This document summarizes current research on treating mitochondrial DNA disorders through genome editing techniques. It begins with background on mitochondrial genetics and disorders, noting that mutations can occur in either mitochondrial or nuclear DNA. Current therapeutic strategies include preventing transmission of mutations, shifting the ratio of normal to mutated mitochondrial DNA, and directly editing the mitochondrial genome. Genome editing uses enzymes like CRISPR-Cas9 or restriction endonucleases to selectively destroy mutated mitochondrial DNA, potentially reducing symptoms by lowering the mutation load below a threshold level. This targeted destruction of pathogenic mutations while sparing normal DNA may help treat currently incurable mitochondrial disorders.
Dr. Gayathri N. chaired a presentation by Dr. Govindaraju C. on mitochondrial genetics and diseases. The 3-sentence summary is:
The presentation covered the basics of mitochondrial genetics including structure, inheritance, and respiratory chain; it classified mitochondrial diseases into those caused by nuclear DNA and mtDNA mutations. Mitochondrial diseases can affect multiple organ systems and be caused by mutations in respiratory chain complexes or assembly factors, with phenotypes including Leigh syndrome, cardiomyopathy, leukodystrophy, and optic atrophy.
- Mitochondrial diseases are caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and can affect multiple organ systems. They are characterized by failure of mitochondria to produce sufficient energy for cells.
- mtDNA is inherited solely from mothers and can be heteroplasmic, containing both mutated and normal mtDNA. This explains varying severity between mothers and children.
- The patient described presented with encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, strokes and other multi-system involvement consistent with a mitochondrial disorder. Whole mitochondrial genome sequencing detected a mtDNA deletion of unknown extent/genes involved.
- When evaluating for possible mitochondrial disease, consider if a patient has an unexplained combination of features like lactic acidosis,
The document discusses mitochondria and mitochondrial diseases. It notes that mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells and contain four compartments. Mitochondria participate in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. Mitochondrial DNA is more susceptible to mutations than nuclear DNA due to lack of histones and DNA repair mechanisms. Mitochondrial diseases can arise from defects in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA and can affect multiple organ systems. The diseases are often inherited maternally and can involve varying levels of heteroplasmy. Diagnosis may involve muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Specific mitochondrial diseases discussed include MELAS and MNGIE.
A mitochondrion (singular of mitochondria) is part of every cell in the body that contains genetic material.
Mitochondria are responsible for processing oxygen and converting substances from the foods we eat into energy for essential cell functions.
The mitochondria of the zygote come from the oocyte, that is, from the mother and almost never from the sperm, form of transmission is called maternal inheritance
Which mitochondrial gene is mutated.
The extent of replicative segregation of the mutant mitochondrial genome during the early stages of embryonic development.
The abundance of the mutant mitochondrial gene in a particular tissue.
The threshold level of mutant mitochondrial DNA required in a tissue before an abnormality is evident clinically
Mitochondrial disease affects tissues most highly dependent on ATP production
*Nerves
*Muscles
Endocrine
Kidney
Low energy-requiring tissues are rarely directly affected, but may be secondarily
Lung
Connective tissue
Symptoms can be intermittent
Increased energy demand (illness, exercise)
Decreased energy supply (fasting)
Common feature
myoclonus epilepsy, deafness, blindness, anemia, diabetes, seizures and loss of cerebral blood supply (stroke).
Myoclonic epilepsy and ragged-red fiber disease (MERRF)
MERRF is a member of a group of disorders called mitochondrial encephalomyopathies that feature mitochondrial defects with altered brain and muscle functions.
The term “ragged red fibers” refers to large clumps of abnormal mitochondria that accumulate mostly in muscle cells and are stained red by a dye that is specific for complex II of the electron transport chain.
rare, maternally inherited, heteroplasmic, (point mutation in tRNA lysine gene)
Mutation is MTTK*MERRF8344G.
MT means mitochondrial gene is mutated
T means transfer RNA gene
K means the single-letter amino acid designation for lysine
MERRF means the clinical features
8344G means the mutant nucleotide is guanine (G) at nucleotide position 8344
If 90% of the mitochondria in nerve and muscle cells carry the MTTK*MERRF8344G mutation, then the defining symptoms of MERRF are present.
Maternally inherited mitochondrial disease
The MTTL1*MELAS3243G mutation accounts for more than 80% of the cases of MELAS.
This base substitution is in one of the two mitochondrial transfer RNALeu genes.
the A3243G mutation occurs in thetRNALeu(UUR) gene
When this mutation is present in ≥90% of the mitochondrial DNA of muscle tissue, there is an increased likelihood of recurrent strokes, dementia, epilepsy, and ataxia.
When heteroplasmy for the A3243G mutation
is ~40% to 50%, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), myopathy, and deafness are likely to occur.
Other MELAS mutations occur at sites 3252, 3271, and 3291 within the tRNALeu(UUR) gene and in the mitochondrial tRNAVal (MTTV) and COX III (MTCO3) genes.
Reduced activities in Complexes I and IV are established
This document provides information on mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA. It discusses:
1) The structure and functions of mitochondria, including that they contain DNA (mtDNA) and encode proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
2) The properties of mtDNA, including that it is circular, double-stranded, and encodes 37 genes including tRNAs and rRNAs.
3) Mitochondrial mutations and diseases, noting that mutations in mtDNA or nuclear genes can cause disorders by disrupting oxidative phosphorylation or mtDNA maintenance mechanisms. Common mtDNA disorders discussed include MELAS, MERRF, and LHON.
4) Methods for diagnosing mitochondrial disorders, including biochemical tests, imaging,
Mitochondrial diseases are caused by defects in the mitochondria or mitochondrial genome. The mitochondria produce energy in cells through oxidative phosphorylation and have important roles in calcium regulation, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species generation. Mitochondrial DNA mutations can cause a variety of clinical syndromes affecting high-energy tissues like brain, muscle, heart. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF, and Leigh syndrome. Diagnosis involves assessing clinical features, blood/CSF lactate levels, muscle biopsy showing ragged red fibers, and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms while avoiding metabolic stress.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes proteins that are essential components of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Defects in mtDNA or nuclear genes involved in mitochondrial functions can cause a wide range of mitochondrial diseases. MtDNA is maternally inherited and mutations can be transmitted from mother to offspring. Common mitochondrial diseases include Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), Kearns-Sayre Syndrome (KSS), MELAS, MERRF, and Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON). These diseases have varying clinical features depending on the mutation and often affect the brain, muscles, and eyes.
Dr. Gayathri N. chaired a presentation by Dr. Govindaraju C. on mitochondrial genetics and diseases. The 3-sentence summary is:
The presentation covered the basics of mitochondrial genetics including structure, inheritance, and respiratory chain; it classified mitochondrial diseases into those caused by nuclear DNA and mtDNA mutations. Mitochondrial diseases can affect multiple organ systems and be caused by mutations in respiratory chain complexes or assembly factors, with phenotypes including Leigh syndrome, cardiomyopathy, leukodystrophy, and optic atrophy.
- Mitochondrial diseases are caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and can affect multiple organ systems. They are characterized by failure of mitochondria to produce sufficient energy for cells.
- mtDNA is inherited solely from mothers and can be heteroplasmic, containing both mutated and normal mtDNA. This explains varying severity between mothers and children.
- The patient described presented with encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, strokes and other multi-system involvement consistent with a mitochondrial disorder. Whole mitochondrial genome sequencing detected a mtDNA deletion of unknown extent/genes involved.
