From obtained equations of structure (integrability conditions of continuum equations) the elemental noninertial reference frames (NRF) are investigated: relativistic global uniformly accelerated Born’s hard NRF, relativistic Born’s rigid uniformly rotating RF free of horizon, rigid vortex-free spherically symmetrical NRF. All these systems are not described in Minkowski space. Riemann space-time of these RF does not directly connect with general theory of relativity (GR). However the exact equations of structure restrict the possibilities of application of the Einstein's equations.
In this paper, the underlying principles about the theory of relativity are briefly introduced and reviewed. The mathematical prerequisite needed for the understanding of general relativity and of Einstein field equations are discussed. Concepts such as the principle of least action will be included and its explanation using the Lagrange equations will be given. Where possible, the mathematical details and rigorous analysis of the subject has been given in order to ensure a more precise and thorough understanding of the theory of relativity. A brief mathematical analysis of how to derive the Einstein’s field’s equations from the Einstein-Hilbert action and the Schwarzschild solution was also given.
The document discusses Einstein's field equations and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It begins by providing background on Einstein's field equations, which relate the geometry of spacetime to the distribution of mass and energy within it. It then discusses some key mathematical aspects of the field equations, including their nonlinear partial differential form. Finally, it notes that the field equations can be consolidated with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to provide a unified description of gravity and quantum mechanics.
Evaluation of post-Einsteinian gravitational theories through parameterized p...Nicolae Sfetcu
Right after the elaboration and success of general relativity (GR), alternative theories for gravity began to appear. In order to verify and classify all these theories, specific tests have been developed, based on self-consistency and on completeness. In the field of experimental gravity, one of the important applications is formalism. For the evaluation of gravity models, several sets of tests have been proposed. Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism considers approximations of Einstein's gravity equations by the lowest order deviations from Newton's law for weak fields.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25994.82881
The singularities from the general relativity resulting by solving Einstein's equations were and still are the subject of many scientific debates: Are there singularities in spacetime, or not? Big Bang was an initial singularity? If singularities exist, what is their ontology? Is the general theory of relativity a theory that has shown its limits in this case?
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22006.45124/1
This document provides an overview of research on multi-metric gravity theories. It begins by introducing linear massive gravity and how it generates an extra ghost degree of freedom. Developments in nonlinear massive gravity and bi-metric gravity resolved this by introducing interaction terms between the metrics. The document then discusses proposals for tri-metric and multi-metric gravity, but notes the ghost problem remains unresolved in tri-metric gravity. It proceeds to analyze the Hamiltonian of an example tri-metric gravity theory to investigate the presence of ghosts. Finally, it contrasts metric and vielbein formulations of multiple interacting spin-2 fields.
A unification of gravity with electromagnetism and quantumJeffrey Huang
It is known that there is an incompatibility issue between general relativity and quantum mechanics. This paper shows that it is possible to resolve the conflict by deriving gravitational acceleration using a generalized fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that governs the motion of all particles (bosons and fermions). The new theory of gravity makes predictions at the cosmic scale which can be easily verified using existing astrophysics data where general relativity failed to do. It can restore Newtonian gravity as a low speed, quasi-static limit and Einstein’s general relativity as the classical limit at the macroscopic scale. The later includes restoring general relativity’s key concept, the metric tensor and its key equation, the geodesic equation. Curved spacetime is just the manifestation of the quantum motion equation, rather than being the cause of gravity. The new theory makes almost the same predictions as Einstein’s general relativity on gravitational time dilation, gravitational light bending, the extra precession of the perihelion of Mercury, and gravitational waves where the small differences between the two theories are beyond the power of any existing apparatus to detect.
Gravity in general relativity and Einstein-Cartan-Sciama-Kibble theory is summarized. In general relativity, gravity is described using a symmetric connection and Riemannian geometry. The Einstein field equations relate the Ricci tensor and scalar to the stress-energy tensor. In ECSK theory, the connection is non-symmetric due to the inclusion of torsion. This leads to modifications in the covariant derivative, curvature, and Einstein field equations compared to general relativity. ECSK theory aims to extend general relativity to combine macroscopic and microscopic scales.
In this paper, the underlying principles about the theory of relativity are briefly introduced and reviewed. The mathematical prerequisite needed for the understanding of general relativity and of Einstein field equations are discussed. Concepts such as the principle of least action will be included and its explanation using the Lagrange equations will be given. Where possible, the mathematical details and rigorous analysis of the subject has been given in order to ensure a more precise and thorough understanding of the theory of relativity. A brief mathematical analysis of how to derive the Einstein’s field’s equations from the Einstein-Hilbert action and the Schwarzschild solution was also given.
The document discusses Einstein's field equations and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It begins by providing background on Einstein's field equations, which relate the geometry of spacetime to the distribution of mass and energy within it. It then discusses some key mathematical aspects of the field equations, including their nonlinear partial differential form. Finally, it notes that the field equations can be consolidated with Heisenberg's uncertainty principle to provide a unified description of gravity and quantum mechanics.
Evaluation of post-Einsteinian gravitational theories through parameterized p...Nicolae Sfetcu
Right after the elaboration and success of general relativity (GR), alternative theories for gravity began to appear. In order to verify and classify all these theories, specific tests have been developed, based on self-consistency and on completeness. In the field of experimental gravity, one of the important applications is formalism. For the evaluation of gravity models, several sets of tests have been proposed. Parameterized post-Newtonian formalism considers approximations of Einstein's gravity equations by the lowest order deviations from Newton's law for weak fields.
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.25994.82881
The singularities from the general relativity resulting by solving Einstein's equations were and still are the subject of many scientific debates: Are there singularities in spacetime, or not? Big Bang was an initial singularity? If singularities exist, what is their ontology? Is the general theory of relativity a theory that has shown its limits in this case?
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22006.45124/1
This document provides an overview of research on multi-metric gravity theories. It begins by introducing linear massive gravity and how it generates an extra ghost degree of freedom. Developments in nonlinear massive gravity and bi-metric gravity resolved this by introducing interaction terms between the metrics. The document then discusses proposals for tri-metric and multi-metric gravity, but notes the ghost problem remains unresolved in tri-metric gravity. It proceeds to analyze the Hamiltonian of an example tri-metric gravity theory to investigate the presence of ghosts. Finally, it contrasts metric and vielbein formulations of multiple interacting spin-2 fields.
A unification of gravity with electromagnetism and quantumJeffrey Huang
It is known that there is an incompatibility issue between general relativity and quantum mechanics. This paper shows that it is possible to resolve the conflict by deriving gravitational acceleration using a generalized fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that governs the motion of all particles (bosons and fermions). The new theory of gravity makes predictions at the cosmic scale which can be easily verified using existing astrophysics data where general relativity failed to do. It can restore Newtonian gravity as a low speed, quasi-static limit and Einstein’s general relativity as the classical limit at the macroscopic scale. The later includes restoring general relativity’s key concept, the metric tensor and its key equation, the geodesic equation. Curved spacetime is just the manifestation of the quantum motion equation, rather than being the cause of gravity. The new theory makes almost the same predictions as Einstein’s general relativity on gravitational time dilation, gravitational light bending, the extra precession of the perihelion of Mercury, and gravitational waves where the small differences between the two theories are beyond the power of any existing apparatus to detect.
Gravity in general relativity and Einstein-Cartan-Sciama-Kibble theory is summarized. In general relativity, gravity is described using a symmetric connection and Riemannian geometry. The Einstein field equations relate the Ricci tensor and scalar to the stress-energy tensor. In ECSK theory, the connection is non-symmetric due to the inclusion of torsion. This leads to modifications in the covariant derivative, curvature, and Einstein field equations compared to general relativity. ECSK theory aims to extend general relativity to combine macroscopic and microscopic scales.
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity interpreted in terms of a polarizable quantum vacuum. Electromagnetic wavelength increase corresponds to apparent time dilation while a frequency increase corresponds to an apparent space contraction as a result of a spectral energy density gradient.
Four Laws of Inertia in ‘variable’ Spacetime FieldIJMERJOURNAL
1. The document proposes four laws of inertia in a variable spacetime field.
2. The first law explains that inertia is caused by the resistance of the spacetime field when mass is accelerated, distorting the field and creating an inertial force opposite to the applied force.
3. The second law relates energy to the spacetime field. The third law explains the origin of inertia and gravity as being two manifestations of the same spacetime field.
4. The four laws aim to provide a unified explanation of inertia and gravity based on their relationship to a quantum spacetime field that can vary in intensity.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a renowned German-born physicist who developed the theory of general relativity and special relativity. Some of his key contributions include developing the general theory of relativity, one of the pillars of modern physics, and his mass-energy equivalence formula E=mc2, which demonstrated that mass and energy are the same physical entity and can be changed into one another. He showed that the laws of physics are the same for all observers regardless of their motion or frame of reference.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) developed the theories of special and general relativity. Special relativity, published in 1905, established that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference and that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. General relativity, published in 1915, introduced gravitation as a result of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass and energy. One of Einstein's most famous equations is E=mc2, which shows that mass and energy are equivalent and interconvertible.
The objective of this paper is to propose an approach to the unification of physics by attempting
to construct a physical worldview which can be used as the context for a unified physical theory.
The underlying principle is that we have to construct a clear description of the physical world
before we can build a unified physical theory.
The present state of physics is such that there are many theories which all differ in the descriptive
context in which they operate. The theories of general relativity, quantum theory, quantum
electrodynamics, string theory and the standard model of particle physics are based on differing
concepts of the nature of the physical world.
