1. Gandhi was a critic of modern civilization, arguing it prioritized material comfort over spiritual goals and neglected the soul. He criticized aspects like machines, doctors, lawyers, and political structures like parliaments. 2. Gandhi saw modern civilization as overly focused on bodily welfare at the expense of higher spiritual human values. While not rejecting the West entirely, he argued modern civilization developed in a way that overlooked the spiritual side of human existence. 3. Gandhi expressed his criticisms of modern civilization in his book Hind Swaraj. Many ignored or opposed his views, seeing him as representing bygone eras. His criticisms centered on violence and terrorism rising with modern civilization, arguing India's future lay in peaceful

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Gandhiji’s Critique of Modern Civilization and its Relevance in
Present Day
Rahul Kabiraj
Project Fellow
Vidyasagar University
Midnapore, West Bengal
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s reputation as the Indian spiritual and political leader who
coordinated and led a successful national struggle for independence against British imperial rule
on the strength of a non-violent movement survive largely intact (Zachariah 1990, 3). For a long
time Gandhiji holding up the batten of Indian freedom movement against the imperialist British
government. Along with this identity Gandhiji was an influential figure in the history of India and
modern Indian political theory who gained international fame for his effective ideologies. Gandhi
acknowledged traditional concepts and symbols but without reluctance introduced interpretations
and ideas from foreign to Indian culture that shows the importance of Western humanism in his
approach. Gandhiji was a national leader, prophet and a teacher of a high order. He laid emphasis
on some original ideas for the reconstruction of society and for the uplift of human beings. In this
way he is considered as a moral and political thinker. In fact he was like the Buddha and Socrates,
who experimented with truth and preached those truth to the common people. Gandhiji’s greatness
lies in the fact that he had a high moral character. Gandhiji emphasized different moral concepts
of human life in his political ideas, like Ahimsha, Satyagraha etc.
Criticism of modern civilization is a very important area of Gandhiji’s political philosophy.
In his own way, Gandhiji had been a critique of modern civilization. He criticized almost each and
every aspect of modern civilization. Whether it was the machine, profession of Doctors layers or
various political structures like State/Parliament, Gandhiji could never confirm his appreciation of
these signifiers of modernity. He contrasted Western technology on the basis that the machine
civilization brought with it the mistreatment of men and the concentration of power (Lal 2009, 281
-313).
Gandhiji did not reject the western civilization per se, rather his grouse was only against
western civilization as it was developed in the wake of four major European intellectual

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revolutions viz. Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment, and Industrial Revolution. He
indicated modern civilization by saying that it had made material comforts and bodily welfare as
prime values of human life. In the process it has neglected the higher spiritual goals of human
existence as if human being is made only of the body and not of the soul. He looked upon human
being as a fine combination of body, mind and soul working in unison. In his opinion every human
being carries a speck of divinity in himself/herself. Thus modern civilization totally overlooked
the spiritual aspects of human existence. Main theme of this article is to discuss Gandhiji’s
criticism of modern civilization. Especially how the notion of modern civilization degrading our
human values in present day.
Non-violence was an important aspect of Gandhiji’s political thought, but Gandhiji was
not only committed to non-violence; he was also committed to truth and other important human
values. When two values are in conflict, willingly or unwillingly, the individual must choose. What
holds true for an individual holds for societies and civilization as well. In Gandhiji’s perception
Western or modern might have been more violent than pre-British Indian civilization; but the
question of Gandhiji thinking of Indian civilization prior to colonization as non-violent does not
arise (Jain 2006, 7).
Once one recognizes that in every social order there is bound to be a multiplicity of values
and that it is highly unlikely that any significant value would be entirely absent from any social
order, it becomes evident that two social orders cannot be meaningfully compared merely in terms
of the presence or absence of this or that value. Real societies differ not so much with respect to
presence or absence of significant values as they do with respect to the domains of different values.
When different values are in conflict, as mentioned above, individuals and societies must resolve
these conflicts in some way. One society might accord to a particular value a large domain of
predominance while another society only a relatively small domain. The meta-principle which
determines the domain and sub-domain of every value is in fundamental sense the most important
constitutive element of a civilization. It is this meta- principle which determines what is right and
what is wrong. From Gandhiji’s statement that, Civilization is that mode of conduct which points
out to man the path of duty’ (Jain 2006, 9). It appears that Gandhiji’s intuiting understanding of
what a civilization is mainly about was probably very close to identifying with the meta-principle
determining the domains and sub domains of values.

