Socio-economic development and availability of water are strongly interrelated.
Advances in water related engineering, technology and management have been central to progress in human development.
Today water remains central to many aspects of socio-economic development – key to energy and food production (nexus) and other areas of human endeavor.
Today Water, Climate & Energy is related to every
aspect of human life: social equity, ecosystem & economic
sustainability. Water is used to generate energy; energy is used to
provide water. Water, energy and climate are inextricably linked,
which is of great concern and increasing importance for future.
Global primary energy demand is projected to increase by just
over 50% between now and 2030, which can be met by more
prod., consuming water & other natural resources, adopting
better technologies and also encouraging changes in energy use
pattern. Water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50% by
2025 in developing countries and 18% in developed countries.
The worst fallouts of the climate change are shrinking of water
resources. Climate change acts as an amplifier of the already
intense competition over water & energy sources.
Solving the interlinked challenges of water, energy & climate in
a sustainable manner is one of the fundamental goals of the
present generation. To achieve this, related research and
knowledge should be expanded and discussed with in technical
circles. Technology, innovation a sense of shared responsibility
and political will are factors that bring real solutions to keep pace
with increasing needs. Resolving growing issues will require
better and integrated policy frameworks & political engagement
for all stakeholders within and across water sheds. Leadership
from all parts of society is must for change to happen.
Water: consumption, usage patterns, and residential infrastructure. A compara...JhonPedrazaGarcia
To cite this article: Daniel R. Rondinel-Oviedo & Jaime M. Sarmiento-Pastor (2020): Water:
consumption, usage patterns, and residential infrastructure. A comparative analysis of three regions
in the Lima metropolitan area, Water International, DOI: 10.1080/02508060.2020.1830360
Socio-economic development and availability of water are strongly interrelated.
Advances in water related engineering, technology and management have been central to progress in human development.
Today water remains central to many aspects of socio-economic development – key to energy and food production (nexus) and other areas of human endeavor.
Today Water, Climate & Energy is related to every
aspect of human life: social equity, ecosystem & economic
sustainability. Water is used to generate energy; energy is used to
provide water. Water, energy and climate are inextricably linked,
which is of great concern and increasing importance for future.
Global primary energy demand is projected to increase by just
over 50% between now and 2030, which can be met by more
prod., consuming water & other natural resources, adopting
better technologies and also encouraging changes in energy use
pattern. Water withdrawals are predicted to increase by 50% by
2025 in developing countries and 18% in developed countries.
The worst fallouts of the climate change are shrinking of water
resources. Climate change acts as an amplifier of the already
intense competition over water & energy sources.
Solving the interlinked challenges of water, energy & climate in
a sustainable manner is one of the fundamental goals of the
present generation. To achieve this, related research and
knowledge should be expanded and discussed with in technical
circles. Technology, innovation a sense of shared responsibility
and political will are factors that bring real solutions to keep pace
with increasing needs. Resolving growing issues will require
better and integrated policy frameworks & political engagement
for all stakeholders within and across water sheds. Leadership
from all parts of society is must for change to happen.
Water: consumption, usage patterns, and residential infrastructure. A compara...JhonPedrazaGarcia
To cite this article: Daniel R. Rondinel-Oviedo & Jaime M. Sarmiento-Pastor (2020): Water:
consumption, usage patterns, and residential infrastructure. A comparative analysis of three regions
in the Lima metropolitan area, Water International, DOI: 10.1080/02508060.2020.1830360
What Soil Science can offer, for a Society demanding more food with less wate...NetNexusBrasil
What Soil Science can offer, for a Society demanding more food with less water and energy, reduncing environmental impacts, while our climate is changing?_Jan W Hopmans
_Siagro2014_Embrapa Instrumentação
What Soil Science can Offer, for a Society Demanding more Food with less Wate...NetNexusBrasil
What Soil Science can Offer, for a Society Demanding more Food with less Water and Energy, Reducing Environmental Impacts while our Climate is Changing? SIAGRO 2014 Embrapa Instrumentação - Jan Hopmans
Presentation of the Project "Amazonia:
The Security Agenda: at the Conference "Climate Change and Security at the Crossroads – Pathways to Conflict or Cooperation”, Kristiansand, Norway, June 21th, 2013
In a 250-300 word response, critically examine your personal level o.docxjoyjonna282
In a 250-300 word response, critically examine your personal level of intercultural communication competence. Is it important for you to achieve a certain level of intercultural communication competence? Would enhanced intercultural communication competence help you personally? Professionally? Academically? Include examples in your submission and use at least one resource to support your key points. Respond to at least two of your fellow students' posts.
.
In a 10 –12 page paper, identify and analyze the benefits and challe.docxjoyjonna282
In a 10 –12 page paper, identify and analyze the benefits and challenges that are associated with biometric evidence in the criminal justice system. Include at least 3 techniques in your paper, and use at least 2 case studies to support your position. Consider the following questions when drafting your paper:
How do courts determine if evidence is reliable and valid before allowing it into testimony?