Learn Online Courses of Subject Engineering Mechanics of First Year Engineering. Clear the Concepts of Engineering Mechanics Through Video Lectures and PDF Notes. Visit us: https://ekeeda.com/streamdetails/subject/Engineering-Mechanics
On The Effect of Perturbations, Radiation and Triaxiality on the Stability of...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the effect of perturbations, radiation, and triaxiality on the stability of triangular libration points in the restricted three-body problem. The paper established equations of motion that account for small perturbations in coriolis and centrifugal forces when the larger primary is a triaxial rigid body and the smaller primary emits radiation. It was found that these factors affect the libration points and the critical mass value for stability. The work generalizes prior equations of motion to include these additional influences on the restricted three-body problem.
1. The document presents an alternative theory called the Dynamic Universe (DU) approach that views relativity as a consequence of conservation of total energy rather than distorted time and distance.
2. In DU, time and distance are universal quantities, and relativity arises from the linkage between local energy states and the overall energy balance of space.
3. DU relies on mathematics based on an overall zero-energy balance as the fundamental law of nature, making it more metaphysically driven than the empirically based theory of relativity. Both approaches produce precise predictions.
A relationship between mass as a geometric concept and motion associated with a closed curve in spacetime (a notion taken from differential geometry) is investigated. We show that the 4-dimensional exterior Schwarzschild solution of the General Theory of Relativity can be mapped to a 4-dimensional Euclidean spacetime manifold. As a consequence of this mapping, the quantity M in the exterior Schwarzschild solution which is usually attributed to a massive central object is shown to correspond to a geometric property of spacetime. An additional outcome of this analysis is the discovery that, because M is a property of spacetime geometry, an anisotropy with respect to its spacetime components measured in a Minkowski tangent space defined with respect to a spacetime event P by an observer O who is stationary with respect to the spacetime event P, may be a sensitive measure of an anisotropic cosmic accelerated expansion. The presence of anisotropy in the cosmic accelerated expansion may contribute to the reason that there are currently two prevailing measured estimates of this quantity
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Formal Unification of Gravity and Particle Physics in Lagrangian Euclidean Sp...Hontas Farmer
Formal Unification of Gravity and Particle Physics in Lagrangian Euclidean Space with Experimental Predictions - http://meetings.aps.org/Meeting/APR19/Session/Z13.5
1) Deep learning has achieved breakthroughs in machine learning but is limited in its ability to generalize and its lack of explainability. It is also purely a "black box" approach.
2) Both specialized and general intelligence exist in humans, but the source of human intelligence is still not fully understood. General intelligence allows humans to learn new skills but humans do not understand the mechanisms behind their own intelligence.
3) The author proposes a new framework for artificial intelligence based on optimizing knowledge representations from an information theory perspective. This framework aims to explain the source of learning abilities like generalization and improve machine learning capabilities.
This document is the thesis submitted by Oscar de Felice to Imperial College London for the degree of Master of Science in Theoretical Physics. The thesis investigates the mathematical tools of generalised geometry and explores how it can provide a unified description of supergravity fields. It first reviews the construction and symmetries of generalised geometry. It then examines generalised connections, torsion and curvature in this framework. The second part of the thesis investigates the notion of "Leibnitz generalised parallelisations" and how they relate to consistent truncations of supergravity theories. Examples of generalised parallelisations are provided for manifolds like S2×S1, S3×S3 and homogeneous spaces. The thesis aims to character
The document provides an introduction to the topic of applied mechanics. It defines mechanics as a branch of science dealing with bodies at rest or in motion under the influence of forces. Mechanics is divided into statics, dynamics, and the mechanics of rigid bodies, deformable bodies, fluids, and their compressible and incompressible types. Fundamental concepts such as particles, bodies, rigid bodies, deformable bodies, space, time, force, and systems of units are also defined. Several fundamental principles are outlined, including Newton's laws of motion and the laws of gravitation, the parallelogram of forces, and Lami's theorem. Finally, the document instructs students to form groups of five and design a simple
Introduction to the General Theory of RelativityArpan Saha
1) The document outlines Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, beginning with an introduction to Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
2) It describes how Einstein realized that Newtonian gravity is incompatible with special relativity, and how this led Einstein to formulate his principle of equivalence and theory that gravity is the curvature of spacetime.
3) The document provides an overview of key mathematical concepts in general relativity such as manifolds, tensors, geodesics, and the Einstein field equations.
Introduction to Classical Mechanics:
UNIT-I : Elementary survey of Classical Mechanics: Newtonian mechanics for single particle and system of particles, Types of the forces and the single particle system examples, Limitation of Newton’s program, conservation laws viz Linear momentum, Angular Momentum & Total Energy, work-energy theorem; open systems (with variable mass). Principle of Virtual work, D’Alembert’s principle’ applications.
UNIT-II : Constraints; Definition, Types, cause & effects, Need, Justification for realizing constraints on the system
String theory proposes that fundamental particles are not point-like but vibrations of tiny filaments called strings. It seeks to address problems in theoretical physics like quantizing gravity and explaining mass hierarchies. String theory requires 10 dimensions but extra dimensions are hypothesized to be compactified at the Planck scale. While early formulations included competing theories, M-theory incorporating an 11th dimension aims to unify them through membranes interacting in a multiverse. Observational evidence could come from detecting supersymmetric particles at the LHC or imprints of string physics on cosmological phenomena like gravitational waves or the CMB.
ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING MECHANICS PART-1sachinHR3
This document discusses various topics in civil engineering and engineering mechanics. It begins by listing nine fields of civil engineering including surveying, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, and environmental engineering. It then provides brief descriptions and examples for each of these fields. The document also discusses key concepts in engineering mechanics such as forces, moments, force resolution and composition, Newton's laws of motion, and resultants of coplanar concurrent force systems. Throughout, examples are given to illustrate engineering mechanics principles.
About Nonlinear Classic Field Theory of Connected Chargesijrap
1) The document presents a nonlinear classical field theory of connected charges that aims to eliminate the divergence of proper energy in classical electrodynamics.
2) It constructs this theory outside of flat spacetime based on an exact solution for the field of an accelerated charge and the "Equivalent Situation Postulate".
3) The theory uses Maxwell's equations in generally covariant form and "structure equations" rather than Einstein's equations to determine the metric of non-inertial frames of reference.
ABOUT NONLINEAR CLASSIC FIELD THEORY OF CONNECTED CHARGES ijrap
1) The document presents a nonlinear classical field theory of connected charges that aims to eliminate the divergence of proper energy in classical electrodynamics.
2) It constructs the theory outside of flat spacetime based on an exact solution for the field of an accelerated charge and the "Equivalent Situation Postulate".
3) The theory uses Maxwell's equations in generally covariant form and "structure equations" rather than Einstein's equations to determine the metric of non-inertial frames of reference.
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity interpreted in terms of a polarizable quantum vacuum. Electromagnetic wavelength increase corresponds to apparent time dilation while a frequency increase corresponds to an apparent space contraction as a result of a spectral energy density gradient.
Four Laws of Inertia in ‘variable’ Spacetime FieldIJMERJOURNAL
1. The document proposes four laws of inertia in a variable spacetime field.
2. The first law explains that inertia is caused by the resistance of the spacetime field when mass is accelerated, distorting the field and creating an inertial force opposite to the applied force.
3. The second law relates energy to the spacetime field. The third law explains the origin of inertia and gravity as being two manifestations of the same spacetime field.
4. The four laws aim to provide a unified explanation of inertia and gravity based on their relationship to a quantum spacetime field that can vary in intensity.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a renowned German-born physicist who developed the theory of general relativity and special relativity. Some of his key contributions include developing the general theory of relativity, one of the pillars of modern physics, and his mass-energy equivalence formula E=mc2, which demonstrated that mass and energy are the same physical entity and can be changed into one another. He showed that the laws of physics are the same for all observers regardless of their motion or frame of reference.
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) developed the theories of special and general relativity. Special relativity, published in 1905, established that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference and that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant. General relativity, published in 1915, introduced gravitation as a result of the curvature of spacetime caused by the uneven distribution of mass and energy. One of Einstein's most famous equations is E=mc2, which shows that mass and energy are equivalent and interconvertible.
The objective of this paper is to propose an approach to the unification of physics by attempting
to construct a physical worldview which can be used as the context for a unified physical theory.
The underlying principle is that we have to construct a clear description of the physical world
before we can build a unified physical theory.
The present state of physics is such that there are many theories which all differ in the descriptive
context in which they operate. The theories of general relativity, quantum theory, quantum
electrodynamics, string theory and the standard model of particle physics are based on differing
concepts of the nature of the physical world.
Learn Online Courses of Subject Engineering Mechanics of First Year Engineering. Clear the Concepts of Engineering Mechanics Through Video Lectures and PDF Notes. Visit us: https://ekeeda.com/streamdetails/subject/Engineering-Mechanics
On The Effect of Perturbations, Radiation and Triaxiality on the Stability of...IOSR Journals
This document summarizes a research paper that studied the effect of perturbations, radiation, and triaxiality on the stability of triangular libration points in the restricted three-body problem. The paper established equations of motion that account for small perturbations in coriolis and centrifugal forces when the larger primary is a triaxial rigid body and the smaller primary emits radiation. It was found that these factors affect the libration points and the critical mass value for stability. The work generalizes prior equations of motion to include these additional influences on the restricted three-body problem.
1. The document presents an alternative theory called the Dynamic Universe (DU) approach that views relativity as a consequence of conservation of total energy rather than distorted time and distance.
2. In DU, time and distance are universal quantities, and relativity arises from the linkage between local energy states and the overall energy balance of space.