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If we abstract from the other constitutive feature of civilizations and concentrate only on
the normative aspects then it is clear that statements regarding superiority or inferiority of a
civilization in relation to another civilization are really statements proclaiming superiority or
inferiority of the meta-principle embodied in the former civilization in relation to the meta-
principle embodied in the latter. When a person belongs to or is a product of a particular civilization
then it would be well-night impossible for him not to internalize the meta-principle embodied in
the civilization. From the vantage point of the internalized meta-principle any civilization with a
radically different meta-principle is bound to be found wanting. Europeans found all non-European
civilizations fundamentally flawed. Although there were major non-Indian influences on Gandhiji,
there can be a little doubt that notwithstanding these influences the implicit in the Indian society
of those days. Someone who had internalized the normative core of the Indian civilizational
structure was bound to have the kind of judgment that Gandhiji had regarding the radically
different modern civilization. Although the above way of looking at normative structure of
societies does provide an understanding of Gandhiji’s critique of modernity, it also trivializes the
critique. Given any two different civilizations any of them would turn out to be superior to the
other from its own vantage point. The meaningful comparisons are possible only when there are
objective criteria in terms of which the meta-principles themselves could be evaluated. It is argued
in what follows that in Gandhiji’s writings, particularly in Hind Swaraj, there are indications
regarding the objective criteria which can be used for evaluating different social arrangements
from normative perspective under certain conditions, although not in all instances; and that it is
highly likely that while formulating his critique of modernity, Gandhiji had these objective criteria
in his mind, although in all probability only intuitively.
Gandhiji’s criticism of modern civilization is discussed broadly in his book Hind Swaraj,
in Gandhiji’s own words Hind Swaraj is a sever condemnation of modern civilization (Jain 2006,
9). Many people ignored this book; some opposed without reading it; and some others violently
disagreed with Gandhiji and ridiculed it. Some others considered that Gandhiji was a
representative of the bygone ages. Even some of the close followers of Gandhiji like Jawaharlal
Nehru did not agree with him. Gandhiji’s “political Guru” Gokhale felt that Gandhi would revise
his thoughts over the years. The communist leaders like S.A. Dange and M.N. Roy were critical
of Gandhiji from the Marxian angels of Class struggle (Vijayam 2009, 20 – 22). Thus the book of
Hind Swaraj was either criticized or ignored, an important account of criticism of modern

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civilization posed in this book by Gandhiji. Many people did not have access to the book as it was
banned by the government the moment it was published in Guajarati and the ban was finally lifted
only in 1938 during the Congress rule.
In the book Gandhiji addressed some basic issues that were confronting the contemporary
society, in particular the rising trend of violence and terrorism. Some of the Indians abroad were
also attracted towards violence and they advocated violent revolution in India. But Gandhiji was
firmly opposed to the growing trend of terrorism and violence. Gandhiji was in search of a higher
alternative to violence and terrorism. He firmly believed that India’s future was intricately
interconnected with peaceful social change. By that time the British were firmly rooted in the
Indian soil and they were spreading their tentacles in all aspects of life. The introduction of
railways, legal system, medicine and education began to change the nature of Indian society.
Gandhiji examined the nature of British Colonialism. He went onto the root of the problem. In the
process he realized that the real problem lies the modern civilization itself (Vijayam 2009, 20 –
22). He considered the modern civilization is much more inimical than the colonialism. He
considered that the root of the troubles in India lay in the adoption of modern civilization itself.
Gandhiji juxtaposed modern civilization with the ethical living. He strongly felt that the strength
of India and the orient lies in its ethical living. Preserving and enhancing the moral character of its
people and the institutions was paramount importance for him (Vijayam 2009, 20 – 22). But how
he convince people about the evils of the modern civilization? Because, even the educated started
believing in the modern civilization. He felt that India was degrading and destroying itself by
accepting and emulating the Western institutions. Gandhiji firmly believe that the Western
civilization and the rise of violence were inseparable (Heredia 1999, 281 – 313). He strongly felt
that non-violence and factory civilization were incompatible and they cannot co-exist. In order to
convey his massage, in Hind Swaraj Gandhiji adopted the method of a dialogue between a Reader
(of a magazine) and the Editor. It is significant to note that Gandhiji did not adopt the traditional
model of conversation between a Guru and Sishya. Gandhiji thus avoided the hierarchical problem
and the feeling of preaching to some one. The dialogue was between two equal partners foe
exchange of views on problems that confront the contemporary society. He explored how to arrive
at an amicable solution so that India would again its preeminent position in the comity of nations
(Heredia 1999, 281 – 313).