What is the role of the Frye standard or Daubert standard in determining whether or not the courts will accept biometric evidence?
What rules does your state use in this regard?
How reliable is fingerprint evidence? Consider examples of its use in criminal courts.
How do other biometrics compare to the reliability and validity of fingerprint evidence?
What are some of the challenges associated with lower forms of biometrics, such as facial recognition, and acceptance as evidence in court?
What is the role of the expert witness related to biometric evidence in court?
Be sure to provide in-text citation and references
.
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What rules does your state use in this regard?
How reliable is fingerprint evidence? Consider examples of its use in criminal courts.
How do other biometrics compare to the reliability and validity of fingerprint evidence?
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In a 1-2 page Microsoft Word document, discuss the following case st.docxjoyjonna282
In a 1-2 page Microsoft Word document, discuss the following case study:
When Alexander and Deborah married, Alexander owned a duplex in a community property state. They lived in one side of the duplex. They saved their money and bought a lake lot as tenants by the entirety. Deborah failed to pay the loans she took out from Savings Bank prior to her marriage to pay for college. The bank claimed the duplex, the lake lot and their savings.
Discuss the likelihood of success on the bank's claims against the properties.
.
In a 16–20 slide PowerPoint presentation (excluding title and refere.docxjoyjonna282
In a 16–20 slide PowerPoint presentation (excluding title and reference slides) provide information as well as analyze the roles of the following areas in criminal justice leadership strategies and practices:
Organizational culture
Behavioral theory
Planning
Community relations
Your presentation should include, at a minimum, 4 slides, with speaker notes, for each topic.
.
In a 1-2 page Microsoft Word document, using APA, discuss the follow.docxjoyjonna282
In a 1-2 page Microsoft Word document, using APA, discuss the following case study:
When Alexander and Deborah married, Alexander owned a duplex in a community property state. They lived in one side of the duplex. They saved their money and bought a lake lot as tenants by the entirety. Deborah failed to pay the loans she took out from Savings Bank prior to her marriage to pay for college. The bank claimed the duplex, the lake lot and their savings.
Discuss the likelihood of success on the bank's claims against the properties.
.
In a 1-2 page paper, discuss how the government, the media, and the .docxjoyjonna282
In a 1-2 page paper, discuss how the government, the media, and the public affect a health care organization's integration of data. Give specific examples of all three entities influencing the integration of data.
Include at least two research sources in your paper and cite them in a References page at the end in APA format. As in all writing assignments, follow standard mechanics in writing, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Submit your completed assignment to the drop box below. Please check the
Course Calendar
for specific due dates.
.
In 2010, plans were announced for the construction of an Islamic cul.docxjoyjonna282
In 2010, plans were announced for the construction of an Islamic cultural center, named Cordoba House, in lower Manhattan in the vicinity of where the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center occurred. This announcement stirred up a storm of activity by groups and individuals supporting and opposing the proposal, and in early 2011, a plea by the American Center for Law and Justice was entered in the New York State Supreme Court to stop the construction. In this Discussion Board please respond to the following questions:
In 5–6 paragraphs, address the following:
What are the complaints and concerns of those who oppose construction of this building in its proposed location?
Do you agree? Why, or why not?
What are the counter-claims being made by those who support construction of this building in its present location?
Do you agree? Why, or why not?
What is the specific issue in the court case?
What activities (protests, letters to the editor, blog posts, petitions, opinion polls, etc.) are underway related to this issue? Explain.
Do you think these activities are likely to have an impact on the Court’s decision? Why, or why not?
.
In 2011, John Jones, a middle school social science teacher began .docxjoyjonna282
In 2011, John Jones, a middle school social science teacher began a unit on the American election process. He began with an introduction of political parties from the revolution to present day. At the end of the politically-balanced unit, students participated in mock debates as candidates from each party and ultimately held a mock presidential election in his classroom.
After the votes were counted and a winner determined, one of his students asked Mr. Jones who he was planning to vote for in the “real” election. He answered the question in age-appropriate language and, when prompted, explained why. He reminded his students that voting was not only a reflection of personal beliefs, but a responsibility as a citizen of the United States.
When Janie Johnson got home from school that day, she noticed – for the first time – signs in her neighbor's front yards supporting one of the presidential candidates. At dinner she asked her parents who they planned to vote for. Their choice differed significantly from her teacher’s. Janie’s father was quite upset at Janie’s explanation of the other candidate. To him, it was not Mr. Jones’ job as her teacher her to “put those kinds of ideas in her head.” The next day he called the principal demanding that Mr. Jones be removed from the classroom.
You are the principal.
1. What do you tell the father? Why?
2. What, if anything, do you say to Mr. Jones, the teacher? Why?
You are Mr. Jones.
1. Have you done anything wrong?
2. What court case(s) would you cite in your behalf? Be specific. Cite the case name, court ruling, or law.
Answer the following questions:
1. Who was Pickering and why is he important?
2. A teacher speaks out at a rally against FCAT. This is not the first “FIRE FCAT” rally held in this community. Can her statement be protected by the First Amendment? Under what circumstances?