- When evaluating for possible mitochondrial disease, consider if a patient has an unexplained combination of features like lactic acidosis,
The document discusses mitochondria and mitochondrial diseases. It notes that mitochondria are the powerhouses of cells and contain four compartments. Mitochondria participate in oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP. Mitochondrial DNA is more susceptible to mutations than nuclear DNA due to lack of histones and DNA repair mechanisms. Mitochondrial diseases can arise from defects in mitochondrial or nuclear DNA and can affect multiple organ systems. The diseases are often inherited maternally and can involve varying levels of heteroplasmy. Diagnosis may involve muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Specific mitochondrial diseases discussed include MELAS and MNGIE.
A mitochondrion (singular of mitochondria) is part of every cell in the body that contains genetic material.
Mitochondria are responsible for processing oxygen and converting substances from the foods we eat into energy for essential cell functions.
The mitochondria of the zygote come from the oocyte, that is, from the mother and almost never from the sperm, form of transmission is called maternal inheritance
Which mitochondrial gene is mutated.
The extent of replicative segregation of the mutant mitochondrial genome during the early stages of embryonic development.
The abundance of the mutant mitochondrial gene in a particular tissue.
The threshold level of mutant mitochondrial DNA required in a tissue before an abnormality is evident clinically
Mitochondrial disease affects tissues most highly dependent on ATP production
*Nerves
*Muscles
Endocrine
Kidney
Low energy-requiring tissues are rarely directly affected, but may be secondarily
Lung
Connective tissue
Symptoms can be intermittent
Increased energy demand (illness, exercise)
Decreased energy supply (fasting)
Common feature
myoclonus epilepsy, deafness, blindness, anemia, diabetes, seizures and loss of cerebral blood supply (stroke).
Myoclonic epilepsy and ragged-red fiber disease (MERRF)
MERRF is a member of a group of disorders called mitochondrial encephalomyopathies that feature mitochondrial defects with altered brain and muscle functions.
The term “ragged red fibers” refers to large clumps of abnormal mitochondria that accumulate mostly in muscle cells and are stained red by a dye that is specific for complex II of the electron transport chain.
rare, maternally inherited, heteroplasmic, (point mutation in tRNA lysine gene)
Mutation is MTTK*MERRF8344G.
MT means mitochondrial gene is mutated
T means transfer RNA gene
K means the single-letter amino acid designation for lysine
MERRF means the clinical features
8344G means the mutant nucleotide is guanine (G) at nucleotide position 8344
If 90% of the mitochondria in nerve and muscle cells carry the MTTK*MERRF8344G mutation, then the defining symptoms of MERRF are present.
Maternally inherited mitochondrial disease
The MTTL1*MELAS3243G mutation accounts for more than 80% of the cases of MELAS.
This base substitution is in one of the two mitochondrial transfer RNALeu genes.
the A3243G mutation occurs in thetRNALeu(UUR) gene
When this mutation is present in ≥90% of the mitochondrial DNA of muscle tissue, there is an increased likelihood of recurrent strokes, dementia, epilepsy, and ataxia.
When heteroplasmy for the A3243G mutation
is ~40% to 50%, chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), myopathy, and deafness are likely to occur.
Other MELAS mutations occur at sites 3252, 3271, and 3291 within the tRNALeu(UUR) gene and in the mitochondrial tRNAVal (MTTV) and COX III (MTCO3) genes.
Reduced activities in Complexes I and IV are established
This document provides information on mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA. It discusses:
1) The structure and functions of mitochondria, including that they contain DNA (mtDNA) and encode proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation.
2) The properties of mtDNA, including that it is circular, double-stranded, and encodes 37 genes including tRNAs and rRNAs.
3) Mitochondrial mutations and diseases, noting that mutations in mtDNA or nuclear genes can cause disorders by disrupting oxidative phosphorylation or mtDNA maintenance mechanisms. Common mtDNA disorders discussed include MELAS, MERRF, and LHON.
4) Methods for diagnosing mitochondrial disorders, including biochemical tests, imaging,
Mitochondrial diseases are caused by defects in the mitochondria or mitochondrial genome. The mitochondria produce energy in cells through oxidative phosphorylation and have important roles in calcium regulation, apoptosis, and reactive oxygen species generation. Mitochondrial DNA mutations can cause a variety of clinical syndromes affecting high-energy tissues like brain, muscle, heart. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF, and Leigh syndrome. Diagnosis involves assessing clinical features, blood/CSF lactate levels, muscle biopsy showing ragged red fibers, and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms while avoiding metabolic stress.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes proteins that are essential components of the oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) system located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Defects in mtDNA or nuclear genes involved in mitochondrial functions can cause a wide range of mitochondrial diseases. MtDNA is maternally inherited and mutations can be transmitted from mother to offspring. Common mitochondrial diseases include Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia (CPEO), Kearns-Sayre Syndrome (KSS), MELAS, MERRF, and Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON). These diseases have varying clinical features depending on the mutation and often affect the brain, muscles, and eyes.
The document provides information on various mitochondrial disorders including Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MELAS syndrome, and Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy Syndrome (MNGIE). It describes the symptoms, causes, and diagnosis of each disorder. Kearns-Sayre syndrome is characterized by progressive paralysis of the eye muscles and can affect multiple systems. MELAS syndrome causes seizures, headaches, and muscle weakness and is caused by mitochondrial DNA mutations. MNGIE is a rare multisystem disorder causing gastrointestinal problems and is caused by mutations in the TYMP gene encoding thymidine phosphorylase.
This document provides an overview of mitochondrial disorders including their characteristics, inheritance patterns, clinical presentations, diagnostic process, and treatment approaches. Mitochondrial disorders are caused by dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and can affect multiple organ systems. Diagnosis involves considering the patient's history, symptoms, family history, laboratory and imaging testing, and potentially muscle biopsy. While there is no proven effective treatment, symptomatic management and supportive therapies like exercise, respiratory chain cofactors, antioxidants, and correcting secondary deficits may help address certain aspects of these complex, multi-system disorders.
This document discusses mitochondrial genetics and neurology. It begins by introducing mitochondrial disorders as genetically determined disorders caused by mitochondrial or nuclear DNA defects that can cause neurological manifestations like optic atrophy, ataxia, seizures, and more. It then covers mitochondrial genetics in more detail, explaining topics like the mitochondrial genome, maternal inheritance, heteroplasmy, the threshold effect, and mitotic segregation. Several mitochondrial clinical syndromes are also summarized, including Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia, Kearns-Sayre Syndrome, MELAS, and Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy. The role of biochemical studies and imaging in the clinical assessment and diagnosis of mitochondrial disorders is also outlined.
Mitochondrial diseases are caused by defects in mitochondrial structure or enzymes that result in deficient energy production. They can affect multiple organ systems and occur across all age groups. Mitochondrial DNA mutations can be inherited from the mother and nuclear DNA mutations can affect mitochondrial proteins or DNA maintenance. Common mitochondrial diseases include MELAS, MERRF, and Leigh syndrome. Mitochondrial dysfunction has also been implicated in aging and common diseases like heart disease and Parkinson's.
This document discusses MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like Episodes), a mitochondrial disease. MELAS is most commonly caused by the A3243G mutation and is maternally inherited. It is characterized by stroke-like episodes typically beginning in the teenage years, as well as other symptoms like diabetes, deafness, and cognitive impairment. Brain imaging during episodes shows cortical lesions. Muscle biopsies may reveal abnormal mitochondria clustering in blood vessels. There is currently no cure, but certain treatments can help manage symptoms.
