Future Trends - Recycling - Metals - Part III

FUTURE TRENDS – RECYCLING – METALS – PART III
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An even bigger future problem for the U.S. than oil and gas is the reliance on imports for critical to
U.S. manufacturing metals and compounds. The following is a list of all metals in common
manufacturing use at present:
Common Metals (See Figure 1, “Periodic Table of Known Elements”)
Red means 100% net import reliance or extremely important to U.S, industry.
Orange means greater than 30% net import reliance.
Department of Defense (DOD) Stockpiled
Element or Page % Net Import Most Important Top Importer
Critical Compound No. Reliance Uses (2011-2014 Unless Noted)
SEE PART II FOR BEGINNING
Nickel 3 37 Steel and Non-steel alloys Canada (40%)
Niobium 6 100 Steel and Non-steel alloys Total Imports – Brazil (82%)
Palladium 7 58 Catalysts for chemical reactions Russia & South Africa (24%
including catalytic converters each)
Potassium 10 84 Fertilizers Canada (84%)
Platinum 13 90 Catalysts for chemical reactions South Africa (18%)
including catalytic converters
Osmium 14 ? Tips of fountain pens ?
Rhodium 15 ? Catalysts for chemical reactions ?
including catalytic converters
Rhenium 16 79 Components of jet engines Metal powder – Chile (87%)
Ammonium perrhenate –
Kazakhstan (43%)
Ruthenium 19 ? Electrical contacts ?
Selenium 20 0 Glassmaking and pigments Japan (21%)
Silicon 23 38 Aluminum and aluminum alloys, Ferrosilicon – Russia (42%)
steel refining, and silicon carbide Metal – Brazil (32%)
Total – Russia (28%)
Silicon Carbide 25 77 Many where hardness and abrasion Crude - China (60%)
Resistance is required Grain – China (42%)
Silver 27 72 Electrical & Electronics Mexico (54%)
Sodium 30 0 Various sodium compounds Salt – Chile (37%)
Soda Ash – Canada (87%)
Sodium Sulfate – Germany
(30%)
Steel (Carbon Steel, 35 25 Structural steel, pipe, equipment, New Steel - Canada (14%)
Stainless Steel) appliances, and automobiles Steel Scrap – Canada (79%)
Steel Slag – Canada (35%)
Tantalum 43 100 Electronics Minerals – Brazil (40%)
Metal – China (29%)
Waste/Scrap – Estonia
(21%)
Contained in other metals –
China (18%)
Tellurium 45 >80% Cadmium-zinc-telluride solar cells Canada (59%)
Tin 48 75 Cans and Containers & Chemicals Peru (37%)
Titanium 51 68 Aerospace Alloys Sponge Metal - Japan (59%)
91 Titanium Dioxide Ti Minerals – South Africa
(31%)
Tungsten 55 49 Wear resistant materials & China (40%)
military penetrating projectiles

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Element or Page % Net Import Most Important Top Importer
Critical Compound No. Reliance Uses (2011-2014 Unless Noted)
Tungsten Carbide 58 ? Wear resistant parts China
Quartz Crystal 59 100 Electronics China
Uranium 60 ? Nuclear Reactors Kazakhstan
Vanadium 66 100 Alloying agent for iron and steel Ferrovanadium – Czech
Republic (43%)
Vanadium Pentoxide – South
Africa (40%)
Zinc 70 82 Galvanized Steel Total – Canada (64%)
Zirconium 74 <25 Nuclear Industry Mineral Conc. – South Africa
(64%)
Unwrought – China (44%)
Hafnium – France (47%)
Miscellanous High 76 100 Electronics Sheet Mica – India (54%)
Imports Hydrofluoric Acid Fluorspar – Mexico (76%)
A List of All Rare Earth Elements in Manufacturing Use (Page 81)
Atomic No. Element Symbol Use
21 Scandium Sc Aerospace framework, high-intensity street lamps, high
performance equipment
39 Yttrium Y TV sets, cancer treatment drugs, enhances strength of alloys
57 Lanthanum La Camera lenses, battery-electrodes, hydrogen storage
58 Cerium Ce Catalytic converters, colored glasses, steel production
59 Praseodymium Pr Super strong magnets, welding goggles, lasers
60 Neodymium Nd Extremely strong permanent magnets, microphones, electric
motors of hybrid automobiles, lasers
62 Samarium Sm Cancer treatment, nuclear reactor control rods, X-ray lasers
63 Europium Eu Color TV screens, fluorescent glass, genetic screening tests
64 Gadolinium Gd Shielding in nuclear reactors, nuclear marine propulsion,
increases in durability of alloys
65 Terbium Tb TV sets, fuel cells, sonar systems
66 Dysprosium Dy Commercial lighting, hard disk devices, transducers
67 Holmium Ho Lasers, glass coloring, high-strength magnets
68 Erbium Er Glass coloring, signal amplification of fiber optic cables,
metallurgical uses
69 Thulium Tm High efficiency lasers, portable X-ray machines, high
temperature superconductors
70 Ytterbium Yb Improves stainless steel, lasers, ground monitoring devices
71 Lutetium Lu Refining petroleum, LED light bulbs, integrated circuits
DOD Stockpiling Materials as of 2016
Go to “Future Trends – Recycling – Metals – Part I”.
Figure No. Page No. Title
1 85 Periodic Table of Known Elements
2 86 Top U.S. Silver Mines
3 87 Silver Production/Consumption and Net Trade
4 88 Steel Production in the United States