3. A student sees a picture of math teacher James Johnson in his KKK garb that Johnson posts on his facebook page. Can Johnson be fired because of his KKK membership? Why or why not?
4. After their honeymoon Jane Jones and her new husband Jason return to their teaching jobs at JFK Middle School. At lunch that day the principal informs them that one of them must transfer to a new school. Can the principal do this? Why or why not?
Chapter 10 covers several topics, chief among which is teachers’ rights. There are three main court cases which address free speech:
· Pickering v. Board of Education
· Connick v. Myers
· Garcetti v. Ceballos
In order to respond to the questions, you will have to do some research on your own.Ask yourself this question: “Is the employee speaking as a private citizen or as an employee?”
Question 1 : What is the main difference between the Pickering decisions and the Garcetti decision? Where does the Connick decision fit in?
Question 2: A special education teacher complains to his principal that the school is violating federal law in trying to meet the n.
In 5-7 pages (double-spaced,) provide a narrative explaining the org.docxjoyjonna282
In 5-7 pages (double-spaced,) provide a narrative explaining the organization’s origins, ideology, goals & objectives. Include a discussion on the leadership, funding, and capabilities such as physical bases or operating/support location(s), personnel strengths, training programs, and communications methods. Lastly, it would be helpful to provide a description of known and suspected weapons/lethal agents and delivery methods, procedures used in prior attacks, propaganda, surveillance methods, and significant events/dates that may be used in attack planning
.
In 2004 the Bush Administration enacted changes to the FLSA and the .docxjoyjonna282
In 2004 the Bush Administration enacted changes to the FLSA and the way overtime is paid. These changes are said to have impacted millions of working Americans. The Act addresses who and how overtime is paid. It is also felt that more changes are still needed.
Using an Internet search, find the enactment highlights of 2004 and future proposed changes. Who is impacted, positively or negatively? How do you feel this impacts you? Were these changes long overdue, or do you think this is just a way for workers to work more hours without the employer being responsible for premium pay?
.
In 200-250 wordsGiven the rate of technological chang.docxjoyjonna282
*****In 200-250 words****
Given the rate of technological change and global market pressures, there is considerable change and uncertainty in many organizations. Organizational value is determined more by knowledge (intellectual capital) rather than the traditional factors of productions (land, labor and capital).
1.
Review the concept of knowledge management and how human resources can create the conditions for the effective sharing of knowledge within and throughout the organization.
****Please use one reference which includes in-text citation****
.
in 200 words or more..1 do you use twitter if so , how often do.docxjoyjonna282
in 200 words or more..
1/ do you use twitter ?if so , how often do you tweet , and what do you tweet about ? if not , explain why you chose not to participate in this social medium
2/ when you post something online , do you think carefully about what you are about to post and how it might sound to others ? do you and react to your post ? or do you shoot from the hip , writeing whatever comes to mind ? explain
.
In 200 words or more, answer the following questionsAfter reading .docxjoyjonna282
In 200 words or more, answer the following questions
After reading David Mitchel's "Branding in Pop Culture" discuss how pop culture "brand" certain products. Do you find that you gravitate toward one product over another, similar one because of the pop culture branding associated with it? Explain.
.
In 2005, serial killer Dennis Rader, also known as BTK, was arrested.docxjoyjonna282
In 2005, serial killer Dennis Rader, also known as BTK, was arrested and convicted of murdering 10 people in Kansas between the years of 1974 and 1991. Further research this incident using quality and reputable resources.
Write a two to three (2-3) page paper in which you:
Explicate how digital forensics was used to identify Rader as a suspect and lead to more concrete physical evidence.
Describe in detail the digital evidence that was uncovered from the floppy disk obtained from Rader. Discuss why you believe it took so many years to find concrete evidence in order to build a case against Rader.
Explain how the acquisition of digital evidence aided the investigation and whether or not you believe Rader would’ve been a person of interest if the floppy disk evidence wasn’t sent.
Identify the software that was used by the authorities to uncover the evidence and summarize how this software can be used for digital forensics and evidence collection.
Use at least two (2) quality resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and similar Websites do not qualify as quality resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
.
In 2003, China sent a person into space. China became just the third.docxjoyjonna282
In 2003, China sent a person into space. China became just the third country to do so. It sent a spaceship to go around Earth 14 times. It took less than a day. It was very important. China had never tried this before. Most countries do not send people into space. It costs a lot of money. China wanted to show the world that it could do it. China was proud to send people into space.
The trip to space was _________ for them.
.
In 250 words briefly describe the adverse effects caused by exposure.docxjoyjonna282
In 250 words briefly describe the adverse effects caused by exposure to radiation. Include some specific exposure levels associated with these significant health effects. Lastly, give some examples of measured radiation levels associated with the Three Mile Island incident in the U.S. and in the Chernobyl incident in the Soviet Union. Provide your reference source(s). (Wikipedia is not an accepted reference source.)
.
In 2.5 pages, compare and contrast health care reform in two differe.docxjoyjonna282
In 2.5 pages, compare and contrast health care reform in two different states. Your paper should include a minimum of three specific examples of similarities or differences in health care reform in the two states.
