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAACAC
pongo/1-953
CCTGAGTTGTAGAAAACTTAAGTTAATAC..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAATAT
gibbon/1-951
TCCAAGTCGTAAAAAACTCTGGCTGCTAT..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAACAC
macaque/1-946
TCTAAACTGT..AAAACCCTAGCTGATGT..AAAATAAACTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAAAGC
monkey/1-958
ACTAAGTTGTGGAAAACTCCAGTTATAGT..GAAATACCCTACGAAAGTGGCTTTAATAT
12. Considering the fast pace of sequence evolution pertaining to the mitochondrial control
region,
Only great ape sequences were taken into account for the sequence comparisons and
phylogenetic analyses. The gorilla (Gorilla gorilla, NC001645) and orang-utan (Pongo
pygmaeus, NC001646) (Horai et al., 1995)
Sequences were excluded from the analyses since both of the sequences exhibit a major
deletion in the mitochondrial control region.
Thus, the herein determined sequences were compared with the homologous sequences
obtained from human (Homo sapiens, NC001807) (Anderson et al., 1981), pygmy
chimpanzee (Pan paniscus, NC001644) (Horai et al., 1995), and common chimpanzee (Pan
troglodytes, X93335) (Arnason et al., 1996).
13. Phylogenetic Analyses
The expected monophylies of both the
Homo–Pan and the gibbon clades are
supported by bootstrap values of
100%.
The Hylobatidae, Nomascus is the
most basal group, followed by
Symphalangus, whereas Bunopithecus
and Hylobates were the last to diverge.
Nomascus as the deepest split is
supported by high bootstrap values in
all three tree reconstruction methods
used.
Results about the relationships among
Bunopithecus, Hylobates, and
Symphalangus are contradictive;
whereas maximum likelihood and
neighbor-joining link Bunopithecus
and Hylobates, maximum-parsimony
groups Bunopithecus with
Symphalangus.
14.
Pure observed sequence distances and not
taking different generation times into
account,
It is obvious that the distances among the
four gibbon subgenera are in the same
range as those between Homo and Pan, or
even higher.
The uncorrected average distances are
10.3%
between
Hylobates
and
Bunopithecus,
10.6%
between
Symphalangus and the Bunopithecus–
Hylobates clade, and 12.8% between
Nomascus and the other three subgenera.
In contrast, the distance between Homo
and Pan is only 9.6%. Based on these
findings, it would be justified to elevate all
four gibbon subgenera to genus rank.
The data depict evolutionary relationships
among the gibbon genera that are
supported by high bootstrap values.
However, more extensive stretches of
mitochondrial and nuclear DNA may need
to be sequenced to definitively establish
the branching order of the four gibbon
clades.
16. The monophyly of the hylobatids and their basal position within the phylogeny of
living Hominoidea are well established top Figure.
The monophyly of the group consisting of the African apes (genera Pan and Gorilla)
and humans (Homo), but excluding the Asian orang-utans (Pongo), is also well
supported.
The term "great apes" does not represent a systematic unit. It is often used to represent
a group consisting of the African apes and the orang-utans, but excluding humans.
These apes have traditionally been united in the family "Pongidae".
This grouping is based on similarity.Humans are more closely related to some of its
members (i.e. the African apes) than to its other members (i.e. the Asian orang-utans),
the great apes do not represent a monophyletic group.
17. In 1967 molecular differences among the
hominoids were transferred to divergence
times by Sarich and Wilson,
‘‘.If man and Old World monkeys last shared a
common ancestor 30 million years ago, then
man and African apes shared a common
ancestor 5 million years ago (Sarich and
Wilson).
The original arguments for recent hominoid
divergences have been supported in other
studies applying local primate calibration
points: the split between Platyrrhini (New
World monkeys) and Catarrhini (Old World
monkeys, great apes, and Homo) set at 35–40
MYBP (Goodman et al. 1998), the split
between Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea
set at 30 MYBP or 25 MYBP (Porter et al.
