Many flower-visiting insects and other animals are engaged in a remarkable mutually beneficial interaction with the plants whose flowers they frequent. These animals are pollinators. As bees, butterflies and other pollinators forage for resources found within the flowers, such as pollen (a source of protein and lipids), nectar (mostly a source of sugars but also containing free amino acids and other compounds as well as microbes) or more rarely oils, scents or resins, their bodies contact the sexual organs of the plants.

1. WELCOME

2. 2
Bee pollinators
Leaf cutter bee
Rock bee
Bumble bee
Amegilla bee
Stingless bee
Italian bee
Indian bee
Mining bee

3. 3
Non bee pollinators !!!
Moth
Beetle
Bat
Squirrel
Snail Butterfly
Bird
Hover fly

4. Global crop pollinators-not just bees!
4
SHARANABASAPPA M. GANGANALLI
2018-21-046
Department of Agricultural Entomology

5. Content 5
Pollinators - an introduction
Abiotic agents of pollination
Biotic agents of pollination
Invertebrates and vertebrates
Conservation strategies
Summary & conclusion

6. Pollinators - an introduction
6
 Pollen transfer in cross pollinated plants - external agents
• Pollination by abiotic and biotic agents
Abiotic agents
 Inanimate physical forces
 Pollination generally random
Biotic pollination
 Animals (zoophily)
 Pollination highly accurate

7. …Pollinators
7
 Food crops - animal pollination (75%)
 Abiotic and self-pollination (25 %)
(Klein et al., 2007)
Economic value
€ 153 billion annually
9.5% of world agricultural production
(Gallai et al., 2009)

8. …Pollinators 8
 Animal pollinated crops - 1/3rd of human diet
(Klein et al., 2007)
(Ollerton et al., 2011)
Mean proportion of animal pollinated plant species

9. 9
Pollination services (€bn)
% Global pollination
(FAO, 2014)
…Pollinators

10. Abiotic agents of pollination 10
Anemophily
 Wind pollination
 Many plant families including crop plants
 Rice, wheat, maize, coconut, cashew, walnut,
pistachios, Pinus etc.
 Effective anemophily requires dry weather
 Common in low land tropical environments
and temperate deciduous forests
(Roubik, 1995)
Pinus
Rice

11. Hydrophily
11
 Water pollination
 Colour, nectar and scent absent
 Pollen grains - light,sticky, covered with
wax
 Stigma - funnel shaped
 Epihydrophily - pollination on surface of
water (Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Elodea)
(Ackerman, 2000)
…Abiotic agents
Vallisneria spp.

12. …Abiotic agents
12
Geophily
• Pollination by gravity
• Self-pollinated plants
• Some pollen fall down on receptive
stigma of other flowers
• Unreliable, rare and insignificant
(Roubik, 1995) Maize

13. Biotic agents
13
Animal pollination
 Mutually beneficial interaction
 Plants - pollen transfer, reproduction
 Pollinators - pollen, nectar, oils, scents, resins
 Major role in evolution/ speciation
 Pollination mutualism
 Specialized/obligate (figs- fig wasps; yuccas-yucca moths)
 Generalized - many different animals as pollinators

14. Fig - fig wasp association
14
 Figs- capri (non-palatable) and smyrna fig (edible)
 Capri fig - syconia with male flowers and short styled
female flowers
 Smyrna fig - long styled pistillate flowers
 Pollination by fig wasp - caprification
Smyrna fig Syconium Blastophaga psenes

15. …. Fig-fig wasp association
15
 Wasp breeds in capri fig
 Adult females leaves capri fig dusted with pollen - enters
smyrna fig for oviposition, fails to lay eggs
 Fig orchards in California - capri fig hanged @ 25 fruits/tree
 1 kg capri fig costs $10
Capri figs to be hanged in
smyrna fig orchards
Blastophaga psenes on fig
(Hymenoptera: Agaonidae)

16. Animal pollinators - classification
16
 Insects (Entomophily)
 Snails & slugs (Malacophily)
 Bats (Chiropterophily)
 Birds (Ornithophily)
 Other animals
Invertebrate pollinators Vertebrate pollinators

17. Insect pollinators 17
 Entomophily
 Common type - more diverse
 Diurnal pollinators - bees, flies, butterflies, beetles, wasps,
ants etc.
 Nocturnal pollinators - moths
 Visit flowers - nectar, pollen, shelter, oviposition etc.
(USDA, 2019)
Bee Beetle Fly Moth

18. Adaptations in entomophilous flowers 18
 Flowers - attractive, large, brightly coloured
 Red, scarlet, blue, yellow (day); white (night)
 Some flowers scented (rose, jasmine etc.)
 Unpleasant odour - attracts flies (Rafflesia - rotten meat)
 Pollen - rough, sticky, spinous outgrowths - sticks to body
(USDA, 2019)
Rafflesia spp. Jasmine
Honey bee