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Gandhiji believed that the real strength is not in its military might. India’s greatness is
closely linked with its ethical behavior. Gandhiji clearly realized that politics have an important
place in resolving people’s problems in a nation. But his conception of politics was that they serve
people, but not dominate over people (Rudolph, Rudolph 2010, 36). Gandhiji believed in
nationalism and he also realized its strength in solving its problems but his conception of
nationalism was not hindrance to the development of international peace and amity. He wanted to
clarify the meaning of swaraj, for Gandhiji swaraj was the quest for self-improvement. Hind
Swaraj means “rule of dharma” in an ideal state (Vijayam 2009, 20 – 22). In its simplicity was the
crux of the matter. Without simplicity there cannot be any ethical living and fellow feeling.
Gandhiji clearly felt in his Hind Swaraj, that the modern civilization destroys ethical living as it
built on the acquisition of material wealth. The mad rush for wealth destroyed the moral fiber of
the people. The acquisitive nature will retard the development of the personality of the individuals.
Ethical living and morality that cements and brings cohesion in society. Gandhiji felt that these
qualities are missing in the modern western civilizations as it haps on acquisition of wealth by any
means (Vijayam 2009, 20 – 22).
Now I try to discuss about how Gandhiji concentrate about the bad effect of modern
civilization which influenced the life and the moral values of Indian society.
Evils of Factory Civilization
Gandhiji realized that the factory civilization which is that hall mark of modern civilization, in
fact, reduces the value of human being. Gandhiji, thus, had a fundamental objection to
industrialization as it widens the gap between the rich and the poor and industrialization breeds
hatred and alienation. Both Gandhiji and Karl Marx were concerned with the problem of
alienation. Marx thought that class struggle would end alienation and it would ultimately lead to
harmony in society. On the other hand, Gandhiji were well aware that class struggle would led to
violence and confrontation as well as hatred, it would further perpetuate alienation in one from the
other (Vijayam 2009, 20 – 22). Gandhiji firmly believed in the process of reconciliation of conflicts
in a peaceful way.
Gandhiji was also well aware the evils of centralization – of power and positions and
leading to acquisition of power by a few at the expense of the teeming millions of people. Gandhiji
was also opposed to industrialization as it would contribute the growth of cities and destruction of

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the harmonious life in the rural surroundings. In the cities slums and shanties are invariable. In
cities and towns the inequalities are much more glaring and the exploitation would go unabated.
We should not forget that Gandhiji was well aware of positive contribution of the Western
civilization, such as rule of law and constitutionalism. Civil liberty, equality, rights and economic
development were some of its positive gains. But Gandhiji realized that modern civilization is
based of competition and acquisition of wealth and concentration of power. Hence, the positive
gains are small, compared to the evils it perpetuates. Gandhiji wanted to combine rights with
duties, empirical knowledge with moral right, economic development with spiritual progress,
religious toleration with freedom of, or from religious beliefs and women’s liberation with a
broader conception of humanity.
Colonialism and Capitalism
Gandhiji felt that modern civilization is at the root of the colonial problem. When Linin connected
colonialism to capitalism, Gandhiji linked colonialism to modernity itself. Gandhiji came to the
conclusion that Western civilization was based on the brute force. Gandhiji opined that even for
West, modernization is an evil, and in the case of India and the Orient, it is worse. Gandhiji saw
that colonialism as the fruit of modern civilization. This truth must be grasped by all. Gandhiji was
also clear on one point, morality is far superior to any constitution or positive law.
Quality of Life
Gandhiji thought that in the modern civilization man is become a slave of the machine. Machines
overtake men. The West equates “Civilization” with the progress of industrialization. The West
divides the world as “Civilized and non-Civilized” – the Haves and have-notes. But Gandhiji’s
yardstick for progress was quite different. Gandhiji’s conception of civilization is not right based,
duty based. “Civilization is that mode of conduct which points out to man the path of duty.” Where
there is poverty that is happiness; where there is no discrimination that is happiness; where people
have contentment that is happiness. In other words, Gandhiji was concerned with the improvement
of quality of life rather than quantitative development.
Modern Civilization is A Challenge to the Mankind
It is true that industrialization has led to an enormous development of productive forces, making
human life prosperous and comfortable. But the offshoots of industrialization are materialism,