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Figure No. Page No. Title
5 89 Overall Steel Recycling Rate Through 2013
6 90 Imports of Stainless Steel into the United States
7 91 Top U.S. Zinc Mines
8 92 Rare Earth Metals Production
Nickel Production
From USGS website:
Nickel (Ni) is a transition element that exhibits a mixture of ferrous and nonferrous metal properties.
It is both siderophile (i.e., associates with iron) and chalcophile (i.e., associates with sulfur). The
bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of ore deposits: laterites where the principal ore
minerals are nickeliferous limonite [(Fe, Ni)O(OH)] and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate),
ormagmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite [(Ni,Fe)9S8].
The ionic radius of divalent nickel is close to that of divalent iron and magnesium, allowing the
three elements to substitute for one another in the crystal lattices of some silicates and oxides.
Nickel sulfide deposits are generally associated with iron- and magnesium-rich rocks called
ultramafics and can be found in both volcanic and plutonic settings. Many of the sulfide deposits
occur at great depth. Laterites are formed by the weathering of ultramafic rocks and are a near-
surface phenomenon. Most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be concentrated in the planet's
core.
Nickel is primarily sold for first use as refined metal (cathode, powder, briquet, etc.) or ferronickel.
About 65% of the nickel consumed in the Western World is used to make austenitic stainless steel.
Another 12% goes into super alloys (e.g., Inconel 600) or nonferrous alloys (e.g., cupronickel).
Both families of alloys are widely used because of their corrosion resistance. The aerospace
industry is a leading consumer of nickel-base super alloys. Turbine blades, discs and other critical
parts of jet engines are fabricated from super alloys. Nickel-base super alloys are also used in
land-based combustion turbines, such those found at electric power generation stations. The
remaining 23% of consumption is divided between alloy steels, rechargeable batteries, catalysts
and other chemicals, coinage, foundry products, and plating. The principal commercial chemicals
are the carbonate (NiCO3), chloride (NiCl2), divalent oxide (NiO), and sulfate (NiSO4). In aqueous
solution, the divalent nickel ion has an emerald-green color.
From USGS report on nickel production:
Domestic Production and Use: The United States had only one active nickel mine—the
underground Eagle Mine in Michigan. The new mine has been producing separate concentrates of
chalcopyrite and pentlandite for export to Canadian and overseas smelters since April 2014. Three
mining projects were in varying stages of development in northeastern Minnesota. The principal
nickel-consuming State was Pennsylvania, followed by Kentucky, Illinois, New York, and North