3. DU relies on mathematics based on an overall zero-energy balance as the fundamental law of nature, making it more metaphysically driven than the empirically based theory of relativity. Both approaches produce precise predictions.
A relationship between mass as a geometric concept and motion associated with a closed curve in spacetime (a notion taken from differential geometry) is investigated. We show that the 4-dimensional exterior Schwarzschild solution of the General Theory of Relativity can be mapped to a 4-dimensional Euclidean spacetime manifold. As a consequence of this mapping, the quantity M in the exterior Schwarzschild solution which is usually attributed to a massive central object is shown to correspond to a geometric property of spacetime. An additional outcome of this analysis is the discovery that, because M is a property of spacetime geometry, an anisotropy with respect to its spacetime components measured in a Minkowski tangent space defined with respect to a spacetime event P by an observer O who is stationary with respect to the spacetime event P, may be a sensitive measure of an anisotropic cosmic accelerated expansion. The presence of anisotropy in the cosmic accelerated expansion may contribute to the reason that there are currently two prevailing measured estimates of this quantity
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
Formal Unification of Gravity and Particle Physics in Lagrangian Euclidean Sp...Hontas Farmer
Formal Unification of Gravity and Particle Physics in Lagrangian Euclidean Space with Experimental Predictions - http://meetings.aps.org/Meeting/APR19/Session/Z13.5
1) Deep learning has achieved breakthroughs in machine learning but is limited in its ability to generalize and its lack of explainability. It is also purely a "black box" approach.
2) Both specialized and general intelligence exist in humans, but the source of human intelligence is still not fully understood. General intelligence allows humans to learn new skills but humans do not understand the mechanisms behind their own intelligence.
3) The author proposes a new framework for artificial intelligence based on optimizing knowledge representations from an information theory perspective. This framework aims to explain the source of learning abilities like generalization and improve machine learning capabilities.
This document is the thesis submitted by Oscar de Felice to Imperial College London for the degree of Master of Science in Theoretical Physics. The thesis investigates the mathematical tools of generalised geometry and explores how it can provide a unified description of supergravity fields. It first reviews the construction and symmetries of generalised geometry. It then examines generalised connections, torsion and curvature in this framework. The second part of the thesis investigates the notion of "Leibnitz generalised parallelisations" and how they relate to consistent truncations of supergravity theories. Examples of generalised parallelisations are provided for manifolds like S2×S1, S3×S3 and homogeneous spaces. The thesis aims to character
The document provides an introduction to the topic of applied mechanics. It defines mechanics as a branch of science dealing with bodies at rest or in motion under the influence of forces. Mechanics is divided into statics, dynamics, and the mechanics of rigid bodies, deformable bodies, fluids, and their compressible and incompressible types. Fundamental concepts such as particles, bodies, rigid bodies, deformable bodies, space, time, force, and systems of units are also defined. Several fundamental principles are outlined, including Newton's laws of motion and the laws of gravitation, the parallelogram of forces, and Lami's theorem. Finally, the document instructs students to form groups of five and design a simple
Introduction to the General Theory of RelativityArpan Saha
1) The document outlines Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, beginning with an introduction to Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation.
2) It describes how Einstein realized that Newtonian gravity is incompatible with special relativity, and how this led Einstein to formulate his principle of equivalence and theory that gravity is the curvature of spacetime.
3) The document provides an overview of key mathematical concepts in general relativity such as manifolds, tensors, geodesics, and the Einstein field equations.
Introduction to Classical Mechanics:
UNIT-I : Elementary survey of Classical Mechanics: Newtonian mechanics for single particle and system of particles, Types of the forces and the single particle system examples, Limitation of Newton’s program, conservation laws viz Linear momentum, Angular Momentum & Total Energy, work-energy theorem; open systems (with variable mass). Principle of Virtual work, D’Alembert’s principle’ applications.
UNIT-II : Constraints; Definition, Types, cause & effects, Need, Justification for realizing constraints on the system
String theory proposes that fundamental particles are not point-like but vibrations of tiny filaments called strings. It seeks to address problems in theoretical physics like quantizing gravity and explaining mass hierarchies. String theory requires 10 dimensions but extra dimensions are hypothesized to be compactified at the Planck scale. While early formulations included competing theories, M-theory incorporating an 11th dimension aims to unify them through membranes interacting in a multiverse. Observational evidence could come from detecting supersymmetric particles at the LHC or imprints of string physics on cosmological phenomena like gravitational waves or the CMB.
ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING MECHANICS PART-1sachinHR3
This document discusses various topics in civil engineering and engineering mechanics. It begins by listing nine fields of civil engineering including surveying, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, and environmental engineering. It then provides brief descriptions and examples for each of these fields. The document also discusses key concepts in engineering mechanics such as forces, moments, force resolution and composition, Newton's laws of motion, and resultants of coplanar concurrent force systems. Throughout, examples are given to illustrate engineering mechanics principles.
About Nonlinear Classic Field Theory of Connected Chargesijrap
1) The document presents a nonlinear classical field theory of connected charges that aims to eliminate the divergence of proper energy in classical electrodynamics.
2) It constructs this theory outside of flat spacetime based on an exact solution for the field of an accelerated charge and the "Equivalent Situation Postulate".
3) The theory uses Maxwell's equations in generally covariant form and "structure equations" rather than Einstein's equations to determine the metric of non-inertial frames of reference.
ABOUT NONLINEAR CLASSIC FIELD THEORY OF CONNECTED CHARGES ijrap
1) The document presents a nonlinear classical field theory of connected charges that aims to eliminate the divergence of proper energy in classical electrodynamics.
2) It constructs the theory outside of flat spacetime based on an exact solution for the field of an accelerated charge and the "Equivalent Situation Postulate".
3) The theory uses Maxwell's equations in generally covariant form and "structure equations" rather than Einstein's equations to determine the metric of non-inertial frames of reference.
The Modified Theory of Central-Force MotionIOSR Journals
Everybody is in the state of constant vibration, since vibration is the cause of the entire universe.
Consequent upon this, a body under the influence of attractive force that is central in character may also vibrate
up and down about its own equilibrium axis as it undergoes a central-force motion. The up and down vertical
oscillation would cause the body to have another independent generalized coordinates in addition to the one of
rotational coordinates in the elliptical plane. In this work, we examine the mechanics of a central-force motion
when the effect of vertical oscillation is added. The differential orbit equation of the path taken by the body
varies maximally from those of the usual central- force field. The path velocity of the body converges to the
critical speed in the absence of the tangential oscillating phase.
This document discusses reference frames and summarizes key findings from the Michelson-Morley experiment. It provides definitions for inertial and non-inertial reference frames. The Michelson-Morley experiment aimed to detect the motion of Earth through the luminiferous ether but found no evidence of ether drift. This led to developments in relativity. Lorentz transformations were derived based on relativity postulates and reduce to Galilean transformations for low speeds. Galilean transformations violate relativity while Lorentz transformations form its foundation.
This document discusses the incompatibility between classical mechanics and electromagnetism. It shows that under a Galilean transformation, the wave equation governing electromagnetic waves takes on a different form in different reference frames, violating Galilean invariance. This means that the laws of electromagnetism depend on the choice of reference frame. As such, classical mechanics and electromagnetism cannot be unified without modifications to account for this issue.
The document summarizes the effects of perturbations on satellite orbits due to the non-spherical shape and inhomogeneous mass distribution of Earth. It describes how Earth can be modeled using spherical harmonics and how the different terms (zonal, sectoral, tesseral) in the expansion affect the orbital elements like inclination, eccentricity, and longitude of satellites. While short-term changes may occur, the average values of semimajor axis and eccentricity remain constant. Long-term effects are seen in the right ascension of the ascending node, argument of perigee, and mean anomaly. The document provides mathematical expressions to describe these perturbations.
Einstein's theories of relativity challenged classical mechanics in three key ways:
1. Special relativity established that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference and that the speed of light in a vacuum is invariant.
2. It also found that measurements of time and length change for observers in different reference frames based on their motion and that mass increases with speed.
3. General relativity later described gravity as a consequence of spacetime being curved by mass and energy, rather than as a force, and that free-falling objects and light rays follow curved paths called geodesics.
Alexander G Foigel - An interpretation of relativistic mechanics - 2005.pdfIliaStambler1
An Interpretation of Relativistic Mechanics
By Alexander G Foigel
Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie, Volume 30, no 3-4, 289-307, 2005
[Originally in open access: https://fondationlouisdebroglie.org/AFLB-303/aflb303m339.pdf
Translated from Russian into English by Ilia Stambler]
ABSTRACT. The present article reports on the finding of the principal basis behind relativistic mechanics. From the independence of the speed of light upon the velocity of the light source it is concluded that the vacuum consists of the light carrying ether. The second crucial conclusion is that the elementary particles represent specific excitations of some parts of rigid ether. The motion of the electron in the atom undergoes multiple reflections, and the electron trajectory represents a broken line. The forces of inertia are conditioned by the properties of the ether excitation that is identified with the physical body. The constancy of the transverse dimensions of freely moving particles and bodies is determined by de Broglie waves. The invariants in the theory of relativity are the transverse dimensions of moving objects and the speed of light.
General Relativity and gravitational waves: a primerJoseph Fernandez
A short introduction to the one of the nicest bits of physical reasoning ever, which led to Albert Einstein's General Relativity, gravitational waves and our research on gravitational wave sources.
Designed by Joseph John Fernandez for LJMU FET Research Week.
The document discusses different types of lattice disorders in solids, including compositional disorder, positional disorder, and topological disorder. It describes Anderson's model of localized states, where the ratio of the width of disorder to the band width determines if an electronic state is localized or delocalized. The document also summarizes the density of states in disordered solids like impurity band semiconductors and amorphous semiconductors, where localized states exist in band tails and mobility gaps separate localized and extended states.