Example:
One possibility would be to compare Maine's health care reform in 2003 to Tennessee's 1994 health care reform known as "TennCare."
APA FORMAT
APA REFERENCES
.
In 2014 Virginia scientist Eric Betzig won a Nobel Prize for his res.docxjoyjonna282
In 2014 Virginia scientist Eric Betzig won a Nobel Prize for his research in microscope technology. Since receiving the award, Betzig has improved the technology so that cell functions, growth and even movements can now be seen in real time while minimizing the damage caused by prior methods. This allows the direct study of living nerve cells forming synapses in the brain, cells undergoing mitosis and internal cell functions like protein translation and mitochondrial movements.
Your assignment is to write a Python program that
graphically
simulates viewing cellular organisms, as they might be observed using Betzig’s technology. These simulated cells will be shown in a graphics window (representing the field of view through Betzig’s microscope) and must be animated, exhibiting behaviors based on the
“Project Specifications” below
. The simulation will terminate based on user input (a mouse click) and will include two (2) types of cells,
Crete
and
Laelaps
, (
pronounced
KREET
and
LEE
-
laps
).
Crete
cells should be represented in this simulation as three (3) small green circles with a radius of 8 pixels. These cells move nonlinearly in steps of 1-4 graphics window pixels. This makes their movement appear jerky and random.
Crete
cells cannot move outside the microscope slide, (the ‘
field
’), so they may bump along the borders or even wander out into the middle of the field at times. These cells have the ability to pass “through” each other.
A single red circle with a radius of 16 pixels will represent a
Laelaps
cell in this simulation.
Laelaps
cells move across the field straight lines, appearing to ‘bounce’ off the field boundaries.
Laelaps
sometimes appear to pass through other cells, however this is an optical illusion as they are very thin and tend to slide over or under the other cells in the field of view.
Project Specifications: ====================
Graphics Window
500 x 500 pixel window
White background
0,0 (x,y) coordinate should be set to the lower left-hand corner
Crete
Cells
Three (3) green filled circles with radius of 8 pixels
Move in random increments between -4 and 4 pixels per step
Movements are not in straight lines, but appear wander aimlessly
Laelaps
Cells
One (1) red filled circle with a radius of 16 pixels
Move more quickly than Crete cells and in straight lines
The Laelaps cell should advance in either -10 or 10 pixels per step
TODO #1: Initialize the simulation environment ========================================
Import any libraries needed for the simulation
Display a welcome message in the Python Shell. Describe the program’s functionality
Create the 500 x 500 graphics window named “
Field
”
Set the
Field
window parameters as specified
TODO #2: Create the
Crete
cells –
makeCrete()
========================================
Write a function that creates three green circle objects (radius 8) and stores them in a list
Each entry of the list represents one
Crete
cell
The.
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In 200-300 words - How is predation different from parasitism? What structures and behavior aid the predaceous insect to be successful? Please give an example.
In 200-300 words-
Why is an understanding of metamorphosis crucial to identifying adult insects? Provide examples where knowing development patterns can prevent incorrect identification.
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In 3 and half pages, including a title page and a reference page, di.docxjoyjonna282
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In your discussion include an explanation of methods used to identify the dead when only teeth and bones of the victim are available for examination.
Use materials from the text and/or any outside resources to support your response.
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
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Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
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Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
1. Global Stressors
on Water Quality
and Quantity
Growing population and
wealth will impact sustain-
ability, technology selection,
and governance strategies
related to water issues.
J U L I E BE T H Z I M M E R M A N
YA L E U N I V E R SI T Y
JA M E S R . M I H E L C IC
M IC H IG A N T EC H NOLO GIC A L U N I V E R SI T Y
JA M E S SM I T H
U N I V E R SI T Y OF V I RGI N I A
This inequality is especially critical for Asia, which
has 60% of the world’s population but only 36% of
the world’s water. Water quality in terms of pollutant
loading also is not distributed equally and is related
to the type of use and a country’s level of develop-
ment (Figure 2). Developing countries often have
less capacity to improve water quality and depend
on lower-quality water for a variety of uses, includ-
ing drinking water.
2. To capture an overall picture of a nation’s water
use, researchers calculate the national water foot-
print; this represents the total volume of freshwater
used to produce the goods and services consumed
by a population and the impact of globalization by
F
or more than a decade, the scientific com-
munity as well as nongovernmental orga-
nizations have sought to raise an alarm
concerning the unsustainable use of the
planet’s available water resources (1). Rising
world populations and consumption are inexorably
increasing human demand for domestic, industrial,
and agricultural water. Population and wealth along
with other global stressors will have a direct and
significant impact on the sustainability goals, tech-
nology selection, and governance strategies that are
related to water quality and quantity.