This document discusses mitochondrial inheritance in humans. It begins by describing mitochondria and their role in cellular respiration and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial DNA is circular and encodes for proteins, tRNAs and rRNAs. Mutations can occur in mtDNA and be heteroplasmic. Mitochondrial disorders are maternally inherited and can result from mutations in mtDNA or nuclear DNA. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF and LHON. Diagnosis involves family history, clinical evaluation, biochemical testing, muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on symptom management and supplementation. Mitochondrial defects can impact female and male fertility by reducing ATP production necessary for processes like oocyte maturation and sperm motility. New therapies involving
1. Genetic heterogeneity of mitochondrial disorders is high, with mutations in over 250 nuclear genes and 13 mitochondrial genes known to cause primary mitochondrial disorders. 2. Complex I deficiency is a common presentation and has high genetic and clinical heterogeneity, with mutations in over 30 nuclear genes associated. 3. Mitochondrial translation deficiency is another common presentation, with mutations in over 30 genes encoding mitochondrial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and other translation factors associated.
A presentation prepared for my psychiatry residency class discussing the molecular biology and clinical presentation of MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke-Like Episodes (MELAS).
Mitochondria are double membranous organelle, the inner membrane is more larger than the outer one. For this reason the inner membrane of the mitochondria folds inside forming a special figure called creasteae. The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) contains the subunits for oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). And this inner mitochondrial membrane coverd by a second membrane called the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). We called mitochondria as a power house of cell not only they generates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation they also take part in various biochemical pathways such as- pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis, heme biosynthesis, the regulation of N2 balance in urea cycle, gluconeogenesis, keton body production and fatty acid degradation and elongation. They also take part in cell signalling via regulating the protein-protein interaction or by regulating the cellular concentration of calcium ion(Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species(ROS).
During various biological diseasesmitochondrial morphology altered, as in the case when there is lack of nutrient in our body mitochondria combine together to share their nutrient and alo their DNA and ETC components to maintain their OXPHOS. But in case of high energy demand of a part of body mitochondria undergo division or called fission because they move rapidly than lager one (Zhao et al., 2013). Fission also occur in mitotic cell to share equal amount of mitochondria to the daughter cells. Many questions arise in mitochondrial dinamics but here I am going to answer a most doubtful question- Is mitochondrial dynamics play any role in tumorigenic process? Is any oncogenic signalling play crucial role in morphological alteration of mitochondria?
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are two important types of noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. miRNAs are 22 nucleotides on average that silence target mRNAs through base pairing with RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). lncRNAs modulate genes in various ways, such as restricting polymerase access or facilitating transcription factor binding. Both miRNAs and lncRNAs play critical roles in development and disease, with miRNAs receiving the 2006 Nobel Prize for their discovery.
Mitochondrial disease includes a group of neuromuscular diseases caused by damage to intracellular structures that produce energy, the mitochondria; disease symptoms usually involve muscle contractions that are weak or spontaneous.
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)
Leigh syndrome,
Myoneurogenic gastrointestinal encephalopathy (MNGIE)
KSS – (Kearns-Sayre Syndrome)
This document discusses microRNAs (miRNAs), which are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression. It describes several strategies to inhibit oncogenic miRNAs that are overexpressed in tumors, including anti-miRNA oligonucleotides, miRNA antagomirs, and miRNA sponges. Lentiviral vectors derived from HIV-1 can be used to deliver short hairpin RNAs, miRNAs, or genes into cells. Several tumor suppressor miRNAs (miR-145, miR-34a, miR-29b, Let-7a, miR-340, miR495) and oncogenic miRNAs (miR155, miR-21) are described along with their gene targets and the results of in
Mitochondrial myopathies are a group of disorders caused by abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA. They can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the specific syndrome, including Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MERRF (myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers), and MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes). MERRF is characterized by myoclonus, epilepsy, and ragged red fibers seen on muscle biopsy. It is generally diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. While there is no cure, treatment focuses on managing symptoms in affected body systems like the brain, eyes, and heart.
MELAS is a mitochondrial disorder caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA. It is characterized by:
- Stroke-like episodes affecting brain function that predominantly involve the temporal, parietal and occipital lobes.
- Additional neurological manifestations including seizures, headaches, hearing loss and dementia.
- Diagnosis requires evidence of elevated lactate levels as well as mitochondrial abnormalities on muscle biopsy and identification of a pathogenic gene mutation.
- Neuroimaging during episodes shows lesions in areas not corresponding to vascular territories.
This document discusses mitochondrial diseases including MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like Episodes) and MERRF (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers). It notes that mitochondrial genes are only inherited from the mother. MELAS is described as the most common inherited mitochondrial disease, with symptoms including strokes, muscle issues, and dementia, typically presenting in early teens. It is caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA, most commonly a point mutation, and results in excess lactic acid production. MERRF is also described as causing similar symptoms and being caused by a mitochondrial gene mutation affecting tRNA. Treatment options for both include supplements like Co
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is located in mitochondria and contains genes that code for proteins in mitochondria. In humans, mtDNA contains 37 genes and is 16,600 base pairs. It is inherited solely from the mother in most species, including humans. The sequencing of mtDNA has helped scientists study evolutionary relationships between species and trace maternal lineages far back in time. MtDNA mutates more rapidly than nuclear DNA, making it useful for evolutionary studies.
1. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis are caused by the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
2. These disorders are characterized by the abnormal deposition of misfolded proteins that form plaques and tangles within neurons, leading to neuronal dysfunction and death.
3. Common symptoms across neurodegenerative disorders include cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms like depression, and movement problems; the specific manifestations depend on the areas of the brain affected.
Mitochondrial DNA is typically less than 1% of an animal cell's DNA. Mitochondria contain their own genome in multiple copies that is distinct from nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited, circular, encodes 37 genes, and does not undergo recombination like nuclear DNA.
This presentation on Epigenetics is most advanced and evidence based one. Its Very helpful for Genetics students and research fellows, Reproductive Medicine specialist, Reproductive Biologist, Infertility practitioners
DNA and RNA Structure
Central Dogma of Life
Protein Engineering (Brief)
Introduction to microRNA (miRNA)
History of miRNA
Biogenesis of miRNA
Conservation of miRNA
Impact of miRNA
miRNA Therapy
Conclusion
Organellar genomes, such as those found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, can be manipulated. The mitochondria genome is maternally inherited and contains genes that code for proteins involved in respiration. The chloroplast genome is also maternally inherited and contains genes for photosynthesis-related proteins. Methods to transform these genomes include particle bombardment, PEG-mediated transformation, and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Manipulating organellar genomes has applications for crop improvement like developing cytoplasmic male sterility.
Louise Hyslop-Diagnóstico prenatal no invasivo y diagnóstico genético reprodu...Fundación Ramón Areces
Los días 8 y 9 de junio de 2017 organizamos en la Fundación Ramón Areces con el Ciberer y la Fundación Jiménez Díaz un simposio internacional sobre 'Diagnóstico prenatal no invasivo y diagnóstico genético reproductivo'. Coordinado por la doctora Ana Bustamante, del servicio de Genética del Hospital Universitario Fundación Jiménez Díaz, tuvo como objetivo mostrar los últimos avances en el campo de la genética reproductiva a nivel preimplantacional, prenatal, e, incluso, preconcepcional.