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Carolina. Approximately 45% of the primary nickel consumed went into stainless and alloy steel
production, 43% into nonferrous alloys and super alloys, 7% into electroplating, and 5% into other
uses. End uses were as follows: transportation and defense, 34%; fabricated metal products, 20%;
electrical equipment, 13%; chemical and petroleum industries, 7% each; construction, household
appliances, and industrial machinery, 5% each; and other, 4%. The estimated value of apparent
primary consumption was $1.57 billion.
Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production:
Mine — — — 4,300 26,500
Refinery, byproduct ? ? ? ? ?
Shipments of purchased
scrap 132,000 130,000 125,000 114,000 142,000
Imports:
Primary 138,000 133,000 126,000 156,000 134,000
Secondary 21,300 22,300 26,300 38,900 28,700
Exports:
Primary 12,400 9,100 10,600 10,400 9,770
Secondary 64,800 59,800 61,200 56,400 51,500
Consumption:
Reported, primary metal 110,000 114,000 114,000 141,000 148,000
Reported, secondary 88,800 92,400 89,600 93,800 102,000
Apparent, primary metal 125,000 125,000 110,000 146,000 124,000
Total 213,000 218,000 200,000 239,000 226,000
Price, average annual,
London Metal Exchange:
Cash, dollars per metric
ton 22,890 17,533 15,018 16,865 12,635
Cash, dollars per pound 10.383 7.953 6.812 7.650 5.731
Net import reliance as a
percentage of
apparent consumption 48 49 46 56 37
Recycling: In 2015,101,900 tons of nickel was recovered from purchased scrap in 2015. This
represented about 45% of reported secondary plus apparent primary consumption for the year.
Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 40%; Australia, 10%; Russia, 10%; Norway, 8%; and other
World Resources: Identified land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at least
130 million tons of nickel, with about 60% in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. Extensive nickel
resources also are found in manganese crusts and nodules on the ocean floor. The decline in
discovery of new sulfide deposits in traditional mining districts has led to exploration in more
challenging locations such as east-central Africa and the Subarctic.

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Nickel Recycling
Nickel is almost important as manganese since it is a critical ingredient in corrosion resistant
stainless steel and high alloy production. Luckily Canada and Australia are the two major
importers. From Tectronics International website, “IS IT TIME TO RECYCLE MORE NICKEL?”,
Written by Dr Tim Johnson, 2016:
Consequently, the demand for nickel across the whole range of applications has been increasing
by around 5% per year since 2010 and looks set to continue this trend, significantly faster in fact
than during the huge boom in nickel prices in the years leading up to the crash in metal prices in
late 2007. When China’s manufacturing sector was booming, demand for nickel soared and nickel
prices took off. High prices and high demand gave nickel mines a good reason to produce more.
However, when the global economic crisis hit in 2008, supply outstripped demand and prices have
collapsed to a level last seen in 2004.
But now, together with the growing demand, we see a shortfall in production. For example, lower
output from the Philippines caused the global supply of mined nickel to fall by 5.3% during the first
five months of 2016. Added to which, the enforced closure of a number of the country’s mines is
forecast to cut its production capacity still further. Indeed, all nickel mining companies face a
combination of persistent low metal prices and declining quality of ore. It is extraordinary to think
that back in 1880, ores commonly contained over 10% nickel, whereas by 2010 ‘good quality’ ores
were down to only 1% to 2% nickel…
Over the years, Tetronics’ DC plasma smelting technology has proved itself to be very adept at
extracting nickel and other key metals such as chromium and molybdenum from dusts generated in
the melting and production of stainless steel. Plants in Italy and the North of England have been
processing these wastes for nearly 25 years, providing a source of these valuable metals back to
their adjacent steel plants in place of metals extracted from mining operations. And for the last 10
years or so, Tetronics’ plasma smelting plants have been used for extracting precious metals from
industrial catalysts and catalytic converters.
As the use of nickel as a catalyst in chemical processes is expanding, so these two strands of
Tetronics’ experience have come together to produce a growing interest in the recovery of nickel
from petrochemical catalysts. Whilst other major sources of nickel wastes, such as scrap stainless
steel, are ideal for recycling directly back to the steel industry, petrochemical catalysts are both
less plentiful and less-suited to this well-established recovery route. Meanwhile, other methods
(often based on various types of wet chemistry) also have significant drawbacks, such as poor
recovery rates or the generation of large quantities of other wastes. Instead, the highly compact,
environmentally friendly and efficient nature of Tetronics’ DC plasma smelting plants makes them
an obvious choice for this increasingly important niche secondary source of nickel.
From “Nickel Depletion and Recycling”, L. David Roper, July 2, 2016:
It appears that world-nickel extraction will peak before 2025.