19. Proportion of total national GDP arising from insect-pollinated crops for
selected countries and global average
19
(FAO, 2014)
...Entomophily

20. Types of entomophily
20
 Melittophily (bee pollination)
 Cantharophily (beetle & weevil pollination)
 Myophily (fly pollination)
 Psychophily (butterfly pollination)
 Phalaenophily (moth pollination)
 Myrmecophily (ant pollination)
(Simpson, 2010)

21. Melittophily
21
• Flowers - colourful, and fragrant
• Specialized colour pattern and structure (nectar guide)
• Nectar guide - petal or corolla lobes modified as landing
platforms for bees - gather nectar or pollen
• Mango, apple, citrus, carrot, onion etc.
Honey bee on onion
Honey bee on citrus
Honey bee on apple

22. 22
Megachilidae Apidae Andrenidae
Colletidae Halictidae Melittidae
…Melittophily

23. Contribution of different insect groups
to pollination
23
(Rader et al., 2015)

24. Cantharophily 24
 Ancestral type in angiosperms
 Araceae, Palmae, Annonaceae
 Flowers - fruity or foul odor
 Cycad cones produce heat - disperse odor
(Shivadasan & Sabu, 1989)
 African oil palm weevil - obligate pollinator
Cycad Beetle pollination

25. …Cantharophily 25
Effectiveness of African oil palm weevil
Malaysia (Introduced in 1980)
 Established nationwide within few years
 Fruit set improved, yield increased by 20 %
• Reduced need for assisted pollination
(Ponnamma, 1999)
India (Introduced in 1985)
 Increased fruit set (36.87 to 56.10 %)
 Bunch weight increased by 40 %
 Fruit number increased by 11 %
(Dileepan and Nampoothiri, 1989)
Elaedobius kamerunicus
Oil palm

26. …Cantharophily
26
Meloidae Elateridae Coccinellidae
Buprestidae Cantharidae Scarabaeidae

27. Myophily 27
 Flowers - maroon or brown in color
 Emits fetid odor (rotting flesh)
 Arum lily emits dung/urine smell - attracts dung breeding insects
- do not reward pollinators - fooled (Urru et al., 2010)
 Biting midge pollinates cacao (Frimpong-Anin et al., 2014)
Arum lily
Forcipomyia squamipennis
Ceratopogonidae
Cacao flowers

28. 28
Bombyliidae Syrphidae Sarcophagidae
Cecidomyiidae Chloropidae Tipulidae
…Myophily

29. …Myophily
29
(Jauker and Wolters, 2008)
Objective - Pollination efficiency of Episyrphus balteatus on
oilseed rape (Brassica napus)
Study area - Central Hesse (Germany) during 2004 & 2005

30. …Myophily 30
…Hover flies are efficient pollinators of rapeseed
 Field experiment: plot size 1.5 x 1.5 m
 Treatment: 25 flies/cage; 12 flies/cage, control
 Hover flies significantly increased number of seeds per pod
Number of seeds per pod
c. control; b. low density treatments;
a. high-density treatments
(Jauker and Wolters, 2008)
Episyrphus spp.

31. Psychophily 31
• Flowers - colorful, fragrant, without nectar guides
• Flowers have long, nectar-filled tubes or spurs
• Insects acquire nectar with long proboscis
• Ornamental plants and flowering trees
Orange sulphur butterfly on Caesalpinia pulcherrima

32. 32
Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Hesperiidae
Pieridae Papilionidae
…Psychophily

33. Phalaenophily
33
• Flowers - large, white, fragrant without nectar guides
• Yucca - exclusively pollinated by yucca moths
• Darwin’s orchid - hawk moth co-evolution
Yucca moths
visiting flowers
Yucca plant Yucca moth
Tegeticula maculata

34. Darwin’s orchid- sphinx moth co-evolution
34
 Darwin’s orchid/star orchid, Angraecum sesquipedale - long
nectar tube (11”)
 Moth pollinator - Xanthopan morganii praedicta
 As orchid nectar tube grew longer - moth with longer
proboscis survived (35 cm)
Xanthopan morganii
Sphingidae
Moth on star orchid
Star orchid

35. 35
Uraniidae
Noctuidae
Sphingidae
…Phalaenophily

36. Myrmecophily 36
 Pollination by ants - rare
 Occurs with low growing and inconspicuous flowers
(Delnevo et al., 2020)