On a global basis, ~70% of freshwater is currently
used for crop irrigation, ~20% for industrial purpos-
es, and ~10% for domestic purposes (2). However, wa-
ter use varies dramatically from one part of the world
to another. Egypt, for example, uses 98% of its water
for irrigation, leaving only ~27 L/capita-day for do-
mestic use. In contrast, the U.S. uses 40% of its water
for irrigation, and domestic water use exceeds 410 L/
capita-day. In refugee camps in Africa and Asia, resi-
dents may receive only 15 L/capita-day for both con-
sumption and hygiene. For comparison, the World
Health Organization defines reasonable access as
the availability of at least 20 L/capita-day from a
source within 1 km of the user’s dwelling (3).
4. consumption; 5). However, some countries have ex-
ternal footprints that account for 50–80% of their to-
tal footprint, whereas other countries—for example,
some countries in Africa—have external footprints
near zero (Figure 3).
Given the current state of global water interde-
pendence, water will become even more critical and
difficult to manage under highly variable future sce-
narios that involve numerous interconnected global
stressors. In this article, we examine the individu-
al and integrated effects of several important stres-
sors on the global water resource: population and
consumption, demographic and land-use changes,
urbanization, and of course climate change, all of
which can contribute to changes in quality, quan-
tity, and availability of water (7). We then explore
the relationships between these stressors and the
design, development, and implementation of tech-
nology and governance strategies for sustainable
water systems in a dynamic world.
Water stressors
Increased stresses on the world’s water are affect-
ing quality, quantity, and availability. Many studies
have predicted that climate change will affect water
supply and use (8–10). Water scarcity felt by 20% of
the 1 billion people who are estimated to experi-
ence shortages by 2025 is projected to be the direct
effect of climate change (11). The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change has summarized impacts
on water resources that are expected by the mid to
late 21st century (Table 1; 12).
According to the best estimates associated with
5. climate change, 75% of the earth’s land area will ex-
perience increases in runoff compared with 1995
F I G U R E 1
Water for people
Global overview of water availability vs population (data from
Ref. 4).
F I G U R E 2
Water quality
Annual biochemical oxygen demand (BoD) loading in global
water-
ways by sector as an indicator for water quality for 1995 and
esti-
mated for 2010 and 2020. the data are compared for
organisation for
Economic co-operation and Development (oEcD) countries and
non-
oEcD countries (4).
BOD loading to waterways by sector
1995 2010 2020
Megatons
0 50 100 150 200
Industry
Household
Agriculture
Industry
7. 5%
Australia and
Oceania
<1%
26% 6%
Europe
8% 13%
11% 13%
Asia
36% 60%
levels, and 25% will experience decreases (8). Higher
variability in precipitation and runoff impacts ero-
sion and sedimentation. This particular impact of
climate will be exacerbated by changes in land use
that result in sedimentation as-
sociated with loss of forested
riparian cover along streams,
filling of wetlands, and agri-
cultural practices. The coast-
al–urban interface is especially
vulnerable to the impact of these
integrated stressors because the
average population density in
these fragile areas is twice the
global average. These exam-
ples demonstrate the complex
8. and unresolved links between
individual stressors. Although
the environmental and human
response to integrated stressors
is still largely unknown, the best
strategy to achieve sustainable
water systems is likely one that
considers the stressors as a sys-
tem with positive and negative
feedback loops, synergies, and
interferences.
Figure 4 depicts trends from
1750 to 2000 of some major
stressors on water quality and
quantity. We note the common
shape to all these stressors and
resulting impacts—it mirrors
the shape of a hockey stick.
Stressors are depicted in Fig-
ures 4a–4f. Two resulting changes that are occur-
ring globally are also illustrated: the use of water
(Figure 4g) and the deterioration of water quality
as indicated by nitrogen loading (Figure 4h). Fig-
F I G U R E 3
Water for trade
National virtual-water balances related to the international trade
of products for 1997–2001. Net exporters are
shown in green, and net importers are shown in red (6).
–100 to –50
–50 to –25
–25 to –10
9. –10 to – 5
–5 to 0
0 to 5
5 to 25
25 to 50
50 to 100
No data
Net virtual-water import (Gm3/yr)
T A B L E 1
Possible impacts of climate change on water resources project-
ed for the mid to late 21st century1
Phenomena and
direction of trends
Likelihood
of future
trends2 Major impact(s)
over most land areas, warmer and
fewer cold days and nights as well
as warmer and more frequent hot
days and nights
Virtually
certain
Effects on water resources that
rely on snowmelt; effects on
some water supplies
Warm spells/heat waves; frequen-
cy increases over most land areas
10. Very likely increased water demand;
water-quality problems (e.g.,
algal blooms)
heavy precipitation events; fre-
quency increases over most areas
Very likely Adverse effects on quality of
surface water and groundwater;
contamination of water supply;
water scarcity may be relieved
Area affected by drought
increases
Likely More widespread water stress
intense tropical cyclone activity
increases
Likely power outages causing disrup-
tion of public water supply
increased incidence of extreme
high sea level (excludes tsunamis)
Likely Decreased freshwater availabili-
ty due to saltwater intrusion
1table spM.1 in Ref. 12.
2these projections are for the 21st centur y and are based on
the special Repor t on Emissions scenarios.