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Industry better start doing something about this soon.
Niobium Production
From USGS website:
Niobium and columbium are synonymous names for the chemical element with atomic number 41;
columbium was the name given in 1801, and niobium (Nb) was the name officially designated by
the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1950. Niobium in the form of ferroniobium
is used worldwide, mostly as an alloying element in steels and in super alloys. Appreciable
amounts of niobium in the form of high-purity ferroniobium and nickel niobium are used in nickel-,
cobalt-, and iron-base super alloys for such applications as jet engine components, rocket
subassemblies, and heat-resisting and combustion equipment.
From USGS report on Niobium production:
Domestic Production and Use: Significant U.S. niobium mine production has not been reported
since 1959. Domestic niobium resources are of low grade, some are mineralogically complex, and
most are not commercially recoverable. Companies in the United States produced niobium-
containing materials from imported niobium minerals, oxides, and ferroniobium. Niobium was
consumed mostly in the form of ferroniobium by the steel industry and as niobium alloys and metal
by the aerospace industry. Major end-use distribution of reported niobium consumption was as
follows: steels, about 80%; and super alloys, about 20%. In 2015, the estimated value of niobium
consumption was $400 million, as measured by the value of imports.
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production, mine — — — — —
Imports for consumption 19,520 10,100 8,580 11,100 8,900
Exports 1 363 385 435 1,110 1,300
Government stockpile
Releases — — — — —
Consumption:

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Reported 9,060 7,460 7,500 8,210 7,700
Apparent 9,160 9,730 8,140 10,000 7,600
Unit value, ferroniobium,
dollars per metric ton 41,825 43,658 43,415 42,000 42,000
percentage of
Recycling: Niobium was recycled when niobium-bearing steels and super alloys were recycled;
scrap recovery specifically for niobium content was negligible. The amount of niobium recycled is
not available, but it may be as much as 20% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2011–14):
Niobium ore and concentrate: Brazil, 39%; Rwanda, 16%; Canada, 10%; Australia, 10%; and
other, 25%.
Niobium metal and oxide: Brazil, 83%; Canada, 12%; and other, 5%.
Total imports: Brazil, 82%; Canada, 13%; and other, 5%. Of the U.S. niobium material imports,
99% (by gross quantity) was ferroniobium and niobium metal and oxide.
World Resources: World resources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected
needs. Most of the world’s identified resources of niobium occur as pyrochlore in carbonatite
(igneous rocks that contain more than 50%- by-volume carbonate minerals) deposits and are
outside the United States. The United States has approximately 150,000 tons of niobium-identified
resources, all of which were considered uneconomic at 2015 prices for niobium.
Niobium Recycling
Scrap recovery specifically for niobium is negligible. Eagle Metal Group, Exotech, H.C. Stark,
Monico Alloys, Telex Metals, and Quest Metals advertise that they recycle niobium scrap. Quest
Metals buys scrap jet turbine blades.
Palladium Production
From Wikipedia:
Palladium is a chemical element with symbol Pd and atomic number 46. It is a rare and lustrous
silvery-white metal discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston. He named it after the asteroid
Pallas, which was itself named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her
when she slew Pallas. Palladium, platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group
of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). These have similar chemical
properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of them.

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More than half the supply of palladium and its congener platinum is used in catalytic converters,
which convert as much as 90% of the harmful gases in automobile exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide) into less noxious substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water
vapor). Palladium is also used in electronics, dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical
applications, groundwater treatment, and jewelry. Palladium is a key component of fuel cells, which
react hydrogen with oxygen to produce electricity, heat, and water.
Ore deposits of palladium and other PGMs are rare. The most extensive deposits have been found
in the norite belt of the Bushveld Igneous Complex covering the Transvaal Basin in South Africa,
the Stillwater Complex in Montana, United States, the Sudbury Basin and Thunder Bay
District of Ontario, Canada, and the Norilsk Complex in Russia. Recycling is also a source, mostly
from scrapped catalytic converters. The numerous applications and limited supply sources result in
considerable investment interest.
From USGS report on Platinum Group Metals production:
Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, one domestic mining company produced platinum-group
metals (PGMs) with an estimated value of nearly $532 million from its two mines in south-central
Montana. Small quantities of PGMs were also recovered as byproducts of copper refining. The
leading use for PGMs continued to be in catalytic converters to decrease harmful emissions from
automobiles. PGMs are also used in catalysts for bulk-chemical production and petroleum refining;
in electronic applications, such as in computer hard disks to increase storage capacity, in multilayer
ceramic capacitors, and in hybridized integrated circuits; in glass manufacturing; jewelry; and in
laboratory equipment. Platinum is used in the medical sector; platinum and palladium, along with
gold-silver-copper-zinc alloys, are used as dental restorative materials. Platinum, palladium, and
rhodium are used as investments in the form of exchange-traded products, as well as through the
individual holding of physical bars and coins.
Kilograms (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Mine production:
Platinum 3,700 3,670 3,720 3,660 3,700
Palladium 12,400 12,300 12,600 12,400 12,500
Imports for consumption:
Platinum 129,000 172,000 116,000 141,000 139,000
Palladium 98,900 80,100 83,100 92,400 89,000
Rhodium 13,100 12,800 11,100 11,100 11,000
Ruthenium 13,300 10,200 15,300 11,100 9,000
Iridium 2,790 1,230 1,720 1,990 730
Osmium 48 130 77 322 40
Exports:
Platinum 11,300 8,630 11,200 14,800 11,000
Palladium 32,000 32,200 25,900 22,500 27,000
Rhodium 1,370 1,040 1,220 428 600