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consumerism, urbanism and competitive economy. The effect of all these factors is that the moral
and ethical values necessary to regulate human life are marginalized and they have come to occupy
only a secondary place in the lives of individuals and society. Industrialization, in the course of its
progress, has transformed human life - its institutions and value system and has generated social
and moral problems that mankind finds almost impossible to tackle. Industrialism and materialism
inevitably lead to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of the few and thereby divide
the society into two - one of a few rich and the other of the many poor. This is could be identified
as the root cause of war, violence and conflicts in the society. The research and development of
science and technology are directed to satisfying the greed for economic gains. This has led to the
invention of deadly weapons of mass destruction. Industrialization of the western kind, according
to Gandhi, was a curse for mankind as it depended entirely on exploitation. His view was that "any
plan which exploits the raw materials of a country and neglects the potentially more powerful
manpower is lopsided and can never tend to establish human equality”. As stated by Gandhi, “I
cannot recall a single good point in connection with machinery. Books can be written to
demonstrate its evils.” Thus the germs of self- destruction are inherent in it. IT revolution has gone
a step further. This phase of industrialization has produced a replica of man itself called robot,
which possess artificial intelligence, artificial memory and huge physical power to handle any
difficult task. This marks the process of dehumanization of man which was started by factory
system reaching its culmination at the IT Phase. Hence the reconstruction of society without
resorting to large scale industries and the so-called advanced technology is to be viewed seriously.
Gandhi foresaw this. In his programme for social reconstruction he took care to avoid these
dangers and ensured the gradual progress of both individuals and society as a whole to the heights
of truth and non-violence. It is a new society which represents all the elements of progressive
modern society minus large scale industries and technology. However, it does not mean that
Gandhiji was totally against all kinds of machinery and industrialization. He supported some
essential big industries maintained by the state and village industries. His objection against large
scale industries was that they are exploitative of man. They produced unemployment and hence
are violative of the spirit of Sarvodaya. Gandhi recognized that machinery has a place in the
economy of his concept. He says “what I object to is the ‘craze’ for machinery, not machinery as
such”. Machine in itself may not be bad, but the fault lies with man who has made indiscriminate
use of it and produced disastrous consequences. Gandhi had no objection to advanced technology

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if poverty and unemployment could be eradicated through it and its benefits are made available to
all. According to him honest humanitarian consideration and not greed should be the motivating
force. If greed was replaced by love, then exploitation will vanish.
Today it is impossible to live without internet for a little time. This is the era of Wi-Fi,
every minute, every second we need technology for our livelihood. Technology is obviously
important for the growth of civilization, I am not opposing this, but it is very bad to say that, in
present day’s technology affecting our ethical value very roughly, hindrances comes mainly from
the social networking side like Facebook, Whats App, You Tube, Twitter etc. Gandhiji always
opposed modern civilization because, modern civilization is centered on the development of body
and man’s moral potentialities remain undermined. In recent times there are some news comes
from all parts of India that how by the use of modern technology we are losing our human values.
In following I discuss some of the incidents that will prove that how the modern civilization and
technology is still very harmful for ourselves.
In the early 2000’s, the Web became much more personal as social networking websites
were introduced and embraced by the masses. Social networking sites (SNS) are defined as web-
based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a limited
system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse
their list of connections and those made by others within the system. The nature and terms of these
connections may vary from site to site. What makes social networking websites unique is not that
they allow individuals to meet strangers, but rather that they enable users to articulate and make
visible their social networks. While SNSs have implemented a wide variety of technical features,
their backbone consists of visible profiles that display an articulated list of Friends1 who are also
users of the system (Boyd, Ellison 2005, 210 – 212). Profiles are unique pages where one can “type
oneself into being”. Since their introduction, social networking websites have attracted millions of
users, many of whom integrated their sites as a daily practice. Today, Facebook is the largest social
network in the world. It started as a website limited to Harvard students only, but quickly expanded
to additional colleges in the Boston area, other Ivy League schools, then eventually just about
every University in North America, up till now where 1 out of every 7 people on earth is on
Facebook. It was founded by Mark Zuckerberg and some of fellow college roommates at Harvard
University, including Eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum and Chris Hughes.