This document summarizes a paper that presents models for locations and motions in the solar system. Ratios of orbital angular velocities are shown for planets and moons, with common ratios around 2.5 that may relate to an L-frequency. A generalized elliptic orbit model is derived, giving angular velocity as a function of eccentricity and L-frequency. Frequency ratios found in musical instruments and the northern lights are also discussed. Preliminary models for fractal locations using an iteration formula producing a Julia set are presented.
Motions for systems and structures in space, described by a set denoted Avd. ...Premier Publishers
In order to describe general motions and matter in space, functions for angular velocity and density are assumed and denoted Avd, as an abbreviation. The framework provides a unified approach to motions at different scales. It is analysed how Avd enters and rules, in terms of results from equations, in field experiments and observations at Earth. Chaos may organize according to Avd, such that more order, Cosmos, appear in complex nonlinear dynamical systems. This reveals that Avd may be governing and that deterministic systems can be created without assuming boundaries and conditions for initial values and forces from outside. A mathematical model for the initiation of Logos (when a paper accelerates into a narrow circular orbit), was described, and denoted local implosion; Li. The theorem for dl, provides discrete solutions to a power law, and this is related to locations of satellites and moons.
BT631-11-x-ray_crystallography_introductionRajesh G
The document discusses various methods for determining the three-dimensional structures of proteins, including experimental methods like X-ray crystallography, NMR, and electron microscopy, as well as computational methods. Over 88% of protein structures are determined using X-ray crystallography. All of these methods involve the use of electromagnetic radiation to probe atomic structures. The document also discusses the ordered nature of crystalline solids and how this long-range order enables anisotropic properties.
Jeremy Capps' research focuses on computationally investigating fully interacting quantum systems with spin-orbit interaction. His work models electron systems to include Coulomb interaction and screening effects. He has studied Friedel oscillations in systems with Rashba spin-orbit coupling by calculating the polarization function and charge density response. Capps is currently investigating enhanced spin and charge transport in 2D electron systems with spin-orbit interaction, where an antiferromagnetic ordering leads to an energy gap and improved thermoelectric properties. Future work will continue exploring exotic phenomena in 2D quantum systems due to spin-orbit interactions and calculating thermoelectric coefficients.
A massive pulsar_in_a_compact_relativistic_binarySérgio Sacani
1) Researchers observed the pulsar PSR J0348+0432 in a compact orbit with a white dwarf companion. Timing observations yielded component masses - the pulsar has a precisely determined mass of 2.01 solar masses, among the highest yet observed.
2) Optical spectroscopy of the white dwarf companion found it has a mass of 0.172 solar masses. Analysis of the orbital parameters and component masses showed the system's orbital decay matches predictions from general relativity.
3) The high pulsar mass and compact orbit make this a sensitive laboratory for testing strong-field gravity. The observed orbital decay is consistent with general relativity, supporting its validity even in extreme gravity regimes not previously tested. This has implications
The Einstein Postulates of Special Relativity (SR), namely the invariance of the speed of light c relative to the observer, the symmetry of relative velocities, and the Galilean Principle independent of velocity and gravitational potential are falsified. The replacement is Law 1: There exists an absolute universal velocity reference (Cosmic Velocity Reference, CVR) and Law 2: The speed of light c is invariant and isotropic only relative to absolute universal space CVR. Experimental evidence like Smoot’s anisotropy of the cosmic microwave radiation background CMB and the one-way measurements of the speed of light are given. From the new Laws it follows (in vector notation) c_rel = c - v_CVR This results in the elimination from physics the Minkovski four-vector spacetime symmetry, time dilation, length contraction, velocity and acceleration symmetrical Lorentz transformation, Einstein vector addition, covariance, invisible and unphysical net of monolithic worldlines, and other weird mathematical constructs without physical meaning resulting from Special Relativity SR and General Relativity GR. The mass increase of particles with speed by the so-called Lorentz Factor 〖ϒ=(1-v^2 /c^2 )〗^(-1/2) is so often cited by Relativists as empirical proof of SR. ϒ was fraudulently smuggled into SR without mathematical proof applying it to relative velocities which gives wrong results. We show that the Lorentz Factor is a simple part of the system of classical dynamic equations. But it is only valid with absolute cosmic velocity v_CVR . The increases of mass, momentum, and energy with an object’s velocity are correct but not part of or caused by SR. This is true also for the change of clock rate as a function of velocity and Newtonian gravity potential.
Einstein's theories of relativity include the special and general theories. The special theory, published in 1905, deals with inertial frames of reference and the constancy of the speed of light. The general theory, published in 1915, extends these concepts to accelerated frames and explains gravity as a consequence of spacetime curvature. Key findings include spacetime being dynamic, light bending in gravity, and the equivalence of mass and energy. The Michelson-Morley experiment's null results disproved the ether hypothesis and supported Einstein's postulate that the speed of light is independent of motion.
Overview of GTR and Introduction to CosmologyPratik Tarafdar
This document provides an overview of general relativity and an introduction to cosmology. It discusses key concepts such as:
- General relativity builds on Einstein's theory that gravity curves spacetime.
- The principle of equivalence states that inertial and gravitational mass are equivalent.
- Einstein's field equations relate the curvature of spacetime to the energy and momentum within it.
- Tests of general relativity include observations of orbiting bodies like Mercury, gravitational lensing, and the detection of gravitational waves.
- The cosmological principle states that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales.
Similar to Geometry of Noninertial Bases in Relativistic Mechanics of Continua and Bell's Problem Solution (20)
New Thermodynamics: A Superior Fit Revised Kinetic Theoryijrap
The accepted kinetic theory forms a basis for modern thermodynamics and is mathematically based upon equipartition and degrees of freedom. It remains plagued with the necessity of numerous degrees of freedom exceptions for it to explain both empirically determined heat capacities and adiabatic indexes. Furthermore, assuming kT/2 per degree of freedom is to accept that a gas molecule possesses a specified energy without providing any clarity concerning that energy’s origins. Energy without an origin contravenes the first law of thermodynamics. This author’s previously published superior fit kinetic theory will be clarified and elaborated upon. This includes showing that this revised kinetic theory is a superior fit to both known heat capacities and adiabatic indexes. Not only is it a superior fit that does not rely upon any exceptions, this author’s kinetic theory also provides insight into the actual sources of a gas molecule’s energy. Furthermore, clarity concerning the difference between isometric (isochoric) and isobaric heat capacities in terms of sensible work will be discussed, along withits likely empirical verification.
On the Unification of Physic and the Elimination of Unbound Quantitiesijrap
This paper supports Descartes' idea of a constant quantity of motion, modernized by Leibniz. Unlike Leibniz, the paper emphasizes that the idea is not realized by forms of energy, but by energy itself. It remains constant regardless of the form, type, or speed of motion, even that of light. Through force, energy is only transformed. Here it is proved that force is its derivative. It exists even at rest, representing the object's minimal energy state. With speed, we achieve its multiplication up to the maximum energy state, from which a maximum force is derived from the object. From this point, corresponding to Planck's Length, we find the value of the force wherever we want. Achieving this removes the differences between various natural forces. The new idea eliminates infinite magnitudes. The process allows the laws to transition from simple to complex forms and vice versa, through differentiation-integration. For this paper, this means achieving the Unification Theory.
Gravity Also Redshifts Light – the Missing Phenomenon That Could Resolve Most...ijrap
In this paper I discover that gravity also redshifts light like the velocity of its source does. When light travels towards a supermassive object, its waves (or photons) undergo continuous stretching, thereby shifting towards lower frequencies. Gravity redshifts light irrespective of whether its source is in motion or static with respect to its observer. An equation is derived for gravitational redshift, and a formula for combined redshift is presented by considering both the velocity, and gravity redshifts. Also explained is how frequencies of electromagnetic spectrum continuously downgrade as a light beam of mix frequencies passes towards a black hole. Further, a clear methodology is provided to figure out whether expansion of the universe is accelerating or decelerating, or alternatively, the universe is contracting.
In this paper I present a new theory that explains as to when and how dark energy is created as mass is destroyed. The theory extends Einstein’s mass energy equation to a more generic form in order to make it work even in high gravity conditions. It also explains why dark energy is created. Further, it is proved Einstein’s mass energy equation holds good only when the destroyed mass has no supermassive object in its close vicinity. The relationship between dark energy and dark matter is unveiled. An extended mathematical form of Einstein’s mass energy equation is derived, based on which the conditions leading to dark energy creation are explained. Three new physical parameters called dark energy discriminant, dark energy radius and dark energy boundary are introduced to facilitate easy understanding of the theory. It is explained in detail that an extremely superdense object has two dark energy boundaries, outer and inner. Mass destroyed only between these two boundaries creates dark energy. Dark energy space, the space between the two aforementioned boundaries, shrouds visible matter in obscurity from optical and electromagnetic telescopes. This theory identifies Gargantuan as a superdense black hole currently creating fresh dark energy, which could be the subject of interest for the astronomical research community having access to sophisticated telescopes, and working on dark energy. It also upholds dark energy and denies the existence of dark matter. Dark matter is nothing but the well-known visible matter positioned in dark energy space. An important relationship is derived between a photon’s frequency and its distance from a black hole to demonstrate the effect of gravity on light. Another important fact revealed by this theory is gravity stretches out light, thereby causing redshift, which is unaccounted in the computation of velocities of outer galaxies. Whether the universe is undergoing accelerated or decelerated expansion, or accelerated contraction can precisely be determined only after accounting for the redshift caused by gravity
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applicat...ijrap
International Journal on Soft Computing, Artificial Intelligence and Applications (IJSCAI)
is an open access peer-reviewed journal that provides an excellent international forum for sharing
knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications of Artificial Intelligence, Soft
Computing. The Journal looks for significant contributions to all major fields of the Artificial
Intelligence, Soft Computing in theoretical and practical aspects. The aim of the Journal is to
provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to
meet and share cutting-edge development in the field.