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Other PGMs 1,150 1,640 1,320 901 800
Price, dollars per troy
ounce:
Platinum 1,724.51 1,555.39 1,489.57 1,387.89 1,080.00
Palladium 738.51 649.27 729.58 809.98 690.00
Rhodium 2,204.35 1,274.98 1,069.10 1,174.23 970.00
Ruthenium 165.85 112.26 75.63 65.13 48.00
Iridium 1,035.87 1,066.23 826.45 556.19 530.00
Employment, mine,
Number 1,570 1,670 1,780 1,620 1,600
Net import reliance as
a percentage of
apparent consumption:
Platinum 89 90 84 89 90
Palladium 64 57 60 65 58
Recycling: An estimated 125,000 kilograms of platinum, palladium, and rhodium was recovered
globally from new and old scrap in 2015, including about 55,000 kilograms recovered from
automobile catalytic converters in the United States.
Platinum: South Africa, 18%; Germany, 16%; United Kingdom, 13%; Canada, 11%; and other,
42%.
Palladium: Russia, 24%; South Africa, 24%; United Kingdom, 21%; Switzerland, 6%; and other,
25%.
World Resources: World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million
kilograms. The largest reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.
Palladium Recycling
Since Palladium is rare and expensive, recycling is popular. The usual companies like Umicore
collect palladium scrap and recycle other relatively rare elements. Some of the important palladium
containing items recycled are:
• Thermocouple wire
• Catalytic converters
• Industrial chemical catalysts
• Electrophysiology (EP) catheters
• Electronics
• Jewelry
Some companies specialize in the first four. This is going to be a popular business in the future.

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Potassium Production
From Wikipedia:
Potassium is a chemical element with symbol K (derived from Neo-Latin, kalium) and atomic
number 19. It was first isolated from potash, the ashes of plants, from which its name derives. In
the periodic table, potassium is one of the alkali metals. All of the alkali metals have a
single valence electron in the outer electron shell, which is easily removed to create an ion with a
positive charge – a cation, which combines with anions to form salts. Potassium in nature occurs
only in ionic salts. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air
and reacts vigorously with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite hydrogen emitted in the
reaction and burning with a lilac-colored flame. It is found dissolved in sea water (which is 0.04%
potassium by weight), and is part of many minerals.
Naturally occurring potassium is composed of three isotopes, of which 40K is radioactive. Traces
of 40K are found in all potassium, and it is the most common radioisotope in the human body.
Potassium is chemically very similar to sodium, the previous element in Group 1 of the periodic
table. They have a similar ionization energy, which allows for each atom to give up its sole outer
electron. That they are different elements that combine with the same anions to make similar salts
was suspected in 1702, and was proven in 1807 using electrolysis.
Most industrial applications of potassium exploit the high solubility in water of potassium
compounds, such as potassium soaps. Heavy crop production rapidly depletes the soil of
potassium, and this can be remedied with agricultural fertilizers containing potassium, accounting
for 95% of global potassium chemical production.
From Wikipedia:
Potash /ˈpɒtæʃ/ is any of various mined and manufactured salts that contain potassium in water-
soluble form. The name derives from pot ash, which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot,
the primary means of manufacturing the product before the industrial era. The word potassium is
derived from potash.
Potash is produced worldwide at amounts exceeding 30 million tonnes per year, mostly for use
in fertilizers. Various types of fertilizer-potash thus constitute the single largest global industrial use
of the element potassium. Potassium was first derived by electrolysis of caustic potash
(a.k.a. potassium hydroxide), in 1807.
From USGS report on Potash production:
Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, the production value of marketable potash, f.o.b. mine,
was about $680 million. Potash was produced in New Mexico and Utah. Most of the production
was from southeastern New Mexico, where two companies operated four mines. Sylvinite and
langbeinite ores in New Mexico were beneficiated by flotation, dissolution-recrystallization, heavy-
media separation, solar evaporation, or combinations of these processes, and provided more than