1997),
and that between Pongo and the lineage leading
to Gorilla/Pan/Homo set at 14–17 MYBP
(Sibley and Ahlquist 1987; Adachi and
Hasegawa1995.
18. Family Hylobatidae
Genus: Hylobates
Genus: Hoolock
Hoolocks
Genus: Nomascus
Characteristics
Small or dwarf
gibbons, lar group
Crested
gibbons, concolor group
Genus: Symphalangus Siamangs
1.
2.
Family Hominidae
Genus: Homo
Humans
Genus: Gorilla
Gorillas
Genus: Pan
Chimpanzees
Genus: Pongo
Orangutans
3.
4.
The Hominoidea share several
primitive characteristics of catarrhine
primates with their sister group, the
Cercopithecoidea ("Old World
monkeys"), including:
As in all catarrhine primates, the
ektotympanic ring is drawn out to
form an external bony auditory
meatus.
The bony palate and the nasal
apertures are relatively broad relativ
broad.
The dental formula in hominoids is
the same as in all other catarrhine
primates: 2.1.2.3 / 2.1.2.3.
19. Photograph of buff cheeked gibbon courtesy of Alan R. Thomson,
copyright The Royal Zoological Society of Scotland.
1. Skull of Hylobates hoolock, white-browed
or hoolock gibbon, from South East Asia
– Bangladesh, Burma, Assam.
2. Skull of Pongo pygmaeus, the Bornean
orang-utan.
3. Skulls of male and female Gorilla gorilla,
the Western gorilla, from Equatorial
Africa.
4. Skull of Pan troglodytes, the common
chimpanzee, from West and Central
Africa.
5. Skulls of Homo sapiens, a human being;
one skull prepared to show brain case.
20. Gibbon skulls (1) are relatively light and there is little difference in the
skulls of males and females, they have the largest canines, relatively
speaking, of all apes.
The skulls of the heavier great apes and humans (2-5) are robust to protect
the brain from damage.
Orangutan skulls (2) slope markedly backwards, unlike the skulls of gorillas
(3) and chimpanzees (4).
The skulls of male gorillas (3) and orangutans are much more heavily built
than the females and also have substantial midline (sagittal) and neck
(nuchal) crests to provide additional attachment surfaces for neck muscles.
The human cranium (5) is smooth-domed and lacks crests; the brain cavity
is very large.
The skull of the chimpanzee (4) is very like a human skull .
21. Molar pattern: Living homioid primates exhibit a simple Y5-pattern in the lower dentition; the upper molars
have 4 cusps with a diagonal crest (crista obliqua). Compared to the Cercopithecoidea, the Hominoidea
exhibit a more primitive molar pattern without bilophodont shearing crests. The lower molars are
distinguished by an enlarged talonid section and by 5 main cusps. If viewed from the lingual side, the grooves
between the cusps take a y-shaped form, which explains the name Y5-pattern.The upper molars are of a more
or less square shape. They are derived from the hypothetical primitve molar pattern of anthropoid primates in
that the originally three-cusped tooth was "upgraded" to a four-cusped tooth through the enlargement of a
minor supplementary cusp (hypoconus), which, however, remained separated from the rest of the occusal
surface by an oblique shearing crest, the crista obliqua.
The anterior lower premolar varies in its form from a long shearing blade in gibbons (sectorial front dentition)
to a two-cusped "molarised" tooth in humans. Most hominoid primates have relatively broad incisors. The
canines are more variable than those of the Cercopithecoidea, both in their shape and in the extent of their
sexual dimorphism.
22. The thorax is broadened and the vertebral column is slightly shifted away
from a dorsal position towards the center of the thoracal cavity. The latter
characteristic is most strongly developed in humans.