Authors are solicited to contribute to the journal by submitting articles that illustrate research
results, projects, surveying works and industrial experiences that describe significant advances in
the areas of Database management systems.
SOME THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF HYDROGEN DIFFUSION IN BCC METALS AT LOW TEMPERATURESijrap
Purpose of the work is to discuss some theoretical aspects of the diffusion of hydrogen atoms in the crystal
lattice of BCC metals at low temperatures using the methods of statistical thermodynamics. The values of
the statistical model calculations of H diffusion coefficients in α-Fe, V, Ta, Nb, K are in good agreement
with the experimental data. The statistical model can also explain deviations from the Arrhenius equation
at temperatures 300-100 K in α-Fe, V, Nb and K. It was suggested that thermally activated fast tunnelling
transition of hydrogen atoms through the potential barrier at a temperature below 300 K provides an
almost free movement of H atoms in the α-Fe and V lattice at these temperatures. The results show that
quantum-statistical effects play a decisive role in the H diffusion in BCC metals at low temperatures. Using
the statistical model allows for the prediction of the diffusion coefficient for H in BCC metals at low
temperatures, where it’s necessary to consider quantum effects.
MASSIVE PHOTON HYPOTHESIS OPENS DOORS TO NEW FIELDS OF RESEARCHijrap
1) A massive photon hypothesis is proposed, where the photon mass is directly calculated from kinetic gas theory to be 1.25605 x 10-39 kg.
2) This photon mass explains various experiments like light deflection near the Sun and the gravitational redshift.
3) The photon gas is found to behave as a perfect blackbody and ideal gas, with photons having 6 degrees of freedom.
4) The thermal de Broglie wavelength of this photon gas is calculated to be 1.75967 x 10-3 m, matching the wavelength of the cosmic microwave background radiation.
5) This links the CMB radiation to being continuously generated by the photon gas permeating space, rather than being a relic of
PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD REGARDING A THIRD THEORY OF PHYSICS “THE EVENT:THE TH...ijrap
The quest for a third theory uniting macro-cosmos (relativity) and micro-cosmos (quantum mechanics) has coexisted with the denial of feminine/subjective polarity to masculine/objective. The dismissal of electromagnetism as the tension of opposites in quest of inner/outer unity is sourced in the denial of the feminine qualia -- the negative force field attributed to dark energy/dark matter. However, a conversion philosophy sourced in the hieros gamos and signified by the Mobius strip has formulated an integral consciousness methodology producing quantum objects by means of embracing the shadow haunting contemporary physics. This Self-reflecting process integrating subject/object comprises an ontology of kairos as the “quantum leap.” An interdisciplinary quest to create a phenomenological narrative is disclosed via a holistic apparatus of hermeneutics manifesting image/text of a contemporary grail journey. Reflected in this Third space is the sacred reality of autonomous number unifying polarities of feminine/subjective (quality) and objective/masculine (quantity) as new measurement apparatus for the quantum wave collapse.
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022)ijrap
3rd International Conference on Integrating Technology in Education (ITE 2022) This forum also aims to provide a platform for exchanging ideas in new emerging trends that needs more focus and exposure and will attempt to publish proposals that strengthen our goals.
A SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MATTER, ENERGY, INFORMATION, AND CONSCIOUSNESSijrap
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and consciousness.
This paper discusses the advantages of describing the universe, or nature, in terms of information and consciousness. Some problems encountered by theoretical physicists in the quest for the theory of everything stem from the limitations of trying to understand everything in terms of matter and energy only. However, if everything, including matter, energy, life, and mental processes, is described in terms of information and consciousness, much progress can be made in the search for the ultimate theory of the universe. As brilliant and successful as physics and chemistry have been over the last two centuries, it is important that nature is not viewed solely in terms of matter and energy. Two additional components are needed to unlock her secrets. While extensive writing exists that describes the connection between matter and energy and their physical basis, little work has been done to learn the special relationship between matter, energy, information, and
consciousness.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for theall-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, whileothers posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought systemon space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author arguesthat before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own visionregarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, non-linear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest forthe ToE
Learning to Pronounce as Measuring Cross Lingual Joint Orthography Phonology ...ijrap
Machine learning models allow us to compare languages by showing how hard a task in each language might be to learn and perform well on. Following this line of investigation, we explore what makes a language “hard to pronounce” by modelling the task of grapheme-to-phoneme (g2p) transliteration. By training a character-level transformer model on this task across 22 languages and measuring the model’s proficiency against its grapheme and phoneme inventories, we show that certain characteristics emerge that separate easier and harder languages with respect to learning to pronounce. Namely the complexity of a language's pronunciation from its orthography is due to the expressive or simplicity of its grapheme-to phoneme mapping. Further discussion illustrates how future studies should consider relative data sparsity per language to design fairer cross-lingual comparison tasks.
THE CONCEPT OF SPACE AND TIME: AN AFRICAN PERSPECTIVEijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues
that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision
regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African
perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
The Concept of Space and Time: An African Perspectiveijrap
Understanding the concept of space and time is critical, essential, and fundamental in searching for the all-encompassing theory or the theory of everything (ToE). Some physicists argue that time exists, while others posit that time is only a social or mental construct. The author presents an African thought system on space and time conception, focusing on the African (Bantu) view of space and time. The author argues that before the advent of the Western linear view of space and time, Africans had their own vision regarding these two concepts. Their conception of time appears to be holistic, highly philosophical, nonlinear, and thought-provoking. The author hopes that exploring these two concepts from an African perspective will provide a new and more in-depth insight into reality's nature. A scientific investigation of space and time from an African-centered perspective is a worthy and necessary endeavor in the quest for the ToE.
The majority of physicists take it for granted that the universe is made up of matter. In turn, matter is composed of atoms; atoms are made up of particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. Also, protons
and neutrons are composed of quarks, etc. Furthermore, that everything in nature is governed by the known laws of physics and chemistry. The author only partially shares this view. He argues that many phenomena in the universe may depend on rules or factors as yet incorporated by the physical sciences.
The last few years have led him to reflect on the many unsolved physics problems, such as the quest for the theory of everything (ToE), the arrow of time, the interpretation of quantum mechanics, the fine-tuned
universe, etc. to mention just a few. The author posits that a field carries information, performs various mathematical and computational operations, and behaves as an intelligent entity embedded with consciousness.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
The International Journal of Recent Advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed open access journal that addresses impacts and challenges in the field of physics. It covers theoretical and practical results across many areas of physics including advanced functional materials, applied optics, condensed matter physics, nuclear physics, quantum physics, and more. Authors are invited to submit papers by email before October 30, 2021. Notifications of acceptance will be provided by November 25, 2021.
Call For Papers - International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP)ijrap
International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) is a peer-reviewed, open access journal, addresses the impacts and challenges of Physics. The journal documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics.
BREEDING METHODS FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE.pptxRASHMI M G
Plant breeding for disease resistance is a strategy to reduce crop losses caused by disease. Plants have an innate immune system that allows them to recognize pathogens and provide resistance. However, breeding for long-lasting resistance often involves combining multiple resistance genes
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptxRASHMI M G
Abnormal or anomalous secondary growth in plants. It defines secondary growth as an increase in plant girth due to vascular cambium or cork cambium. Anomalous secondary growth does not follow the normal pattern of a single vascular cambium producing xylem internally and phloem externally.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.
Geometry of Noninertial Bases in Relativistic Mechanics of Continua and Bell's Problem Solution
1. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.3, No.1, February 2014
23
GEOMETRY OF NONINERTIAL BASES IN RELATIVISTIC
MECHANICS OF CONTINUA AND BELL’S PROBLEM
SOLUTION
Stanislav Podosenov1
, Alexander Potapov2
, Jaykov Foukzon3
and Elena
Men’kova4
1
All-Russian Research Institute of Optophysical Measurements, Moscow, Russia
2
Kotel’nikov Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of the Russian Academy of
Sciences, Moscow, Russia
3
Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
4
All-Russian Research Institute of Optophysical Measurements, Moscow, Russia
ABSTRACT
From obtained equations of structure (integrability conditions of continuum equations) the elemental
noninertial reference frames (NRF) are investigated: relativistic global uniformly accelerated Born’s hard
NRF, relativistic Born’s rigid uniformly rotating RF free of horizon, rigid vortex-free spherically
symmetrical NRF. All these systems are not described in Minkowski space. Riemann space-time of these RF
does not directly connect with general theory of relativity (GR). However the exact equations of structure
restrict the possibilities of application of the Einstein's equations.
KEYWORDS
Space-time, metric tensor, curvature tensor, frames of reference, Bell’s problem, Born’s rigidity, equations of
structure, Minkowski, Riemann, Einstein, Lagrangian coordinates, Eulerian coordinates, Kristoffel, world
lines, hypersurfaces
1. INTRODUCTION
When describing the properties of the arbitrary deformable reference frames in the form of the
continuous medium either the field of 4-velocity (Euler’s standpoint) or the law of continuous
medium motion determining the connection between the Euler’s and Lagrangian’s variables is
specified. The space-time is considered either the plane (in case of the special theory of relativity
STR) or the Riemannian space (in case of the general theory of relativity GR).