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75% of total U.S. producer sales. In Utah, two companies operated three mines. One company
extracted underground sylvinite ore by deep-well solution mining. Solar evaporation crystallized the
sylvinite ore from the brine solution, and a flotation process separated the potassium chloride
(muriate of potash or MOP) from byproduct sodium chloride. The firm also processed subsurface
brines by solar evaporation and flotation to produce MOP at its other facility. Another company
processed brine from the Great Salt Lake by solar evaporation to produce potassium sulfate
(sulfate of potash or SOP) and byproducts.
The fertilizer industry used about 85% of U.S. potash sales, and the chemical industry used the
remainder. About 60% of the potash produced was MOP. Potassium magnesium sulfate (sulfate of
potash-magnesia or SOPM) and SOP, which are required by certain crops and soils, accounted for
the remaining 40% of production.
Thousand Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production, marketable 1,000 900 960 850 770
Sales by producers,
Marketable 990 980 880 930 760
Exports 202 234 289 118 30
Consumption, apparent 5,800 5,000 5,200 5,800 4,700
Price, dollars per ton of
K2O,
average, muriate, f.o.b.
mine 730 710 640 580 635
Employment, number:
Mine 660 750 760 670 600
Mill 620 740 770 660 620
a percentage of
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 84%; Russia, 9%; Israel, 3%; Chile, 2%; and other, 2%.
World Resources: Estimated domestic potash resources total about 7 billion tons. Most of these
lie at depths between 1,800 and 3,100 meters in a 3,110-square-kilometer area of Montana and
North Dakota as an extension of the Williston Basin deposits in Manitoba and Saskatchewan,
Canada. The Paradox Basin in Utah contains resources of about 2 billion tons, mostly at depths of
more than 1,200 meters. The Holbrook Basin of Arizona contains resources of about 0.7 to 2.5
billion tons. A large potash resource lies about 2,100 meters under central Michigan and contains
more than 75 million tons. Estimated world resources total about 250 billion tons.

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From Wikipedia:
As of 2016, there were 10 active phosphate mines in the US, operated by 5 companies. In addition,
one mine in Idaho was in permitting and development status.
Phosphate mining operations in the US
Company Name Location
Agrium Rasmussen Ridge Caribou County, Idaho
JR Simplot Vernal Vernal, Utah
JR Simplot Smoky Canyon Caribou County, Idaho
Monsanto South Rasmussen Caribou County, Idaho
Monsanto Blackfoot Bridge Caribou County, Idaho
The Mosaic
Company
Bonnie mine Bartow, Florida
The Mosaic
Company
South Pasture Hardee County, Florida
The Mosaic
Company
Four Corners
Hillsboro, Manatee, and Polk counties,
Florida
PotashCorp Swift Creek Hamilton County, Florida
PotashCorp Aurora mine Aurora, North Carolina
Stonegate Agricom
Paris Hills
(permitting)
Paris, Idaho
Phosphate Recycling
Recycling is not done chemically at present. From FEECO International website:
Below is a list of the top 7 uses for granulated potash:
• Fertilizer – Potassium Carbonate, Potassium Chloride, Potassium Sulfate…
Plants require three primary nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. Potash contains
soluble potassium, making it an excellent addition to agricultural fertilizer. It ensures proper
maturation in a plant by improving overall health, root strength, disease resistance, and yield
rates. In addition, potash creates a better final product, improving the color, texture, and taste of
food.
While some potassium is returned to farmlands through recycled manures and crop residues, most
of this key element must be replaced. There is no commercially viable alternative that contributes
as much potassium to soil as potash, making this element invaluable to crops. For this reason, the
most prevalent use of potash is in the agriculture industry. Without fertilizers assisting crop yields,