The document provides information on various mitochondrial disorders including Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MELAS syndrome, and Mitochondrial Neurogastrointestinal Encephalopathy Syndrome (MNGIE). It describes the symptoms, causes, and diagnosis of each disorder. Kearns-Sayre syndrome is characterized by progressive paralysis of the eye muscles and can affect multiple systems. MELAS syndrome causes seizures, headaches, and muscle weakness and is caused by mitochondrial DNA mutations. MNGIE is a rare multisystem disorder causing gastrointestinal problems and is caused by mutations in the TYMP gene encoding thymidine phosphorylase.
This document provides an overview of mitochondrial disorders including their characteristics, inheritance patterns, clinical presentations, diagnostic process, and treatment approaches. Mitochondrial disorders are caused by dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and can affect multiple organ systems. Diagnosis involves considering the patient's history, symptoms, family history, laboratory and imaging testing, and potentially muscle biopsy. While there is no proven effective treatment, symptomatic management and supportive therapies like exercise, respiratory chain cofactors, antioxidants, and correcting secondary deficits may help address certain aspects of these complex, multi-system disorders.
This document discusses mitochondrial genetics and neurology. It begins by introducing mitochondrial disorders as genetically determined disorders caused by mitochondrial or nuclear DNA defects that can cause neurological manifestations like optic atrophy, ataxia, seizures, and more. It then covers mitochondrial genetics in more detail, explaining topics like the mitochondrial genome, maternal inheritance, heteroplasmy, the threshold effect, and mitotic segregation. Several mitochondrial clinical syndromes are also summarized, including Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia, Kearns-Sayre Syndrome, MELAS, and Leber Hereditary Optic Neuropathy. The role of biochemical studies and imaging in the clinical assessment and diagnosis of mitochondrial disorders is also outlined.
Mitochondrial diseases are caused by defects in mitochondrial structure or enzymes that result in deficient energy production. They can affect multiple organ systems and occur across all age groups. Mitochondrial DNA mutations can be inherited from the mother and nuclear DNA mutations can affect mitochondrial proteins or DNA maintenance. Common mitochondrial diseases include MELAS, MERRF, and Leigh syndrome. Mitochondrial dysfunction has also been implicated in aging and common diseases like heart disease and Parkinson's.
This document discusses MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy with Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like Episodes), a mitochondrial disease. MELAS is most commonly caused by the A3243G mutation and is maternally inherited. It is characterized by stroke-like episodes typically beginning in the teenage years, as well as other symptoms like diabetes, deafness, and cognitive impairment. Brain imaging during episodes shows cortical lesions. Muscle biopsies may reveal abnormal mitochondria clustering in blood vessels. There is currently no cure, but certain treatments can help manage symptoms.
This document discusses mitochondrial inheritance in humans. It begins by describing mitochondria and their role in cellular respiration and ATP synthesis. Mitochondrial DNA is circular and encodes for proteins, tRNAs and rRNAs. Mutations can occur in mtDNA and be heteroplasmic. Mitochondrial disorders are maternally inherited and can result from mutations in mtDNA or nuclear DNA. Common syndromes include MELAS, MERRF and LHON. Diagnosis involves family history, clinical evaluation, biochemical testing, muscle biopsy and genetic testing. Treatment focuses on symptom management and supplementation. Mitochondrial defects can impact female and male fertility by reducing ATP production necessary for processes like oocyte maturation and sperm motility. New therapies involving
1. Genetic heterogeneity of mitochondrial disorders is high, with mutations in over 250 nuclear genes and 13 mitochondrial genes known to cause primary mitochondrial disorders. 2. Complex I deficiency is a common presentation and has high genetic and clinical heterogeneity, with mutations in over 30 nuclear genes associated. 3. Mitochondrial translation deficiency is another common presentation, with mutations in over 30 genes encoding mitochondrial aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases and other translation factors associated.
A presentation prepared for my psychiatry residency class discussing the molecular biology and clinical presentation of MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalopathy, Lactic Acidosis, and Stroke-Like Episodes (MELAS).
Mitochondria are double membranous organelle, the inner membrane is more larger than the outer one. For this reason the inner membrane of the mitochondria folds inside forming a special figure called creasteae. The inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) contains the subunits for oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). And this inner mitochondrial membrane coverd by a second membrane called the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). We called mitochondria as a power house of cell not only they generates ATP via oxidative phosphorylation they also take part in various biochemical pathways such as- pyrimidine and purine biosynthesis, heme biosynthesis, the regulation of N2 balance in urea cycle, gluconeogenesis, keton body production and fatty acid degradation and elongation. They also take part in cell signalling via regulating the protein-protein interaction or by regulating the cellular concentration of calcium ion(Ca2+) and reactive oxygen species(ROS).
During various biological diseasesmitochondrial morphology altered, as in the case when there is lack of nutrient in our body mitochondria combine together to share their nutrient and alo their DNA and ETC components to maintain their OXPHOS. But in case of high energy demand of a part of body mitochondria undergo division or called fission because they move rapidly than lager one (Zhao et al., 2013). Fission also occur in mitotic cell to share equal amount of mitochondria to the daughter cells. Many questions arise in mitochondrial dinamics but here I am going to answer a most doubtful question- Is mitochondrial dynamics play any role in tumorigenic process? Is any oncogenic signalling play crucial role in morphological alteration of mitochondria?
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are two important types of noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression. miRNAs are 22 nucleotides on average that silence target mRNAs through base pairing with RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). lncRNAs modulate genes in various ways, such as restricting polymerase access or facilitating transcription factor binding. Both miRNAs and lncRNAs play critical roles in development and disease, with miRNAs receiving the 2006 Nobel Prize for their discovery.
Mitochondrial disease includes a group of neuromuscular diseases caused by damage to intracellular structures that produce energy, the mitochondria; disease symptoms usually involve muscle contractions that are weak or spontaneous.
Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON)
Leigh syndrome,
Myoneurogenic gastrointestinal encephalopathy (MNGIE)
KSS – (Kearns-Sayre Syndrome)
This document discusses microRNAs (miRNAs), which are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression. It describes several strategies to inhibit oncogenic miRNAs that are overexpressed in tumors, including anti-miRNA oligonucleotides, miRNA antagomirs, and miRNA sponges. Lentiviral vectors derived from HIV-1 can be used to deliver short hairpin RNAs, miRNAs, or genes into cells. Several tumor suppressor miRNAs (miR-145, miR-34a, miR-29b, Let-7a, miR-340, miR495) and oncogenic miRNAs (miR155, miR-21) are described along with their gene targets and the results of in
Mitochondrial myopathies are a group of disorders caused by abnormalities in mitochondrial DNA. They can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the specific syndrome, including Kearns-Sayre syndrome, MERRF (myoclonic epilepsy with ragged red fibers), and MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes). MERRF is characterized by myoclonus, epilepsy, and ragged red fibers seen on muscle biopsy. It is generally diagnosed in childhood or adolescence. While there is no cure, treatment focuses on managing symptoms in affected body systems like the brain, eyes, and heart.
MELAS is a mitochondrial disorder caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA. It is characterized by:
- Stroke-like episodes affecting brain function that predominantly involve the temporal, parietal and occipital lobes.
- Additional neurological manifestations including seizures, headaches, hearing loss and dementia.
- Diagnosis requires evidence of elevated lactate levels as well as mitochondrial abnormalities on muscle biopsy and identification of a pathogenic gene mutation.
- Neuroimaging during episodes shows lesions in areas not corresponding to vascular territories.