If the gravitational interaction between the particles can be neglected and the external force
acting on the body is not a gravitational then the relativistic mechanics of the special theory of
relativity STR is applied to describe the medium motion. In STR the fields do not bend the space-
time and in IRF and in co-moving NRF of the continuous medium leaving its plane space-time
geometry. Perhaps only “space sections” are bent, in general case their geometry is not a
Euclidean geometry. Such point of view is routine in the relativity theory (RT). We want to prove
the invalidity of such approach connected with the transition from the inertial reference frames
(IRF) to the noninertial reference frames.
2. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.3, No.1, February 2014
24
2. ABOUT THE DIFFICULTIES OF SPECIFYING THE LAGRANGE CO-MOVING
TO THE MEDIUM NONINERTIAL REFERENCE FRAMES (NFR) IN SPECIAL
RELATIVITY THEORY (SRT)
This is shown in J. Bell’s problem [1], that the thread which connects identical pointlike rockets
in uniformly accelerated motion with identical constant accelerations in the cosmonaut system is
broken although its length in the inertial reference frame (IRF) does not change. The solution [1]
is also used in calculations of bunch motion in linear colliders at the constant electric field [2].
The uncertainty in the specifying of the space “physical” length is one of the difficulties. For
example, in the non-inertial reference frame (NRF) co-moving with the bunch, or with the thread
in Bell’s problem, there is no correct expression for a finite instantaneous length in special
relativity (SR). We will use the Minkowski space signature (+−−−), the Greek indices will vary
from 0 to 3 and Latin ones from 1 to 3. The standard expression for finding an element of
physical distance obtained with the aid of the spatial metric tensor [6]
is used incorrectly. The length element calculated by means of the metric tensor (1) determines
for the continuum the physical three-dimensional distance between the near world lines of the
medium particles. This section is always orthogonal to the adjacent world lines.
In the special theory of relativity (SRT) the correct utilization of this formula at the hypersurface
orthogonal to the bunch particles world lines (that is the instantaneous physical space co-moving
to the observer medium) resulted in the relation [3-5]
where – is the bunch length (or the thread length in J. Bell’s problem) in the reference frame
co-moving to the bunch as a function of the time IRF , is the initial bunch (thread) length,
is the constant acceleration, . The later formula is original and uncertain in the scientific
literature until [3-5].
The standard calculation in accordance with the formula (1) from [6] in [2], [7]
in which the curvature of the space similar curve orthogonal to the medium particles world lines
is neglected gives at the end of the acceleration process in the Lagrangian comoving NRF the rise
of the bunch length in the electronic collider [2] up to 10000 times.
Approach [8] based on the calculation of the distance along the unit vector of some
instantaneously comoving reference frame (ICIRF) from the bunch beginning to the end results in
practical zero of the bunch length at the and of the acceleration process. In [3-5] at the same
conditions the bunch length increases in 1.003 times. In J. Bell’s problem provided
all formulas from the works above mentioned coincide. And all authors come to conclusion about
the thread rupture in J. Bell’s problem. However all authors (except [3-5]) connect the string
rupture with the Lorentz shrinkages. In our opinion this is erroneous. According to Pauli and
Gerglotts which are the founders of the relativistic elasticity theory just deviation from the Born’s
3. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.3, No.1, February 2014
25
rigidity but not the Lorentz shrinkage results in the deformations and tensions in the body. To
determine the true strains in the body (rod) one must to watch just this body and does not
compare its length with other similar rod in some ICIRF. The situation is resemble the
comparison of the column length and its sun shadow. Crude error is the connection of the Lorentz
transformation and the transition from one IRF to other. Lorentz transformation is the
recalculation rule of the geometrical objects (fields) from one IRF to other which do not never
coincide by definition. Let, for example, in one IRF the brittle extra slim vitreous rod is present.
This rod breaks into pieces when a small deformations are present. Let the set of similar rods is
present in other IRF moving with the relativistic velocities. For each observer at the rod his rod is
not broken and the other rods must to break into pieces in accordance with the Lorentz shrinkage.
This situation is absurd as the integrity or the breaks into pieces is the invariant factor for the
rods. This reminds the skeet shooting when one rifleman smashes the plate. And the observer
from other IRF seems to be that the plate keeps a whole skin and the rifleman misses. The
interpretation of the Lorentz transformations as the transition from one IRF to other is similar to
the activity of the passenger to jump a fast express train from the platform.
When constructing the relativistic elasticity theory one trasits to Lagrangian comoving NRF
where Lorentz shrinkage is absent by defifnition. Origin of the deformations and tensions in the
medium occurs when the medium moves as not rigid in Born’s sense body. Deviation from
Born’s rigidity results in nonzero strain velocity tensor. In our opinion the thread will be broken
if one will toe the line the approach of SRT (special relativity theory) on the basis of conventional
transition rules from IRF to NRF but not at the expense of Lorentz shrinkage as it occurs in listed
works and at the expense of that in such motion the relativistic Born’s string rigidity is violated
and the deformations and tensions arise in the string.
3. CONNECTION OF THE SPACE-TIME GEOMETRY WITH THE CONTINUOUS
MEDIUM PARAMETERS AND THE FORCE FIELDS, SOLUTION OF BELL’S
PROBLEM
In Newtonian mechanics and special relativity theory (SRT) the mass point has zero absolute
acceleration relatively inertial reference frame (IRF) when the forces applied to it are absent or
their vector sum is equal to zero. In general relativity theory (GR) this rule is not satisfied. The
mass point being at rest on the surface of the gravitating sphere in accordance with GR has
nonzero first curvature vector (4 – accelaration). Absolute accelaration is directed along the outer
normal to the sphere and its value is equal to Newtonian gravity near the surface. Supporting
force from the sphere surface brings down the body from its geodetic line having zero first
curvature vector only when the supporting force is absent. In accordance with Newton absolute
acceleration of the mass point at the sphere surface is equal to zero. For low fields Einstein's
equations coincide with Newton theory however conformity principle is not applied relatively
absolute accelarations.
The motion or the rest of the probe particles in this field determine the force field character. By
defifnition the probe particles do not interact with each other. They interact only with the external
field. Let the probe particles are identical and represent some continuous medium. 4 -
acceleration, strain velocity tensor and rotational velocity tensor are the continuum characteristics
in 4 - space-time. 4 - acceleration enters into the law of motion and at the specified plane metric
the field of 4 -velocity and the main medium tensors are determined by integration of motion
equation.
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The continuous medium in the force field specifies some reference frame (RF). For RF with the
specified physical properties one need to know the additional conditions of the main medium
tensors depending on 4 - velocities and 4 - accelerations. For example, let us consider the demand
concerning the rotation and Born’s rigidity. The number of equations for finding of 4 – velocity
becomes overdetermined and the integrability conditions must to be fulfill. The later are fulfilled
if both 4 – velocities of the medium and the metric coefficients will be desired. For the solution
will exist we obtained the integrability conditions (the equations of structure) [11], [9], [16], [17].
The examples of their application are considered in detail in [3], [4], [5], [10], [15]. Equations of
structure are exact, they are not directly connected with the Einstein’s equations.
For the moving (or being at rest) continuous medium the following correlations are valid.
for which in the moving continuous medium at the four-dimensional space-time the expressions
are correct
where is the field of 4 - velocity which meets to the normalizing condition
is the metric tensor in the Euler’s reference frame,
where is the strain velocity tensor, is the rotational velocity tensor, are the first
curvature vectors of the medium particles world lines.
Integration of the system (4-9), where is the curvature tensor expressed by means of the
metric tensor in the ordinary way gives the solution of the problem about the space-time geometry
in which the NRF with the preset structure is realized. In [9, 10] the theorem concerning the
Born’s rigid uniformly accelerated medium can be described in the Riemannian space has been
proved. Although the equations of structure have not been connected with GR (general relativity
theory) but they prescribe a supplementary conditions to the Einstein’s equations. The theorem
proving that all static spherically symmetrical solutions of GR are simultaneous with the equation
of structure has been presented. One-dimensional solution outside the plane infinite massive
source in GR is absent and the equation of structure has such solution and induces the metric for
the constant uniform static field [10]. The calculation in the Lagrange co-moving NRF results in
the metric
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where the acceleration is considered positive if it is directed along axis and it is considered
negative if it is directed on the contrary. First the metric(10) has been obtained in [11] and it has
been repeated in [12], [13]. One independent component of the curvature tensor calculated in
accordance with the metric (10) has the form
For the Ricci tensor components and scalar curvature we have
One might to be directly convinced that NRF (12) is a uniforly accelerated
If the ideal accelerometer is attached to each identical medium particle then for the
particles being at rest in the uniform constant field of forces from the Riemannian space
viewpoint the first curvature vectors are constant and the accelerometers will indicate the
constant magnitude.
The rest of the components of 4 – accelerations are equal to zero.
The metric (10) can be interpreted and as the equilibrium of the probe particles in any constant
uniform force field. Let the identical probe charges with the same masses are hanged up on the
weightless threads at the uniform electrostatic field. It is clear form the physical consideration that
the charges are at rest relatively each other (the model of the charged dust) and the tensions of all
threads are identical.
Two points of view are permissible.
1. The space-time is a plane and the sum of the forces on each charge is equal to zero.
2. The space-time is a Riemannian with the plane section and the vector of 4 – acceleration is
constant and it is calculated in accordance with the formula (13).
Investigation of electrostatics in the Riemannian space is considered in detail in [10] and the
system of the solutions of the Einstein - Maxwell equations consistent with the equations of
structure has been obtained in [14, 15].