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The World Wide Web has been radically transformed, shifting from an information repository to
a more social environment where users are not only passive receivers or active harvesters of
information, but also creators of content. Web-based technologies now encompass the socializing
features of virtual spaces that have emerged as zones for information sharing, collaboration, and
community formation and extension. Social media are technologies that facilitate social
interaction, make possible collaboration, and enable deliberation across stakeholders. These
technologies now include blogs, wikis, media (audio, photo, video, text) sharing tools, networking
platforms (including Facebook), and virtual worlds (Zeevi 2013, 75).
The negative effects of these social networking sites overweigh the positive ones. These
sites have caused some potential harm to society. The students become victims of social networks
more often than anyone else. This is because of the reason that when they are studying or searching
their course material online, they get attracted to these sites to kill the boredom in their study time,
diverting their attention from their work. Other negative side effects of social networking websites
include the following:
Reduction in Real Human Contact
The more time the students spend on these social media sites, the less time they will spend
socializing in person with others. This reduces their communication skills. They will not be able
to communicate and socialize effectively in person with others. The employers are getting more
and more unsatisfied with the communication skills of the fresh graduates due to this reason. The
effective communication skills are key to success in the real world.
Reduces Command over Language Use Age and Creative Writing Skills
Students mostly use slang words or shortened forms of words on social networking sites. They
start relying on the computer grammar and spelling check features. This reduces their command
over the language and their creative writing skills.
Effect on Health
The excessive use of these sites affect the mental as well as physical health. Students do not take
their meals on time and take proper rest. They take excessive amount of coffee or tea to remain
active and focused which effects negatively on their health.

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The overuse of these sites on a daily basis has many negative effects on the physical and
mental health of students making them lethargic and unmotivated to create contact with the people
in person. The parents should check and balance on their children when they use the internet. They
should be on guard whether they are using it for appropriate time period or not. The peers and
teachers should also help students make them aware of the negative effects and explain what they
are losing in the real world by sticking to these social networking sites.
A 2010 Case Western Reserve School of Medicine study showed hyper-networking (more
than three hours on social networks per day) and hyper texting (more than 120 text messages per
day) correlated with unhealthy behaviors in teens, including drinking, smoking and sexual activity.
Hyper-networking was also associated with depression, substance abuse, poor sleep patterns,
suicide and poor academic performance.
People as Products
According to e-Marketer, global social networking revenues will exceed $10 billion 2013. Most
social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, Tumblr, and many others offer their services to
members for free, yet still net significant income. In fact, according to Mashable Business,
Facebook earned $1.6 billion in revenues in the first half of 2011, and was on pace to achieve more
than $3 billion in revenues by year end.
If the services are free, then, how do social networking websites earn such staggering sums
of money? The answer is that you, the social network user, is the product these online giants sell
to generate revenue. According to BBC News, social networking sites are uniquely positioned to
make money by matching people to products. Since you generate content on a social networking
site that indicates your interests, social and work background, and a great deal of other information
about your personal preferences, the social networking sites can target advertisements specifically
to you, a service for which advertisers are willing to pay significant amounts of money.
Diminishing Privacy
While many users feel their personal data is safe on social networking sites because they have set
high levels of security settings, research suggests this is not the case. According to a 2010
Northeastern University and Max Planck Institute for Software Systems study, researchers created