This document discusses mitochondrial diseases including MELAS (Mitochondrial Encephalomyopathy, Lactic Acidosis and Stroke-like Episodes) and MERRF (Myoclonic Epilepsy with Ragged Red Fibers). It notes that mitochondrial genes are only inherited from the mother. MELAS is described as the most common inherited mitochondrial disease, with symptoms including strokes, muscle issues, and dementia, typically presenting in early teens. It is caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA, most commonly a point mutation, and results in excess lactic acid production. MERRF is also described as causing similar symptoms and being caused by a mitochondrial gene mutation affecting tRNA. Treatment options for both include supplements like Co
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is located in mitochondria and contains genes that code for proteins in mitochondria. In humans, mtDNA contains 37 genes and is 16,600 base pairs. It is inherited solely from the mother in most species, including humans. The sequencing of mtDNA has helped scientists study evolutionary relationships between species and trace maternal lineages far back in time. MtDNA mutates more rapidly than nuclear DNA, making it useful for evolutionary studies.
1. Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis are caused by the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons in the brain and spinal cord.
2. These disorders are characterized by the abnormal deposition of misfolded proteins that form plaques and tangles within neurons, leading to neuronal dysfunction and death.
3. Common symptoms across neurodegenerative disorders include cognitive decline, psychiatric symptoms like depression, and movement problems; the specific manifestations depend on the areas of the brain affected.
Mitochondrial DNA is typically less than 1% of an animal cell's DNA. Mitochondria contain their own genome in multiple copies that is distinct from nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited, circular, encodes 37 genes, and does not undergo recombination like nuclear DNA.
This presentation on Epigenetics is most advanced and evidence based one. Its Very helpful for Genetics students and research fellows, Reproductive Medicine specialist, Reproductive Biologist, Infertility practitioners
DNA and RNA Structure
Central Dogma of Life
Protein Engineering (Brief)
Introduction to microRNA (miRNA)
History of miRNA
Biogenesis of miRNA
Conservation of miRNA
Impact of miRNA
miRNA Therapy
Conclusion
Organellar genomes, such as those found in mitochondria and chloroplasts, can be manipulated. The mitochondria genome is maternally inherited and contains genes that code for proteins involved in respiration. The chloroplast genome is also maternally inherited and contains genes for photosynthesis-related proteins. Methods to transform these genomes include particle bombardment, PEG-mediated transformation, and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. Manipulating organellar genomes has applications for crop improvement like developing cytoplasmic male sterility.
Louise Hyslop-Diagnóstico prenatal no invasivo y diagnóstico genético reprodu...Fundación Ramón Areces
Los días 8 y 9 de junio de 2017 organizamos en la Fundación Ramón Areces con el Ciberer y la Fundación Jiménez Díaz un simposio internacional sobre 'Diagnóstico prenatal no invasivo y diagnóstico genético reproductivo'. Coordinado por la doctora Ana Bustamante, del servicio de Genética del Hospital Universitario Fundación Jiménez Díaz, tuvo como objetivo mostrar los últimos avances en el campo de la genética reproductiva a nivel preimplantacional, prenatal, e, incluso, preconcepcional.
This document discusses mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) as a potential treatment for mitochondrial diseases caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA. It provides background on mitochondrial genetics and diseases. MRT aims to prevent transmission of mitochondrial mutations by transferring nuclear DNA from a patient's egg to a donor egg with healthy mitochondria, using techniques like spindle transfer. The document outlines research progress, including the first reported birth from MRT. It notes MRT is approved in the UK but still under study in the US. It also describes inclusion criteria for research participation and acknowledges collaborators supporting MRT research efforts.
This document summarizes key information about mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). It notes that mtDNA is located in mitochondria and contains genes that encode proteins for oxidative phosphorylation to produce cellular energy. MtDNA is maternally inherited. The human mtDNA genome is small, circular, and encodes 37 genes. MtDNA replication involves DNA polymerase gamma and is essential for mitochondrial function. Larger mtDNA genomes exist in some plants and protists. MtDNA can be used for ancestry tracing and forensic identification but has limitations compared to nuclear DNA.
Mitochondrial DNA is circular DNA located in the mitochondria of cells. It is 16kb in size and encodes 37 genes. Mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from the mother and differs from nuclear DNA in several key ways, such as being maternally inherited only. Mutations in mitochondrial DNA can cause diseases often involving the central nervous system or musculoskeletal system. The high mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA is due to lack of protective histones and DNA repair mechanisms.
Models of Human Diseases Conference (2010) Tetrahymena model by Dr. R. Pearl...Medical Education Advising
The Ciliate Protozoan Tetrahymena thermophila as an important animal model organism
Dr. R.E. Pearlman, York University
Models of Human Diseases Conference
June 29, 2010
Mitochondrial DNA encodes 13 proteins that are essential components of the oxidative phosphorylation system for producing cellular energy. Over 100 mutations in mitochondrial DNA have been linked to human disease. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited maternally and diseases often involve the muscles, brain, or both. Presentation can occur at any age and involves a variety of neurological or systemic symptoms depending on the mutation. Diagnosis involves clinical evaluation, blood or tissue analysis, and imaging or biopsy. Treatment focuses on supporting affected systems; more targeted therapies are under development.
Genetic modification through recombination breeding j.dJagdeep Singh
This document discusses genetic manipulation through recombinant breeding and various genetic engineering techniques. It defines genetic manipulation as the manipulation of genetic material to produce specific results in an organism. It then discusses recombinant DNA and various modern genetic modification techniques used, including Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation, biolistic methods, microinjection, electroporation, and lipofection. Examples of genetically engineered crops and their traits are provided. Both advantages and risks of genetic engineering are mentioned.
This document provides an overview of modern genetics. It begins by defining genetics as the study of heredity and genes. It describes Gregor Mendel's foundational work in genetics and how his work led to the modern understanding of genes and inheritance being controlled by DNA. Key experiments that established DNA as the genetic material, such as Griffith's transformation experiment and Hershey and Chase's experiment, are summarized. The central dogma of biology involving DNA replication, transcription of DNA to mRNA, and translation of mRNA to proteins is explained at a high level. Concepts covered include DNA and RNA structure, mutation, genetic engineering techniques like recombinant DNA, and applications to medical genetics research.
Epigenetics definition, history of epigenetics, molecular basis of epigenetics, epigenetic modification, tools to study epigenetics, disease linked with epigenetics, DNA methylation demethylation and enzymes regulating DNA methylation
The document discusses the Human Genome Project, which had goals of identifying all 30,000 human genes, determining the sequence of the 3 billion base pairs that make up human DNA, storing this information in databases, and improving data analysis tools. By sequencing factories generating 1000 nucleotides per second, the project was completed ahead of schedule. The project revealed that humans have fewer genes than expected, 99.9% of bases are identical between humans, and 50% or more of the genome consists of "junk DNA" with unknown functions.
Conferencia de la Dra. Ana María Roa, Bióloga Molecular, sobre Epigenética, impartida en la Universidad Popular Carmen de Michelena de Tres Cantos el 1 de marzo de 2013.
Más información en:
http://www.universidadpopularc3c.es/index.php/actividades/conferencias/event/448-conferencia-una-revision-de-los-conocimientos-fundamentales-de-la-biologia-de-la-celula-la-epigenetica
There isn't one single person credited with discovering the mitochondria, as over the years a number of scientists have made important contributions to the study of the discovery of this important cellular structure:
1800s In 1857, Albert von Kölliker described what he called “granules” in the cells of muscles.