Let us considered the solution of the Bell’s problem. We shall develop the second point of view.
In the Riemann geometry the particle fixed in the field has nonzero first curvature vector (4 –
acceleration) and in the Minkowski space the same particle has a straight world line with zero 4 –
acceleration. From the global equivalence principle the locking of the particles in the uniform
constant field of forces is equivalent to their occurrence in Born’s rigid relativistic global
uniformly accelerated NRF.
In release the particles from the bonds they begin to move at the starting IRF in the Minkowski
space at the constant uniform electric field and the distance between the particles in IRF is not
changed [2] as well as in NRF (10). In Bell’s problem when starting of two pointlike rockets with
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the same constant accelerations in the astronauts’ reference frame after the oscillation damping in
the thread the world lines of the thread particles will be “parallel” to the world lines of the
pointlike rockets in IRF. And perfect weightless accelerometers fixed at the weightless thread and
the rockets will show the identical values. Consequently the metric for the thread in the
astronauts’ reference frame coincides with (10). The thread length in NRF is preserved as well as
in IRF since the initial Eulerian coordinates coincide with the Lagrange coordinates. The thread
will not be broken. The paradox arises because of the standard accepted at the moment
transition from IRF to NRF. V.I. Rodichev repeatedly spoke about this [22 - 25]. A. A. Vlasov
[26] considering the theory of the growth of the crystal, plasma and biological structures with the
preservation of their likeness came to the result that the growth of such structures is possible in
non-Euclidean space – time. Other possibilities of the transitions are specified in [9, 16, 17, 11].
With the Bell’s problem solution the great difference in calculating the deformations of the
electron bunchs in the modern linear colliders in RF and IRF comoving to the bunchs is vanished.
The standard calculation in accordance with the formula (3) increased the bunch length at the
output of the collider approximately in 10000 times and the calculation in accordance with the
formula (2) incresed the length only in 1.003 times. Although formula (2) is suitable for both the
great and the small accelerations it does not solve the Bell’s paradox in principle. The paradox is
solved only when going out of the Minkowski space to the Riemann space.
Deduced formula (2) in the SRT (special relativity theory) is correct only in the case of the
standard transition from IRF to NRF.
Here we can to quote the [27] with the reference to [28]. “It is very easy to join the words into the
expression “the coordinate system of the accelerated observer” however it is more difficult to find
the conception for which it can be correspond to. The best that we can to say about this
expression – that when careful consideration it is contradictory.” We shall point out that the
space-time is bent in the accelerated pointlike rockets and the thread only in the limit of the world
band. The world lines of the starting IRF particles of the Minkowski space are the straight lines
parallel to the time axis and having zero first curvature vectors. From the viewpoint of any NRF
these vectors will remain zero as it is impossible to create or to zero out 4 – vectors by means of
the transition from NRF to IRF and conversely with the transformation of coordinates containing
the time in non-linear form. Namely such transformations of coordinates are considered by the
orthodox persons as the transition from IRF to NRF and conversely. From the astronauts’
viewpoint the worls lines of the IRF particles seem not to be parallel and the medium particles of
the IRF basis move on the geodetic lines relatively NRF (10).
4. RELATIVISTIC RIGID UNIFORMLY ROTATING NRF
Usually when considering the rotating disk one selects the rest-frame in which the cylindrical
coordinates , , , are introduced and passes to the rotating reference frame , , , in
accordance with the formulas:
where the rotational speed relatively axis is considered as constant. The interval element has
the form
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The formula holds when . In [18-20] other velocity distributions which restrict the linear
velocity of the disk at with the value of velocity of light and at form are
discussed. However only usual distribution law , satisfy to the stiffness criterion
both the classic and the relativistic (in Born’s sense).
Let us determine the metric of the rigid relativistic uniformly rotating NRF by means of our
method supposing in the formulas the strain velocity tensor and demanding the constancy
of the invariant characterizing the relativisctic generalization of the square of the disk rotational
velocity .
In the Lagrangian co-moving frame of reference connected with the rotating disk we have
Afterwards the cumbersome calculations we have two independent equations
Condition (17) is equivalent to the constancy of the value of metrically invariant angular velocity
vector [20] anf the constancy of the value of the rotary speed in the co-moving tetrads [21].
The values of the relativistic and the classic rotary speed are connected with the relation
For metric (18) there is a steady-state solution applied in whole sphere but realized in
the Riemann space – time.
The solution of the system (20), (21) in the quadratures is absent. Numerical analysis showed that
at the metric (18) coincides with the metric (16). Centripetal acceleration in the rotating
NRF is determined with the formula
which at small passes to the classic and at gives . The calculation of the
independent nonzero components of curvature tensor are cumbersome and we omit them (see [9],
[11], [16], [17]).
After the simplifications the system [20, 21] is represented in tht form
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Physical interpretation of function means the dimensionless linear speed of the disk. For
small velocities
that is equivalent to the classic expression. It follows from the analysis of (24) that for the
equation has the solution . This solution is markedly differed from the classic rigid disk
where the velocity field at infinity is indefinitely great. Apparently the diagram of the numerical
solution (24) is resemble the diagram of the hyperbolic tangent or the deformed step function for
.
Nondimensional
velocity
Nondimensional radius
Relativistic dusk
Figure 1. Plot of the linear dimensionless disk velocity as a function of nondimensional distance from the
rotation axis
Metric
tensor
components
Nondimensional radius
Figure 2. Calculation of the metric tensor components at the relativistic rigid disk
Dkl corresponds to the standard disk rotation conventional in literature.
It is generally known [6] that at the rotating disk the clock can not be identically synchronized at
all points. Therefore synchronizing along the closed circuit and returning to the reference point
we shall obtain the time differed from the original time on the value
Let us consider the light rays propagation along the closed circuit relatively to the rotating disk.
Let the rays are moved round a circle in the opposite direction and the source is located at the
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rotating disk. Always the velocity of light is equal if one uses the metrically invariant time lag
[20]. Therefore the rays will reach the source simultaneously. In accordance with the universal
time the time difference of the source coming . In the nonrelativistic approximation for
the small velocities of the disk the obtained result coincides with the result of the well-
known Sagnac experiment.
where is the area of the disk. In the ultrarelativistic case we have
We shall point out that in accordance with the current outlook the clock at the rotating disk can
not be identically synchronized at all points. Therefore synchronizing along the closed circuit and
returning to the reference point we shall obtain the time differed from the original time. However
this problem has been solved by the authors in [16], [17] by means of the introduction of the
“relative tensor of curvature” (terminology of the authors) at the space-time. But this topic
exceeds the limits of this article.
5. SPHERICALLY SYMMETRICAL RIGID NRF
Let us consider in the Minkowski space the central symmetrical continuum motion occurring
from some point in which the origin of coordinates is. Obviously that for the observers in the
Lagrange co-moving reference frame the distance between the adjacent medium elements will
change with the time i.e. such system is not the rigid one. As all medium points being at the same
distance from the centre have identical velocities and accelerations then such medium moves
without the rotations. Thus, for such NRF the tensor of the angular velocity is equal to zero, and
the strain velocity tensor and the field of the first curvature vectors are differed from zero. If for
the considered NRF one demands the fulfillment of the rigidity condition then it follows from the
analysis of the structure equation (4) that in the Minkowski space the spherical symmetrical NRF
having nonzero radial acceleration and zero strain velocity tensor is absent. In other words in the
Minkowski space the rigid radial continuum motion is impossible.
In the Riemannian space such situation is possible. For example, it follows from the condition of
static equilibrium in the spherical symmetrical gravitational field described with the
Schwarzschild metric. For the observers being at rest at the surface of the motionless gravitating
sphere from the GR standpoint the acceleration differs from zero and it is directed from the centre
perpendicular to the surface while for the observers keeping of the Newton standpoint the
acceleration is equal to zero. And vice versa the free falling body in the Newton gravitational
field has nonzero acceleration and in the Schwarzschild field it moves on the geodetic line with
zero acceleration. We find the metric of the spherical symmetrical Lagrange co-moving NRF in
analogy with GR [6] in the form
where и depend only from .
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Obviously NRF (30) is rigid as the metric factors do not depend from the time and zero
components k
g0 mean that the rotations are absent. The system (5) taking into account the
formulated demands and also fulfillment of the co-moving conditions
reduces to one equation
One can to be convinced that the structure equations (4) satisfy to (31) without the additional
connections for and functions. Thus, in accordance with the specified field of the first
curvature vectors it is impossible uniquely to determine the metric (30) without the additional
factors.
From the physical encyclopaedia “reference frames (RF) are the collections of the coordinate and
clock system connected with the body relatively which the motion (or the equilibrium) of any
other mass points or bodies is studied”... . Therefore to investigate the motion (equilibrium) of
other bodies the analytical specifying of the body properties is necessary – basis of RF itself. And
what means the RF in vacuum? The physical encyclopaedia ignores. In the Schwarzschild field
vacuum is present outside the body. In accordance with GR in vacuum in the static field (as well
as alternating field) we understand that RF “… is the collection of the infinite number of the
bodies filling all space like some medium” [6]. Let us consider some simplest possibilities.
a). Let the observers locating at the earth surface measure the gravitational field by means
of the accelerometers. The earth rotation is not taken into account, its density is considered as the
constant, and the earth from is the spherical. They will find that the acceleration field is directed
on the radius from the centre perpendicular to the surface. In order to measure the field far from
the surface we use the set of the radial weightless rigid rods. We install the system of the
accelerometers along the rods. Collection of the rods and the accelerometers specifies the basis of
the radial accelerated rigid reference frame. Really with the removing form the earth surface the
acceleration field will decrease in accordance with the Newton’s law of gravitation (in the zero
approximation). If the observers consider that its space is flat and the law of gravitation is exact
then the metrics (30) will have the form [11].
where is the gravitational radius. When derivation (32) we took into account in
accordance with the definition of the plane space and has been found from (31) and
Newton’s law of gravitation.