37. …Myrmecophily 37
…Pollen adaptation to ant pollination
 Conospermum (Proteaceae) - endemic to Australia
 Flower opens when insect applies pressure with
mouthparts at base of style
 Ants play significant role in pollination
 Pollen germination rate - 80 % after contact with ants
Conospermum sp. Leioproctus conospermi
Ant pollination
(Delnevo et al., 2020)

38. Malacophily 38
(Sarma et al., 2007)
Graceful awl snail
Lamellaxis gracile
Volvulopsis nummularium
• Rare and obscure phenomenon
• Morning glory - flower opens at morning, last for half a day
• Snails - exclusive pollinators on rainy days

39. Chiropterophily
39
2. Olfactory cues
1. Echolocation system
(Helversen et al., 2002)
Long-tongued Bat
(Glossophaga soricina)
Vertebrate pollinators

40. 40
(Helversen et al., 2002)
…Chiropterophily

41. 41
Fruit bats (Pteropodidae) Leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomatidae)
…Chiropterophily

42. 42
Mynah
(Sturnidae)
Humming bird
(Trochilidae)
Ornithophily
(Balasubramanian, 2012)
Sun bird
(Nectariniidae)
White eye
(Zosteropidae)
• Flowers - big, brightly coloured, odourless
• Red, orange, purple etc.
• Flower shape - tubular, cup like, funnel like etc.
• Large quantities of pollen and nectar

43. Avian flower visitors of Helicteres isora
43
(Manikandan and Kunhikannan, 2016)

44. Other animals as pollinators
Pollinators Crop/plant Reference
Masked palm civet:
Paguma larvata
(Viverridae)
Velvet bean: Mucuna
birdwoodiana
(Fabaceae)
Kobayashi et al.
(2019)
Squirrels
(Callosciurus erythraeus
Tamiops maritimus): F-
Sciuridae
velvet bean: Mucuna
macrocarpa (Fabaceae)
Kobayashi et al.
(2016)
Cape rock elephant-
shrew: Elephantulus
edwardii
(Macroscelididae)
Pagoda lily: Whiteheadia bifolia
(Hyacinthaceae) Wester (2010)
Lizard: Podarcis lilfordi
(Lacertidae)
tree spurge: Euphorbia
dendroides (Euphorbiaceae)
Traveset and Saez
(1997)
Pygmy possum:
Cercartetus nanus
(Burramyidae)
Waratah:
Telopea speciosissima
(Proteaceae)
Carthew and
goldingay (1997)
44

45. …Other animals as pollinators
45
Paguma larvata Callosciurus erythraeus Elephantulus edwardii
Cercartetus nanus
Podarcis lilfordi

46. Pollinators are on decline!!!
46
(CBD, 2018)

47. Factors responsible for pollinator decline
47
(CBD, 2018)

48. Conservation of pollinators
 Educating public on pollinator diversity, services and need
 Establishment of pollinator gardens and retreats to
encourage bee and non-bee pollinators
 Selective use of pesticides
 Habitat management - foraging, nesting sites
 Rehabilitation of degraded lands and afforestation with
nectar/pollen plants
 R & D on non-bee pollinators
 Formulate agricultural policy
48
(Dar et al., 2011)

49. Organizations and projects
49
 Pollinator Conservation Association in Western New York
 Bees for Development, United Kingdom
 BEES for the World, Germany
 Federation of Nepal Beekeepers, Nepal
 Pesticide Action Network Europe, Belgium
 Pollinator Partnership Canada, Canada
(EcoWatch - 03 sep, 2020)

50. …Organizations and projects
50
 Purple Hive Project, Australia
 Slovenian Beekeepers Association, Slovenia
 The Bee Girl Organization, United States
 World Bee Project, England
 Under the Mango Tree, India
(EcoWatch - 03 sep, 2020)

51. Summary
51
 Pollinators - Abiotic and Biotic agents
 Abiotic - Anemophily, hydrophily, geophily
 Animal pollination - obligate and generalised mutualism
 Fig and fig wasp mutualism
 Invertebrate pollination - entomophily and malacophily
 Entomophily - melittophily, cantharophily, myophily,
psychophily, phalaenophily, myrmecophily
 Pollination of oil seed by African oil seed weevil

52. …Summary
52
 Hoverfly pollination in oil seed rape
 Darwin’s orchid - hawk moth co-evolution
 Pollen adaptation to ant pollination in Conospermum
 Vertebrate pollination - chiropterophily, ornithophily and
small mammals
 Echoes of flowers guiding nectar feeding bats
 Pollination decline and conservation strategies

53. Conclusion
53
The contributions by pollinators other than bees have been
little explored despite their potential to contribute to crop
production and stability. The greater appreciation of their
importance globally is key to conserve their populations for
maintaining biodiversity and sustainable crop production.

54. 54