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an algorithm to discover an individual's personal attributes by examining the one thing that most
people leave public even when all other privacy settings are place: their friend list. Using the
algorithm, researchers were able to infer many personal traits merely from friend lists, including
educational level, university attended, hometown and other private data.
Many social networking sites regularly make changes that require you to update your
settings in order to maintain your privacy, and frequently it is difficult to discover how enable
settings for your appropriate level of privacy. Because of this, many users do not realize how much
private information they are allowing to become public by not re-evaluating settings every time
the network makes a change. Tagging can also serve as an invasion of privacy. When social
networking sites have a “tagging” option, unless you disable it, friends or acquaintances may be
able to tag you in posts or photographs that reveal sensitive data.
Isolation
While on the surface it appears social networking brings people together across the Internet, in a
larger sense it may create social isolation, according to a BBC News report. As people spend
increasing amounts of time on social networks, they experience less face-to-face interaction.
Scientists have evaluated social isolation in many studies, and have determined that it can lead to
a host of mental, psychological, emotional and physical problems including depression, anxiety,
somatic complaints and many others. In fact, a University of Illinois at Chicago School of
Medicine animal study showed social isolation impaired brain hormones, which is the likely
reason socially isolated people experience tremendous levels of stress, aggression, anxiety and
other mental issues.
Others
While the above studies show actual correlations between social networking and negative
consequences, others argue that many other negative consequences may exist that have not yet
been studied. Some of the harmful effects people suggest social networking has that have not yet
yielded conclusive study results include:
 Encouraging poor grammar, usage, and spelling.

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 Allowing the spread of misinformation that may be perceived as fact even in light of evidence
to the contrary.
 Exposing children to online predators.
 Creating a culture in which a single mistake such as a racy picture or poorly thought-out
comment can cause irreparable harm to your reputation.
 Decreasing productivity as workers habitually check social networking sites while they
should be working.
 Providing information that increases the risk of identity theft.
 Creating a platform for cyber bullying.
Conclusion
In such a dismal situation Gandhiji appears to be a beacon light even to some people in the West.
Gandhiji provided an alternate model of development. His method of Satyagraha appears to be a
most potent force as it gives enormous scope for individual action as well as non-cooperation
with evil. Gandhiji harped on restoration of moral values and he made human being as the
measure of development. His emphasis on purity of ends and means and openness of methods is
gaining importance. The rights based approach has reached a dead-end. If not today, in the years
to come people will look to Gandhi as the answer as he emphasized on duties and human values.
When Gandhi described the European civilization as a seven-day wonder, many thought that it
was a hyperbole. Gandhi was dubbed by some as the representative of the by-gone ages. But now,
after hundred years, people started listen to the lone voice of Gandhi as sane and sensible.
Gandhiji’s greatness lay in the fact that he was a builder of alternatives. He was never content
with mere criticism or condemnation. For him human is the measure of all things. The welfare of
all, or the Sarvodaya is not merely a dream, but also a blue print for future action. What Gandhi
requires today is reinterpretation of his thought in the light of changed circumstances. The world
is slowly, but steadily marching towards a post religious society. Morality is not divinely
ordained, it is a social necessity. It is not blind faith but adherence to secular values, which would
solve many problems in the world. Individual freedom seasoned with social responsibility will
lead to collective action. When all systems collapse due to unbridled corruption, it is the
individual initiative that would bring a sea change in the situation. The centenary of ‘Hind Swaraj’

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is yet another opportunity to think in terms of alternatives to the present system which is enable
to develop full personality of the individuals.
Reference:
 Boyd, D., and Ellison N. 2005. “Social Network Sites: Definition, History and
Scholarship”. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 37 (2): 210–212.
 G. Vijayam, Relevance of Gandhi’s Critique of Modern Civilization and its Institutions,
Speech on the eve of Hind Swaraj Centenary at the Institute of Gandhian Studies,
November 20-22, 2009.
 Jain, Satish K. 2006. Towards A Framework for Understanding Gandhiji’s Critique of
Modernity in Hind Swaraj. Accessed April 18, 2017.
http://www.mkgandhi.org/articles/satishkjain.htm
 Lal, Vinay. 2009. “Gandhi’s West, the West’s Gandhi”. New Literary History, 40 (2): 281-
313.
 Rudolf C. Heredia. 1999. “Interpreting Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj”. Economic and Political
Weekly, 34 (24): 1497-1502.
 Rudolph, Lloyd I. and Rudolph Susanne H. 2010. Postmodern Gandhi and Other
Essays: Gandhi in the World and at Home. USA. University of Chicago Press.
 Zachariah, Benjamin. 2011. “Gandhi, Non-Violence and Indian Independence.” History
Review, 69 (3): 315–378. URL: http://www.historytoday.com/benjamin-zachariah/gandhi-
non-violence-and-indian-independence.
 Zeevi, D. 2013. The Ultimate History of Facebook. Accessed April 2, 2017.
http://socialmediatoday.com/daniel-zeevi/1251026/ultimate-history-facebook-
infographic.