So, though the space metrics is flat, the space-time metric (31) is the Riemannian one. Thus, the
Newton’s gravitation theory in the flat space permits two logically consistent interpretations.
In accordance with the generally accepted interpretation in the Newton’s theory both the space
and the space-time are the flat. At the same time on the body being at the earth surface two forces
act: the gravity and the support reaction force which in sum give zero and therefore the body has
no acceleration.
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In our interpretation on the body being at rest relatively the earth surface only one force acts –
the support reaction force which adds to the body the acceleration measured with the
accelerometer (floor scales) and calculated in accordance with the (31) using the metric (32). If
the support is removed then the body will move on the geodesic line in the space-time with the
metric (32) while in general interpretation when the support is absent the body will move in the
flat space-time under the action of the gravity.
Modified Newton’s interpretation is closer the Einstein’s interpretation then the Newton’s one.
Using [31] one can to show that the calculation of the pericentre displacement over one rotation
in accordance with the metric (32) is one-third of one in accordance with the Schwarzschild
metric. The change of the light ray direction when passing near the central body in accordance
with (32) is one-second of the Schwarzschild one. So, the proposed model does not pretend on the
GR substitution, it fixes the more close connection between the Newton’s and the Einstein’s
theories showing that one can to consider the Newton’s theory in the Riemannian space-time. If
in the Newton’s approximation the considered interpretation coincides with the experimental data
then the model does not take into account more thin effects which are explained in GR.
b). When derivation (32) one supposes that corresponds to the model of the flat
space section. The system of the rigid non-deformable rods on which the sound spreads with the
infinitely large velocity that contradicts to the finite velocity of the interaction spreading has been
selected as the reference frame outside the earth. We shall consider that the basis structure of the
radial accelerated NRF outside the earth is equivalent to some elastic medium subjected to the
deformations and consequently the tensions but having zero strain velocity tensor.
It is conveniently to determine the connection between the deformation and stress tensors in the
Lagrange co-moving NRF considering the elastic medium for which the Hooke law in the form
[29] specified at the hypersurface orthogonal to the world lines [30] is valid
where is the first invariant of the deformation tensor, is the Lamé coefficient, is
the metric of the space section (30).
is the metric tensor of the plane space in the spherical coordinates.
The elastic medium must to satisfy the continuity equation.
The solution of the continuity equation results in the relation [29], [30]
where is the “medium” density in the unstrained state.
The “motion” equations of the elastic medium in the Lagrange NRF have the form similar to the
equilibrium condition of the elastic medium in the Newtonian gravitational field at the classic
consideration
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where are the “unphysical” – affine components of the acceleration and the raising and the
lowering of tensor indexes and the calculation of the covariant derivative is realized by means of
the space metric . As the metric (30) is orthogonal then to construct the tetrad field one can to
combine the vectors of ortho reference mark with the vectors of the affine reference mark and
to write the tetrad field in the form of the Lame calibration [32]. [33].
where the summation of is absent. The tetrad tensor components coincide with the “physical”.
Supposing that the physical or the tetrad acceleration components correspond (as in the case a).)
to the Newtonian value, we have from (34) and (35) in the spherical coordinates the expression
The integration of this expression provided that at the infinity the space is plane ( ) results in
the relation
where is the longitudinal sound velocity.
Taking into account that the first curvature vector
using (31) and (36) we obtain the equation for . The integration of this equation provided that at
infinity forms
The limit of the expressions (38) and (39) when results in the metric (32) that corresponds
to the model of perfectly rigid body in the Newtonian sense. We shall refer to as relativistic rigid
body such body in which the longitudinal sound velocity is equal to the velocity of light in
vacuum [11]. The expression (38) exactly coincides with the component of the Schwarzschild
metric in the standard form and component of this metrics is obtained from (38) if one
expands into a series and keeps only the first infinitesimal order on .
Thus, for the spherically – symmetrical rigid NRF where the basis is the relativistic rigid body
and the acceleration corresponds to the Newtonian one the metric has the form (30) where is
determined from (38) when the sound velocity is equal to the velocity of light in vacuum and
is obtained at the same conditions from (37). We represent the final output in the form
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The calculation of the known GR effects in accordance with the metric (39) when only
insignificantly differs from the calculation using the Schwarzschild’s metric. The difference is in
the pericenter shift calculation which is equal to 5/6 from the Schwarzschild’s one. The change of
the light beam direction when passing close by the central body coincides with the
Schwarzschild’s one. Therefore the modified model is considerably nearer to GR than (32).
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. It is proved that in the Minkowski space the translatory globally uniformly accelerated and
rigid in the Born’s sense continuum motion is impossible. If besides the continuum motion
equations one imposes the supplementary conditions for the rigidity or the rotations of the
continuum following from physical considerations then these conditions “remove” the moving
medium from the plane space-time.
2. The metric of the rigid in the Born’s sense globally uniformly accelerated continuum realized
in the Riemannian space-time has been presented. The metric integrates the properties of the
Möller’s metric (the rigidity in the Born’s sense) and the properties of the Logunov’s metric (the
global uniformly acceleration). It should be noted that the proper time which was obtained by
Einstein [34] in 1907 and which was named exact is obtained from the metric (10) for the fixed
Lagrangian particle.
where is the proper time for given space point, is the universal time. But Einstein renounced
of the exact expression for the approximation (Möller’s).
3. The relativistic rigid in the Born’s sense uniformly rotating NRF without the restriction of the
radius value and having at infinity the linear velocity which is equal to the velocity of light and
finite acceleration but realized in the Riemannian space time has been obtained.
4. Equations of structure being exact restrict the domain of applicability of the Einstein’s
equations as they give the supplementary conditions which are not always compatible with the
GR solutions.
5. The spherically symmetrical rigid NRF having no the analog in the Minkowski space which is
equivalent to the balance of the gravitational forces to the elastic forces has been constructed. If in
the elastic medium the transverse sound velocity concides with the velocity of light in free space
then the body is the relativistic rigid and the obtained equilibrium solution is described with the
metric closed to the Schwarzschild’s metric. For the classic solids the velocity of sound goes to
infinity but the equilibrium space-time metric remains the Riemannian with the plane space. It
turns out that the connection between the Newton’s and Einstein’s theories is much close then
commonly thought.
6. The Bell inequality was solved
7. The time-series identification of the physical frame of reference as the reference body with the
specified physical properties resulted in essential approaching of the Newton’s and Einstein’s
gravitation theories. Assignment of the physical properties to the reference frames in a manner is
equivalent to the introduction of the quantum-mechanical principle of complementarity to the
Newton’s gravitation theory. In this approach the space-time geometry depends on the means by
14. International Journal of Recent advances in Physics (IJRAP) Vol.3, No.1, February 2014
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the instrumentality of which it is observed. Similarly the quantum mechanics it is impossible to
describe the atomic systems independently of watching facilities.
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Authors
Stanislav A. Podosenov (M’96) was born in Arkhangelsk, Russia in 1937. He received the degree in
theoretical physics in 1963 and the Ph. D. degree in relativistic mechanics of deformable media in 1972,
both from Moscow State University physical Faculty, Russia. From 1963 to 1970, he lectured physics at
Moscow State Technical University, where he completed his postgraduate study. Since 1970, he has been
working at the All-Russian Research Institute of Optophysical Measurements on problems of relativistic
mechanics and electrodynamics, noninertial frames of reference in special and general relativity, and
nonstationary neutron transfer theory. Presently, he is working in the field of EM pulses radiation theory
and their interaction with conducting bodies. Dr. Podosenov is the laureate of prize of the Russian
Federation government 2002 in the field of science and engineering.
Alexander A. Potapov was born in 1951. He is the Doctor of physical and mathematical Sciences. Dr.
Potapov has been working as a chief researcher at the Institute of radio engineering and electronics of
Russian Academy of Sciences named after V. A. Kotelnikov. He is working in the field of radio physics,
dispersion and diffraction of electromagnetic waves, radiolocation, recognition and image and signal
processing, determinate chaos, modern topology, fractal analysis, fractional operators, scaling effects. Dr.
Potapov is the academician of Russian Academy of Natural Sciences RANS and the academician of
Academy of Engineering Sciences named after A. M. Prokhorov. He is the professor of Kazan State
Technical University named after A. N. Tupolev. Dr. Potapov is the Chief Editor of the magazine
“Nonlinear world”, Member of editorial board of the international magazine “Electromagnetic
Phenomena”. He is Honorable radio operator of the Russian Federation. Dr. Potapov is the author of the
basic researches in the field of fractal approaches to radio physics, radio engineering and radar problems
and broad spectrum of adjacent scientific and technology paths. He is working in this field from 1979. Dr.
Potapov is the initiator of the pioneer researches and developments on fractal theory application in radio
physics, scaling effects and fractal operators in radio systems in Russia. He is the author of more than 400
scientific publications, includes 10 monographs.
Jaykov Foukzon. Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
Elena R. Men’kova was born in Moscow, Russia in 1955. She received the Ph.D. degree in 1984 from
Russian Chemical-technological University, Russia. Since 1984 she has been working as a Junior
Researcher, and then Senior Researcher at the All-Russian Research Institute of Optophysical
Measurements. Her research interest focuses on the works connected with radiation and measurement of
pulse electromagnetic fields.