- Other scientists of the era also noticed these “granules” in other cell types.
1886 , when Richard Altman, a cytologist, identified the organelles using a dye technique, and dubbed them “bioblasts.” He postulated that the structures were the basic units of cellular activity.
1898, Carl Benda coined the term mitochondria. He derived the term from the Greek language for the words thread, mitos, and granule, chondros.
-Though mitochondria are an integral part of the cell, evidence shows that they evolved from primitive bacteria.
1) Mitochondria are cellular structures that produce energy and were discovered in the late 1800s. They have a double membrane structure and contain their own DNA.
2) Mitochondrial DNA is much smaller than nuclear DNA and is only passed down from mothers. It can mutate at a higher rate and mutations can cause over 100 human diseases.
3) Common mitochondrial diseases include LHON (optic nerve disease), MERRF (myoclonic epilepsy), CPEO (eye muscle weakness), and MELAS (stroke-like episodes). These diseases demonstrate mitochondrial inheritance patterns and can be caused by DNA deletions or point mutations.
DNA methylation is a biological process where methyl groups are added to DNA, changing gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. It is essential for normal development in mammals and is associated with processes like genomic imprinting, carcinogenesis, and aging. DNA methyltransferases are enzymes that catalyze the addition of methyl groups to DNA from S-adenosylmethionine. DNA methylation plays important roles in gene silencing, X-chromosome inactivation, and suppressing viral genomes and repetitive elements incorporated into the host genome. Aberrant DNA methylation is also involved in cancer by transcriptionally silencing tumor suppressor genes.
DNA methylation is a biological process where methyl groups are added to DNA, changing gene expression without altering the DNA sequence. It is essential for normal development in mammals and is associated with processes like genomic imprinting and carcinogenesis. DNA methyltransferases are enzymes that catalyze the addition of methyl groups to DNA from S-adenosyl methionine. DNA methylation plays important roles in gene silencing, X-chromosome inactivation, and suppressing viral genomes and repetitive elements incorporated into the host genome. Abnormal DNA methylation is also associated with cancer by transcriptionally silencing tumor suppressor genes.
The Knockout Rat Consortium (KORC) is a group of individuals and institutions working to create genetically modified rat models using techniques like transposon-based mutagenesis and chemical mutagenesis. The KORC database currently lists over 300 rat models, including models of SCID, p53 knockout, pain (Trpc4 knockout), hydrocephalus (Myo9a knockout), and obesity (Mc4r knockout). The goal of KORC is to generate rat models with single gene disruptions for every rat gene to provide a resource for the research community.
This document discusses organelle genomes, focusing on chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA. It provides details on the structure and content of chloroplast genomes, noting they typically contain 110-120 genes and are characterized by inverted repeats and single copy regions. Mitochondrial genomes are more variable in content and size. The structure and replication of human mitochondrial DNA is described in detail, including its circular nature and asymmetric replication process. Mitochondrial DNA mutations can cause a range of neuromuscular diseases due to mitochondrial dysfunction.
Similar to GENOME EDITING IN MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES (20)
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Test bank for karp s cell and molecular biology 9th edition by gerald karp.pdfrightmanforbloodline
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Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
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3. Mitochondrial Proteome
• 13 encoded by mtDNA.
1500 polypeptides
- Encoded in the nucleus
- Synthesized on cytoplasmic ribosomes.
- Imported into mitochondria
> 99%
22
tRNA
2
rRNA
4. Essen,al
for
cellular
func,on.
This
1%
of
total
cellular
DNA,
mtDNA
is
crucial
for
OXPHOS
Electron Transport Chain I II III IV V
Nuclear DNA coding 35 4 8 10 10
mitoDNA coding 7 0 1 3 2
Brockington et al. BMC Genomics 2010 11:203
http://www.biomedcentral.com/
16,500
BP
5. It is estimated that
Risk of developing mt Disease 1 /5000
Prevalence of mtDNA diseases at least 1 /10,000
individuals
1 in 200 women could be a mitochondrial disease
carrier.
involved in complex diseases as Cancer, diabetes and in ageing.
Dysfunctional mitochondria implicated in several neurodegenerative
diseases including Parkinson’s disease
200 mtDNA mutations associated with defined clinical phenotypes
(http://www.mitomap.org)
Schaefer AM, Taylor RW, Turnbull DM, Chinnery PF. The epidemiology of mitochondrial
disorders–past, present and future. Biochim Biophys Acta 2004.
Cree, L.M., Samuels, D.C., Chinnery, P.F.,. The inheritance of pathogenic mitochondrial DNA
mutations. Biochim. Biophys. 2009
6. Combined
data
for
children
and
adults
• ≈
1
in
2000
to
5000
children
will
be
diagnosed
with
mitochondrial
disease
in
their
life,mes.
• (objec,ve
respiratory
chain
deficiency
or
pathogenic
mtDNA
muta,on)
50%
onset
in
the
first
5
years
Naviaux
R.K.
Developing
a
systema,c
approach
to
the
diagnosis
and
classifica,on
of
mitochondrial
disease
Mitochondrion,
4
(2004),
pp.
351–361
7. Endosymbiosis
• Popularized in 1967 by Lynn Sagan Margulis.
• Early eukaryotic cells were invaded by bacteria adapted to oxygen-
rich atmosphere becoming the permanent endosymbionts we call
mitochondria.
• All eukaryotic cells have mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
• In the course of evolution most of mtDNA genes have been
transferred to the nuclear genome
Sagan Margulis L. On the origin of mitosing cells. J Theroet Biol. 1967; 14:255–274.
8. MECHANISMS OF DISEASE
mtDNA
muta,ons
Nuclear
muta,ons
affec,ng
mitochondrial
proteins
• Muta,ons
in
nuclear
genes
are
increasingly
becoming
recognized
as
the
major
cause
of
pediatric
mitochondrial
disease
Signaling
• Mt
deple,on
• Mt
mul,ple
dele,ons
9. EPIGENETIC FACTORS
LHON EXAMPLE
• mtDNA homoplasmic mutation ≈ 1 in 300 population
• Blindness ≈ 1 in 20 000
• Males are four to five times more likely to be affected.
• DEAFNESS
m.1555A4G mutation
• Isolated (non-syndromic) deafness
- Spontaneously
- In response to environmental exposure to
aminoglycoside antibiotics.
– Chinnery, P.F.et als Epigenetics, epidemiology and
mitochondrial DNA diseases. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2012
10. France,
debut
de
XIXe
siècle:
Ariane
et
Thésée.
Musée
des
beaux
arts,
Rouen.
11. Defects of mtDNA maintenance
Defects in replication machinery
• The replicative machinery (replisome) includes the catalytic
subunit of polymerase (encoded by the POLG gene), the
accessory subunit (encoded by POLG2), and the replicative
helicases Twinkle (encoded by PEO1) and DNA2
Defects involving the dNTP pool
• An adequate and balanced pool of the four dNTPs (dATP, dGTP,
dCTP and dTTP) is necessary to provide the precursors of
mtDNA replication
DiMauro S,, Schon EA, Carelli V, Hirano M. The clinical maze of
mitochondrial neurology Nat Rev Neurol. 2013.
12. Classification on the basis of functionally
distinct molecular defects:
Muta,ons
in
GENES
• Encoding
subunits
of
the
respiratory
chain
• Encoding
assembly
proteins
• Affec,ng
mtDNA
transla,on
• Controlling
the
phospholipid
composi,on
of
the
mitochondrial
inner
membrane
(MIM)
• Involved
in
mitochondrial
dynamics.