June 15, 20 0 8 / env ironmentA l SCienC e & t eChnology ■
4249
11. ure 4 shows that changes are occurring on a global
scale and, more importantly, that the rate of change
is increasing. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 5, the
spatial scale that will be affected by water-quality
and -quantity challenges is also increasing. That is,
the impacts of the stressors are increasing, and both
the number of locations and the
number of people that will be af-
fected by these stressors in terms
of water quality and quantity are
increasing.
One challenge to both the sci-
entific community and govern-
ments is that the impacts of global
stressors are not independent (Ta-
ble 2). The link between energy
generation from fossil fuels and
climate change is a clear exam-
ple. Previously, we discussed the
impacts that climate change, land
use, and population have on wa-
ter quality in terms of sedimen-
tation. Another example would
be that as the stress of globaliza-
tion progresses, the external wa-
ter footprints of many countries
(the part of the footprint that is
served by other countries) will
become even more significant
because of greater importation
of goods and services. Similarly,
12. as societies develop, they tend to
increase water and energy con-
sumption (13).
The stressors and impacts
of the “hockey-stick world” to
come suggest that we need to
expand our design consider-
ations in infrastructure systems
for water and sanitation, which
typically have useful lifetimes
meant to last for decades (and
often function beyond their de-
signed lifetime). We also need to
acknowledge that the conditions
in which the design will function
over its life cycle will take place
in a world of rapid and increasing
change. Recognition of this inter-
connectedness has led the Afri-
can Development Bank and other
development organizations (14) to
agree that integrating adaptation
responses into development plan-
ning, which includes improve-
ments in water and sanitation,
is an important way to address
climate change impacts on the
poor. For example, is a sanitary
sewer an appropriate technology
in a city that will become water-
scarce by 2025? Sewers require
on average up to 75 L/capita-day,
whereas other sanitation technol-
ogies are available that require no water (15). Sew-
13. ers can also distribute nutrients over a wide spatial
scale, whereas other sanitation technologies can
consolidate nutrients at the community level. And
if a sewer project is deemed appropriate today, what
should the community do to prepare for future ef-
F I G U R E 4
Global water stressors
Global trends over time of stressors (a–f) and the corresponding
trends in water quanti-
ty and quality (g–h). (a–e, g, and h adapted with permission
from Ref. 16; f adapted with
permission from Ref. 13.)
Pe
op
le
(b
ill
io
n)
17
50
18
00
18
50
19
24. 4250 ■ environmentAl SCienCe & teChnology / June 15, 2008
fects of climate change? These questions raise the
issue of how to best meet basic human needs for
water and sanitation, including technology selec-
tion and governance strategies, under increasingly
variable and more water-scarce circumstances. They
also raise broader questions of why we continue to
design solutions that have an extended lifetime with-
out considering the dynamic global conditions and
the increasing rate of change.
Selecting technology in a dynamic world
Science must play a key role in solving present and
future global water problems (20). Although signif-
icant advances have helped address water-quality
and -quantity issues, many challenges still exist for
technology research, development, and implemen-
tation. As these next-generation technologies are
considered, the selection of those for further de-
velopment and implementation ought to consider
a broadened definition of performance to include
improved water quality and quantity as well as en-
ergy and materials consumption, ecosystem func-
tion at the source and sink, life-cycle impacts, and
human-health outcomes.
T A B L E 2
Current status of several global stressors on water resources and
examples of the relation-
ships between individual stressors
Stressor Current situation (13) Link to other stressors
25. Energy and
climate
More than 82% of global ener-
gy demand was met by fossil
fuels in 2004.
co2 levels have risen to 380
ppm from preindustrial levels of
280 ppm.
the global impacts on the water cycle from human development
stressors of
changes in land cover, urbanization, and water-resources
development may
surpass impacts from recent or anticipated climate change (17).
the stressor will result in greater variability in precipitation,
and runoff will af-
fect erosion and sedimentation, which is already impacted by
land use.
population current population is 6.7 billion
with average annual grow th
rate of 1.4%.
of the world’s 33 megacities, 21
are located in coastal areas.
During the next century, most of the 3 billion people added will
live in urban
areas.
Large segments of the population are still impacted by water-
related
26. pathogens; this results in 64.4 million disability-adjusted life
years (also known
as DALYs).
Just achieving the Millennium Development Goal for reducing
hunger will re-
quire a doubling in agricultural water use by 2050. climate-
induced variability
in precipitation and runoff will impact farmers dependent on
rain-fed agricul-
ture to a greater extent.
climate change affects the burden of disease due to
malnutrition, diarrhea,
and vector-borne diseases significantly more than it affects the
risk associat-
ed with flooding or thermal extremes (18).
Land use Approximately 50% of precip-
itation recharges to ground-
water in a natural system,
whereas only 15% recharg-
es in a highly urbanized envi-
ronment.
human changes in land cover
increase runoff and sediment
loading.
current methods of urbanization result in loss of forested
riparian cover along
streams and increased flooding, sedimentation, dredging and
filling of wet-
lands, and eutrophication.