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scientists estimate that 33% of the world would experience severe food shortages. The
replenishment of potassium to the soil is vital to supporting sustainable food sourcing. Potash
compaction granules blend easily into fertilizers, delivering potassium where it is needed most.
• Animal Feed – Potassium Carbonate
Another agricultural use for potash (potassium carbonate) is animal feed. Potash is added as a
supplement to boost the amount of nutrients in the feed, which in turn promotes healthy growth
in animals. As an added benefit, it is also known to increase milk production.
• Food Products – Potassium Carbonate
The food industry utilizes potash (potassium carbonate) as a general-purpose additive. In most
instances, it is added as a source of food seasoning. Potash is also used in brewing
beer. Historical Use: Potash was once used in German baked goods. It has properties similar to
baking soda, and was used to enhance recipes such as gingerbread or lebkuchen.
• Soaps – Potassium Hydroxide
Caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) is a precursor to many ‘potassium soaps,’ which are
softer and less common than sodium hydroxide-derived soaps. Potassium soaps have greater
solubility, requiring less water to liquefy versus sodium soaps. Caustic potash is also used to
manufacture detergents and dyes.
• Water Softeners – Potassium Chloride
Potash (potassium chloride) is used as an environmentally friendly method of treating hard
water. It regenerates the ion exchange resins more efficiently than sodium chloride, reducing
the total amount of discharged chlorides in sewage or septic systems.
• Deicer (Snow and Ice Melting) – Potassium Chloride
Potash (potassium chloride) is a major ingredient in deicer products that clear snow and ice
from surfaces such as roads and building entrances. While other chemicals are available for
this same purpose, potassium chloride holds an advantage by offering a fertilizing value for
grass and other vegetation near treated surfaces.
• Glass Manufacturing – Potassium Carbonate
Glass manufactures use granular potash (potassium carbonate) as a flux, lowering the
temperature at which a mixture melts. Because potash confers excellent clarity to glass, it is
commonly used in eyeglasses, glassware, televisions, and computer monitors.
Platinum Production
From Wikipedia:
Platinum is a chemical element with symbol Pt and atomic number 78. It
is dense, malleable, ductile, highly unreactive, precious, gray-white transition metal. Its name is
derived from the Spanish term platina, translated into "little silver".
Platinum is a member of the platinum group of elements and group 10 of the periodic table of
elements. It has six naturally occurring isotopes. It is one of the rarer elements in Earth's crust with
an average abundance of approximately 5 μg/kg. It occurs in some nickel and copper ores along

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with some native deposits, mostly in South Africa, which accounts for 80% of the world production.
Because of its scarcity in Earth's crust, only a few hundred tonnes are produced annually, and
given its important uses, it is highly valuable and is a major precious metal commodity.
Platinum is one of the least reactive metals. It has remarkable resistance to corrosion, even at high
temperatures, and is therefore considered a noble metal. Consequently, platinum is often found
chemically uncombined as native platinum. Because it occurs naturally in the alluvial sands of
various rivers, it was first used by pre-Columbian South American natives to produce artifacts. It
was referenced in European writings as early as 16th century, but it was not until Antonio de
Ulloa published a report on a new metal of Colombian origin in 1748 that it began to be
investigated by scientists.
Platinum is used in catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts
and electrodes, platinum resistance thermometers, dentistry equipment, and jewelry. Being
a heavy metal, it leads to health issues upon exposure to its salts; but due to its corrosion
resistance, metallic platinum has not been linked to adverse health effects. Compounds containing
platinum, such as cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin, are applied in chemotherapy against certain
types of cancer.
See Page 8.
Platinum Recycling
Platinum recycling is profitable but difficult and capital intensive. From Chemistry Views website:
Recycling platinum is a difficult, complicated process. The first step is the dissolution of the used
platinum. Because platinum is a very special precious metal, this isn’t so easy. The solvents used
for this are usually highly corrosive aqua regia, a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, or a
highly oxidizing mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide known as piranha. There are also
electrochemical recycling processes, but these mostly require highly toxic electrolytes or corrosive
media, or they release toxic gases. They also suffer from insufficient current densities and
passivation of the electrodes.
Platinum recycling is done by the same group of companies that recycle palladium.
Osmium Production
From Wikipedia:
Osmium (from Greek ὀσμή osme, "smell") is a chemical element with symbol Os and atomic
number 76. It is a hard, brittle, bluish-white transition metal in the platinum group that is found as
a trace element in alloys, mostly in platinum ores. Osmium is the densest naturally occurring
element, with a density of 22.59 g/cm3. Its alloys with platinum, iridium, and other platinum-group