DiMauro S,, Schon EA, Carelli V, Hirano M. The clinical maze of
mitochondrial neurology Nat Rev Neurol. 2013.
13. Taylor RW, Turnbull DM. MITOCHONDRIAL DNA MUTATIONS IN HUMAN
DISEASE. Nature reviews Genetics. 2005;6(5):389-402. doi:10.1038/nrg1606.
14.
15. Therapeutic Strategies
o Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis
o Gene therapy
– Vectors (viral or non viral) -mediated gene
transfer
• insertion of the corrective gene into an unpredictable
location within the chromosome : mutagenesis
• immunological response
o Mitochondrial replacement techniques
o Have raised questions on issues of safety and
ethics.
16. Therapeutic Strategies
Mitochondrial replacement techniques /
Cytoplasmic transfer
• For mtDNA-related diseases
• Nucleus of an oocyte from a carrier is transferred
to an enucleated oocyte from a normal donor
– the embryo will have the nDNA of the biological
parents but the mtDNA of a normal mitochondrial
donor.
– In human oocytes, cells were found to develop into
normal blastocysts and contain exclusively donor
mtDNA.
17. • Citoplasmatic transfer was done in the 90’s in USA for
unfertility problems
• Was banned in 2002 by FDA due to ethical and safety
concerns
– What is different from bone marrow transplant say critics, about
mitochondrial replacement, is that DNA from the donor will be
passed down future generations
Fig: The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority UK
18. Fig: The Human Fertilisation and Embryology
Authority UK
19. “could have uncontrollable and
unforeseeable consequences”
and would inevitably “affect the
human species as a whole”.
The House of Lords voted by 280 votes to 48
- March to August - The UK fertility
regulator will develop licensing
- Early Summer - The team in Newcastle
publish the final safety experiments
demanded by the regulator
- 29 October - Regulations come into
force
- 24 November - Clinics can apply to the
regulator for a licence
- By the end of 2015 - the first attempt
could take place
20. The hidden risks for ‘three-person’ babies
• Mismatch between nuclear and mtDNA
• Garry Hamilton : Nature 525, 444–446 (September 2015) doi:
10.1038/525444a
• Gretchen Vogel, Erik Stokstad: Science DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa7793
• Mitochondria Replacement can change
the expression profiles of nuclear genes
21. M Tachibana et al. Nature 000, 1-6 (2009) doi:10.1038/nature08368
Mito and Tracker, the first primates to be produced by
spindle-chromosomal complex transfer (ST) into enucleated
oocytes.
Mitochondrial gene replacement in primate offspring and
embryonic stem cells Nature 461, 367-372 (17 September 2009)
Alive and well at three years old
M. Tachibana, et al. Towards germline gene therapy of inherited
mitochondrial diseases Nature, 493 (2013), pp. 627–631
22.
23. a polar body contains few mitochondria
and shares the same genomic material as
an oocyte, polar body transfer will prevent
the transmission of mtDNA variants
24. Delivery
of
recombinant
mtDNA
vectors
that
express
func,onal
replacement
copies
of
defec,ve
genes
from
within
the
mitochondrial
matrix.
Recoding
and
transloca,on
of
mitochondrial
genes
to
be
expressed
from
the
nucleus,
and
their
gene
products
subsequently
targeted
to
mitochondria.
Therapeutic Strategies
25. Therapeutic Strategies
Most promising strategy for genetic manipulation of
mtDNA is directed to inhibiting mutant mtDNA
replication and transcription.
Based in some characteristics of mtDNA
• mtDNA is present in multiple copies per cell
– somatic cells contain approximately 1,000 copies
– Oocytes ≈ 100,000 copies
– ≈ 1 to 10 copies in each mitochondrion.
P. Sutovsky, R.D. Moreno, J. Ramalho-Santos, T. Domiko, C. Simerly, G. Schatten
Ubiquitin tag for sperm mitocondria Nature, 403 (1999)
26. • mtDNA replicates continuously and
independently of cell division
• Cells with mtDNA mutations are
heteroplasmic
– containing different proportions of normal
and mutant mtDNA
– resulting from random segregation of
mtDNA during mitochondrial replication.
There
is
a
propor,on
of
mutated
mtDNA
necessary
for
the
disease
to
be
expressed
STRATEGY
IS
TO
INDUCE
A
SHIFT
IN
THIS
PROPORTION
27. Shifting of heteroplasmy
Lower the mutation load to subthreshold levels.
- Santra S, et al. Ketogenic treatment reduces deleted
mitochondrial DNAs in cultured human cells. Ann Neurol.
2004
- Clark et al. showed that necrosis of myopathic patient’s
skeletal muscle was followed by regeneration from
satellite cells without mutant mtDNA.
- Genetic approach:
- use of restriction endonucleases to eliminate specific
pathogenic mutations.
- GENOME EDITING
28. Heteroplasmic Shift
2. Importación mitocondrial
Nat. Genet., 15 (1997), pp. 212–215
Antigenomic PNA treatment for cells with A8344G MERRF
mutation
PNAs specifically inhibited replication of mutant but not wild-type
mtDNA templates
29. Genome editing starts with DNA double stranded cleavage
Nonhomologous end-
joining (NHEJ)
Homologous
recombination (HR)
Donor DNA
Figure adapted from : Hsu, Lander, Zhang: Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering; Cell 2014
And
endogenous mechanisms of DNA repair
RESTRICTION
ENZYMES
30. Tanaka M, et al. Gene therapy for mitochondrial
disease by delivering restriction endonuclease SmaI
into mitochondria. J Biomed Sci. 2002
• T8993G mutation in mtDNA affects subunit 6 of
mitochondrial ATPase
– NARP (neuropathy, ataxia and retinitis pigmentosa)
– MILS (maternally-inherited Leigh syndrome)
• heteroplasmic conditions
• MILS usually has >90%mutant loads
• NARP usually associated with mutant loads of 60–90%.
– Mutant loads of less than 60% are generally
asymptomatic.
31. Tanaka M, et al. Gene therapy for mitochondrial disease by
delivering restriction endonuclease SmaI into mitochondria.
J Biomed Sci. 2002
32. This
destruc,on
proceeds
in
a
,me-‐
and
dose-‐dependent
manner
and
results
in
cells
with
significantly
increased
rates
of
oxygen
consumpCon
and
ATP
producCon.
Selec,ve
destruc,on
of
mutant
mtDNA.
Infec,on
with
an
adenovirus,
encoding
this
mitochondrially
targeted
R.XmaI
restric,on
endonuclease
T8993G
transversion
generates
a
unique
recogniCon
site
for
SmaI
and
XmaI
restric,on
endonucleases
(REs),
which
is
absent
in
wild
type
mtDNA
33. • T8993G
• Although more than 200 mutations in mt
DNA are asssociated with mt disease
• Only human mutation that generates a
unique restriction site that can be targeted
using the naturally occurring restriction
endonuclease smaI
34. Genome editing starts with DNA double stranded cleavage
Nonhomologous end-
joining (NHEJ)
Homologous
recombination (HR)
Donor DNA
ZFNs
CAS9:sgRNATALENs
HEs
Figure adapted from : Hsu, Lander, Zhang: Development and Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for Genome Engineering; Cell 2014
And
endogenous mechanisms of DNA repair
35. There are currently four families of
engineered nucleases being used:
Zinc
finger
nucleases
(ZFNs),
Transcrip,on
Ac,vator-‐Like
Effector
Nucleases
(TALENs),
CRISPR/Cas
system
Engineered
meganuclease-‐engineered
homing
endonucleases.