Urbanization only half of the increase of the
27. 100 largest urban areas in the
U.s. from 1970 to 1990 was be-
cause of population grow th.
Average population density in coastal areas is twice the global
average, and
the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems continues to decline.
Nitrogen loading is directly related to the loss of wetlands
within an urban wa-
tershed.
Urbanization leads to heat islands that influence energy use and
climate.
Economic
grow th
By 2025, water withdrawals
are predicted to increase from
current levels by 50% in de-
veloping countries and 18% in
developed countries.
impact includes water used for energy production and increased
use in both
the nonconsumptive domestic sector and the consumptive
industrial sector.
one-half of the jobs worldwide are associated with water-
dependent resourc-
es, such as fisheries, forests, and agriculture (19).
June 15, 20 0 8 / env ironmentA l SCienC e & t eChnology ■
4251
28. Table 3 provides a review of several technological
opportunities and challenges associated with ad-
dressing the impacts of the global water stressors
presented in Figure 4. Design methodologies and
assessments that will adapt to fast rates of change
in stressors and will integrate current and emerging
global stressors need to be developed.
Developing governance strategies for a dynamic
world
As with technolog y designs and selections, gover-
nance strategies should account for the dynamic
global condition. These strategies, which will inf lu-
ence human behavior regarding water consump-
tion and use, need to be able to support sustainable
water systems under the scenario of multiple stres-
sors and rapid rates of change. Governance strat-
egies can have a significant inf luence over which
technologies are pursued and on the amount of
water consumed, recycled, and discharged and
by whom.
For example, water-allocation systems are chal-
lenged by droughts, which can adversely affect hu-
man and natural systems. To address this problem,
drought-management mechanisms have been insti-
tuted in jurisdictions around the world. Historically,
these mechanisms have involved a crisis-manage-
ment or reactive approach. An important trend dur-
ing the past decade in places such as the U.S. has
been a shift to a more proactive approach, empha-
sizing drought preparedness and local involvement
(26–28). Water managers traditionally have main-
tained that consumers do not respond to price sig-
29. nals, so demand management has occurred most
frequently through restrictions on specific water
uses (i.e., banning car washing and lawn irrigation)
and requirements for the adoption of specific tech-
nologies. In theory, raising prices to bring about wa-
ter conservation is less costly than implementing a
command-and-control approach, even if the prices
in question are inefficient (29).
This example demonstrates the potential for ex-
panded opportunities for governance options to
encourage desired behavior in terms of water use;
however, it also raises issues about setting the ap-
propriate pricing scheme, because adjustments in
cost may mean that certain segments of society or in-
dustry are “priced out” of the market, affecting local
economic development. It also raises issues of fair-
ness, because much of the global population is not
currently served by adequate water sanitation and
will need access to clean water to improve hygiene.
Again, it is imperative to include considerations of
sustainability outcomes and dynamic conditions
when establishing long-term policies, that is, water
allocation strategies, that can significantly influence
water quality and quantity.
A review of several governance opportunities
and challenges that can inf luence behavior and,
subsequently, the human-dominated water stres-
sors (Figure 4) is provided in Table 4. Like techno-
logical solutions, governance strategies established
to address human behavior and water quality and
quantity must also consider how the incentivized
actions will relate to desired behavior under future
conditions.
30. Conclusions
One challenge to solving global water problems is
the large number and integrated impact of global
stressors such as population and consumption, de-
mographic and land-use changes, urbanization, and
climate change. Another challenge is the rapid rate
of change projected for all of these stressors and their
resulting impacts, which are expected to accelerate
even further over the next century. The large num-
ber of stressors, their unknown interrelations, and
the observed rapid change must all be considered
when selecting and adapting new technology and
governance structures for sustainable water and
sanitation systems.
Julie Beth Zimmerman is an assistant professor of green
engineering jointly appointed to the environmental en-
gineering program and the School of Forestry and Envi-
4252 ■ environmentAl SCienCe & teChnology / June 15, 2008
F I G U R E 5
Freshwater concerns
Freshwater stress by country (top map) in 1995 and
(bot tom map) projected for 2025 (13).
People suffering from
water stress and scarcity
Water withdrawal
as percentage of
total available
Population projections
1995
32. Desalination More than 15,000 desalination plants
operate in >125 countries, with a total
daily capacity of 32.4 million m3 of
water (21).
significant energy demands are required (e.g., a reverse-osmosis
plant needs 1.5 –2.5 kWh of electricity to produce 1 m3 of
water).
Emissions from brine effluent
Large global population located in water-stressed areas cannot
afford the technology.
Long-distance
water transfer
Water needs of southern california re-
quire 770 mi of pipes and canals, 34
reservoirs, 20 pumping plants, 3 pump-
generating plants, and 5 hydroelectric
power plants.
Embodied energy and materials associated with transferring wa-
ter and wastewater long distances are large over the life cycle.
Water transfer can impact hydrology of local ecosystems at both
the source and sink.