The scapulae are shifted away from a position lateral of the thorax to a more
dorsal position, and the claviculae, which connect with the scapulae, are
elongated to match the new position of the latter
23. Various genera of the Catarrhini, sorted by their intermembral
indices (indices from Fleagle, 1999)
Homo
H
72
Chlorocebus
Ce
83
Papio
Ce
95-97
Presbytis
Co 75-78 Miopithecus
Ce
83
Theropithecus
Ce
100
Lophocebus
Ce 78
Ce
83-84 Pan
H
102-106
Colobus
Co 78-79 Macaca
Ce
84100
Gorilla
H
116
Cercopithecus Ce 79-86 Piliocolobus
Co
87
Hylobates
H
126-130
Procolobus
Ce
92
Hoolock
H
129
Semnopithecus Co 80-83 Nasalis
Co
94
Pongo
H
139
Trachypithecus Co 82-83 Pygathrix
Co
95
Nomascus
H
140
Allenopithecus Ce 83
Ce
95
Symphalangus
H
147
Co 80
Cercocebus
Erythrocebus
Mandrillus
Intermembral index = (humerus length + radius length) x 100 / (femur length + tibia length); Abbreviations: Ce=Cercopithecinae, Co=Colobinae,
H=Hominoidea
24. Some vertebral numbers of selected members of the Anthropoidea
(average values, after Schultz, 1961).
25. Ventral view of the rump skeleton of an adult female macaque compared
to selected members of the Hominoidea, all brought to the same size (after
Schultz, 1969, p. 78).
26. · Ischial callosities reduced in size (Hylobatidae) or absent
· Femur with broad condyles.
· Feet with robust big toe (Hallux), excpet in orangutans (genus Pongo
27. Hominoids also differ from
cercopithecoid primates in
several behavioral and
ecological characteristics. It is
often unknown, however,
whether these are derived
hominoid traits or pimitive
anthropoid features.
In general (relative to their body
size) hominoid primates exhibit
a longer gestation period and a
longer maturation period (i.e.
the time until they reach sexual
maturity).
Hominoid social structure is
normally organized around
matrilines, and the females don't
usually stay in their natal
groups. When forageing for
food, several species appear to
adopt a fission-fusionorganisation.
28. Body Size
dwarf gibbons (genus Hylobates) 5-7 kg,
hoolocks (Hoolock) and
crested gibbons (Nomascus) 7-10 kg,
siamangs (Symphalangus) 10-12 kg.
There is virtually no sexual dimorphism in
either the canine teeth or body size.
relatively simple molar teeth with low,
rounded cusps, sectorial front teeth and long,
dagger like canines in both sexes
· short snout, large orbits, relatively wide
inter-orbital distance, globular braincase,
shallow mandibula with broad ascending
ramus
29. o
Thescientificnames Symphalangus a
nd syndactylus both mean 'fingers
that have grown together'.
o In the feet of the siamang, the
second and third digit are actually
joined by connective tissue at the
base. This condition is known as
syndactyly.
o
It occasionally occurs in other
gibbon species, as well, but is quite
rare and the connection is usually
less extensive.
o Gibbons are the only apes, that
consistently
exhibit
ischial
callosities. In addition, the females
have noticeable sexual swellings,
during which the Labiae majorae
undergo cyclic changes in their
colour and form.
30. Locomotion
1. In order to prevent the whole body from rotating with each step during bipedal
2.
3.
4.
5.
walking, a counter-rotation of the upper body in the opposite direction is needed.
In humans, this counter-rotation this takes place in the chest area. In gibbons,
however, this counter-rotation occurs in the hip, which makes the movement look
more awkward.
The complete upright posture observed in humans is possible because of two
curvatures in the spinal column, the so-called lordoses. This brings the body's
center of gravity directly over the bearing area of the feet.
The gibbon lacks these curvatures of the spinal column and achieves a similar
result be bending both his hip-joint and his knee joints when standing upright .
The bended knees further help to cushion the forces of forward locomotion
during walking, whereas humans resolve this by the rolling motion of their feet.
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