(Cai and Yang, 2014; Gaj et al., 2013; Kim and Kim, 2014).
36. All these technics utilize
based
on
engineered
proteins
or
RNA
that
target,
and
specifically
bind,
to
a
designated
sequence
of
the
genome.
at
specific
loca,ons
double
stranded
breaks
(DSBs)
in
DNA
Restric,on
enzymes
37. ZINC FINGERS NUCLEASES
• Developed in early 2000s
Bibikova, M.,et als. Enhancing gene targeting with designed zinc finger nucleases.
Science 2003
Wolfe, S.A et als DNA recognition by Cys2His2 zinc finger proteins. Annu. Rev. Biophys.
Biomol. Struct. 2000
• The fusion of two components forms a ZFN:
– a sequence of 3 to 6 zinc finger proteins
• each zinc finger recognizes a DNA 3 base pair sequence
– the restriction enzyme FokI which only cleaves DNA when
it forms dimers
DNA template.
2.2. Transcription activator-like effector nucleases
Shortly after the discovery of ZFNs for specific genome editing, a
new class of DNA binding proteins was discovered in gram-negative
plant pathogens such as Xanthomonas termed transcription activa-
tor-like effectors (TALEs) (Fujikawa et al., 2006; Wright et al., 2014).
Each TAL effector protein contains 34 amino acids that were found
to be largely similar in composition except for two amino acids at
positions 12 and 13 (Boch et al., 2009; Moscou and Bogdanove,
2009). A total of four TAL effector proteins with specific domains
were found to bind each of the four individual amino acids guanine
(G), adenine (A), cytosine (C), and thymine (T), respectively along
the major groove of the DNA double helix. This 1:1 binding affinity
between TALEs and the four DNA bases allows for the construction
of a TALE array that can recognize any DNA sequence.
target any 20-bp DNA sequence (Mali et al., 2013). The following
details of the DNA recognition and subsequent double stranded
cleavage by CRISPR/Cas9 have been the subject of many reviews
(Doudna et al., 2014; Liu and Fan, 2014; Sander and Joung, 2014).
An illustration of the CRISPR/Cas9 system is shown in Fig.4.
The CRISPR/Cas9 system represents a departure from the
technologies of ZFNs and TALENs. The Cas9 endonuclease operates
as a monomer to induce DSBs, whereas the FokI in ZFNs and TALENs
operates as a dimer. The enzymatic machinery remains the same for
any intended target; only the guide RNA provides DNA binding
affinity and therefore targeting. Thus, CRISPR/Cas9 requires no
protein engineering foranychange in target,onlysynthesis of a new
guide RNA. This simplicity has dramatically reduced the time
needed to conduct genome engineering experiments.
3. Evidence of therapeutic potential
Each of the three technologies described above have spent
variable amounts of time being tested for therapeutic efficacy and
Fig. 2. An illustration of a zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) pair is shown. A ZFN consists of left and right monomers of typically 3 to 6 zinc finger proteins (ZFPs) and the FokI
restriction enzyme, which cleaves DNA when a dimer is formed. Each ZFP recognizes a target 3 base pair DNA sequence.
J.S. LaFountaine et al. / International Journal of Pharmaceutics 494 (2015)
180–194
38.
39. ZFNs other uses
• Modify triplet repeats disorders .
• Generate double-strand breaks (DSBs) to
shrink CAG repeats to less toxic lengths
• Mittelman, D et als. Zinc-finger directed double-strand breaks within
CAG repeat tracts promote repeat instability in human cells. Proc
Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009
40. TALENs èMito-TALENs
Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases
Discovered in gram-negative plant pathogens such as Xanthomonas termed
transcription activator-like effectors (TALEs)
Fujikawa, T. et als , . Mol. Plant Microbe Interact 2006.
Wright, D.A., et als. TALEN-mediated genome editing: prospects and perspectives. Biochem. J. 2014
Bacman,
R.
et
als
Specific
elimina2on
of
mutant
mitochondrial
genomes
in
pa2ent-‐derived
cells
by
mitoTALENs,”
Nature
Medicine,
2013.
• TALEN
has
been
reengineered
to
localize
to
mitochondria
and
specifically
remove
truncated
dysfunc,onal
mtDNAS
In
cybrid
cells-‐
with
LHON
muta,on-‐
complex
I
ac,vity
was
increased.
J.S. LaFountaine et al. / International Journal of Pharmaceutics 494 (2015)
180–194
41. ”The CRISPRs/Cas9 Revolution.
Came from studies of how bacteria fight infection
A CRISPR array is composed of a series of repeats interspaced by
spacer sequences acquired from invading genomes
This sequence is transcribed as crRNA which guides CRISPR-
associated (Cas) protein(s) to analogous invading genomes
introducing a DSB in the pathogenic DNA, inhibiting integration and
replication of the pathogen
Research tool and a cause for public concern.
turned out to be a system that can be programmed for binding and
cutting DNA.
Terns, M.P., Terns, R.M., 2011. CRISPR-based adaptive immune systems.
Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 14, 321–327.
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
44. Science 17 August 2012: Vol. 337 no. 6096 pp. 816-821
DOI: 10.1126/science.122582
Umeå University, Sweden.
University of California, Berkeley USA.
“We identify a DNA interference mechanism involving a dual-RNA structure that
directs a Cas9 endonuclease to introduce site-specific double-stranded breaks in
target DNA.”
“We propose an alternative methodology based on RNA-programmed Cas9 that
could offer considerable potential for gene-targeting and genome-editing
applications.”
45. Genome Editing
Cas9
endonuclease
operates
as
a
monomer
to
induce
DSBs
• FokI
in
ZFNs
and
TALENs
operates
as
a
dimer.
The
guide
RNA
(gRNA)
provides
the
targe,ng
DNA
.
CRISPR/Cas9
requires
no
protein
engineering
for
any
change
in
target,
only
synthesis
of
a
new
guide
RNA.
(gRNA)
46. • CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing can be
successfully employed to manipulate the mitochondrial
genome.
• Still needs further study to understand how gRNA can be
translocated into the mitochondria matrix together with
mitochondria-localizing Cas9.
47. February, 2013
Multiple guide sequences can be encoded into a single CRISPR array to
enable simultaneous editing of several sites within the mammalian genome,
demonstrating easy programmability and wide applicability of the RNA-
guided nuclease technology.
48. Cas9 from Streptococcus pyogenes, known as spCas9, introducedas an RNA-
guided endonuclease by Charpentier and Doudna in 2012 has been the gold-
standard for CRISPR-based genome editing
Cell 163, 1–13, October 22, 2015 ª2015
Elsevier Inc.
Feng Zhang
Broad Institute of MIT
and Harvard, Cambridge
49. Shift Heteroplasmic
NZB/BALB heteroplasmic mice, which contain two mtDNA haplotypes, BALB and NZB
Selective Elimination of Mitochondrial Mutations in the Germline by Genome Editing Reddy,
Pradeep et al. Cell , 2015
C NZB
T BALB
- Specific elimination of BALB
mtDNA in NZB/BALB oocytes
and one-cell embryos.
- Prevented germline
transmission
- Using either mitochondria-
targeted restriction mito-ApaLi
or TALENS.