Design of distributed wastewater treatment systems that con-
serve water resources, nutrients, and biogas potential within the
watershed (22)
Water reclamation
and reuse
33. Water-reuse capacity is expected to
increase globally from 19.4 to 54.5 mil-
lion m3/day by 2015 (23).
Matching demand and supply as they relate to quality of treated
water for a particular use and geographical location
Water efficiency/
substitution in en-
gineering design
industrial and agricultural sectors rep-
resent >80% of global water consump-
tion (24).
Large water footprints in agriculture are caused by
inappropriate
water pricing, subsidies, inefficient technology, and the lack of
water-saving measures (5).
Decreasing embodied (virtual) water associated with process or
product through disruptive or “leapfrog” innovations
Appropriate water
technologies
point-of-use treatment technologies
provide a barrier to pathogen exposure
and are a possible solution when cen-
tralized systems are ineffective or in-
appropriate (25).
health improvement studies have largely ignored nondiarrhea
water-borne diseases (e.g., typhoid, hepatitis A) and water-
washed diseases (e.g., trachoma).
34. Does not provide as many nonhealth benefits compared with
source improvements, and noneconomic factors (e.g.,
compatibil-
ity, complexity) need to be integrated with adoption.
June 15, 20 0 8 / env ironmentA l SCienC e & t eChnology ■
4253
ronmental Studies at Yale University, and she serves as
the associate director for research at the Center for Green
Chemistry and Green Engineering at Yale. James R. Mi-
helcic is a professor of civil and environmental engineer-
ing at Michigan Technological University and serves as
the director of the master’s international program in en-
gineering. James Smith is a professor of environmental
and water resources engineering in the department of
civil and environmental engineering at the University
of Virginia. Address correspondence about this article
to Zimmerman at [email protected]
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T A B L E 4
Examples of governance and economic issues associated with
managing water
Governance
strategy Opportunities and challenges
39. technology
incentives
interventions by governments through funding, purchase
commitments, regulatory driv-
ers, and voluntary programs can influence the success or failure
of a given technology.
Decisions to support certain technologies should consider
performance under current and
future conditions that integrate multiple stressors and
acknowledge the rapid changes in
stressors.
Water valuation population and other stressors will increase
demand for water, which is currently underval-
ued relative to other scarce natural resources. increases in
population and wealth will shif t
demand among agricultural, industrial, and domestic sectors in
many parts of the world;
this will affect land use, energy demand, and climate change
and, in turn, will impact water
quantity, quality, and availability. of ten much of the value of
water is unaccounted for in the
price (30).
Full-cost water assessments require that the value be related to
economic, environmental,
and social (including health) benefits. By using the full cost of
water to influence prices, the
market can potentially contribute to sustainable water systems
through innovations in effi-
ciency, water substitution, and conservation to avoid higher
costs. this will reduce the im-
pacts of individual and combined stressors, thereby reducing
demand.
40. Gray water
regulations
Establishing dual water-quality standards (drinking water vs
service water) can significant-
ly enhance the adoption rate of water-recovery and -reuse
systems. Because of the grow-
ing drivers for conservation, an opportunity exists to quantify
the risks and benefits of
water-reuse systems, define the appropriate scale, and develop
regulations to support im-
plementation. Management of gray water provides an
opportunity to bet ter manage nu-
trients primarily found in black water and to integrate the gray
water resource with local
agricultural activities. this can mitigate several stressors,
including those related to pro-
viding food for a growing population through agriculture and
land-use changes, by reduc-
ing the demand for freshwater and the energy related to water
treatment through recycling
and reuse.
4254 ■ environmentAl SCienCe & teChnology / June 15, 2008
CENE 599 – Rural Water / Wastewater
Spring 2016
Study Guide
Stressors on Global Water Quality and Quantity
41. Zimmerman, et al., 2008
1) What is a national water footprint?
2) Water use is often measured in units of volumes consumed
per time, what is another way to
measure water use that is mentioned in the paper? Name an
example of an indicator for this
alternative measure.
3) Which continent has the most water availability per capita?
Which has the least?
4) What is virtual water?
5) Name some continents and/or regions in which most nations
are generally strong importers of
virtual water.
6) Name some nations that do not reflect the greater regional
trend surrounding them concerning
the importation/exportation of virtual water.
7) Are water withdrawals in 2025 projected to increase more
within the developed or developing
world?
8) As a whole, is the greatest portion of BOD loading to
waterways from industrial, residential, or
42. agricultural sectors? Are the same trends relating the three true
for OECD vs Non-OECD
countries as a whole?
9) What are the main stressors discussed in the paper, and is it
best to think of these stressors as
integrated with each other or not?
10) What are the most likely major impacts of climate change
on water availability described in
Table 1?
11) Why is the coastal-urban interface especially sensitive to
the integrated stressors mentioned in
the paper, and in general what has been the characteristic shape
of all global water stressors?
12) According to the “low” projection in Figure 5; how many
people will be affected by water
scarcity and stress in 2050? How many face water scarcity and
stress as of 1995?
13) Name a potential benefit accompanying a likely climate
change impact mentioned in Table 1.