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metals are employed in fountain pen nib tipping, electrical contacts, and other applications where
extreme durability and hardness are needed.
See Page 8.
Osmium Recycling
This metal is recycled by the same group that recycles platinum and palladium.
Rhodium Production
Rhodium is a chemical element with symbol Rh and atomic number 45. It is a rare, silvery-white,
hard, and chemically inert transition metal. It is a member of the platinum group. It has only one
naturally occurring isotope, 103
Rh. Naturally occurring rhodium is usually found as the free metal,
alloyed with similar metals, and rarely as a chemical compound in minerals such
as bowieite and rhodplumsite. It is one of the rarest and most valuable precious metals.
Rhodium is a noble metal, resistant to corrosion, found in platinum or nickel ores together with the
other members of the platinum group metals. It was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde
Wollaston in one such ore, and named for the rose color of one of its chlorine compounds,
produced after it reacted with the powerful acid mixture aqua regia.
The element's major use (approximately 80% of world rhodium production) is as one of
the catalysts in the three-way catalytic converters in automobiles. Because rhodium metal is inert
against corrosion and most aggressive chemicals, and because of its rarity, rhodium is
usually alloyed with platinum or palladium and applied in high-temperature and corrosion-resistive
coatings. White gold is often plated with a thin rhodium layer to improve its appearance
while sterling silver is often rhodium-plated for tarnish resistance.
See Page 8.
Rhodium Recycling
This metal is in the same category and has the same importance as palladium and platinum,
except it can be even more expensive at times.

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Rhenium Production
Rhenium is a chemical element with symbol Re and atomic number 75. It is a silvery-white, heavy,
third-row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table. With an estimated average concentration
of 1 part per billion (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth's crust. The free
element has the third-highest melting point and highest boiling point of any element at 5873 K.
Rhenium resembles manganese and technetium chemically and is mainly obtained as a by-
product of the extraction and refinement of molybdenum and copper ores. Rhenium shows in its
compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from −1 to +7.
Discovered in 1925, rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered. It was named after the
river Rhine in Europe.
Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and
exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine
construction the largest single use for the element, with the chemical industry's catalytic uses being
next-most important. Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is expensive, with
an average price of approximately US$2,750 per kilogram (US$85.53 per troy ounce) as of April
2015; it is also of critical strategic military importance, for its use in high performance military jet
and rocket engines.
From USGS report on Rhenium production:
Domestic Production and Use: During 2015, ores containing 8,500 kilograms of rhenium were
mined at nine operations (six in Arizona, and one each in Montana, New Mexico, and Utah).
Rhenium compounds are included in molybdenum concentrates derived from porphyry copper
deposits, and rhenium is recovered as a byproduct from roasting such molybdenum concentrates.
Rhenium-containing products included ammonium perrhenate (APR), metal powder, and perrhenic
acid. The major uses of rhenium were in superalloys used in high-temperature turbine engine
components and in petroleum-reforming catalysts, representing an estimated 70% and 20%,
respectively, of end uses. Bimetallic platinum-rhenium catalysts were used in petroleum reforming
for the production of high-octane hydrocarbons, which are used in the production of lead-free
gasoline. Rhenium improves the high-temperature (1,000° C) strength properties of some nickel-
based superalloys. Rhenium alloys were used in crucibles, electrical contacts, electromagnets,
electron tubes and targets, heating elements, ionization gauges, mass spectrographs, metallic
coatings, semiconductors, temperature controls, thermocouples, vacuum tubes, and other
applications. The estimated value of rhenium consumed in 2015 was about $80 million.

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Kilograms (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production 8,610 7,910 7,100 8,500 8,500
Exports NA NA NA NA NA
Price, average value,
dollars per kilogram,
gross weight:
Metal pellets, 99.99%
pure 4,670 4,040 3,160 3,000 2,900
Ammonium perrhenate 4,360 3,990 3,400 3,100 2,800
Employment, number Small Small Small Small Small
percentage of apparent
consumption 80 84 80 74 79
Recycling: Nickel-based superalloy scrap and scrapped turbine blades and vanes continued to be
recycled hydrometallurgically to produce rhenium metal for use in new superalloy melts. The
scrapped parts were also processed to generate engine revert—a high-quality, lower cost
superalloy meltstock—by a growing number of companies, mainly in the United States, Canada,
Estonia, Germany, and Russia. Rhenium-containing catalysts were also recycled.
Import Sources (2011–14): Rhenium metal powder: Chile, 87%; Poland, 8%; Germany, 2%; and
other, 3%.
Ammonium perrhenate: Kazakhstan, 43%; Republic of Korea, 36%; Canada, 8%; Germany, 5%;
and other, 8%.
World Resources: Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified
U.S. resources are estimated to be about 5 million kilograms, and the identified resources of the
rest of the world are approximately 6 million kilograms. Rhenium also is associated with copper
minerals in sedimentary deposits in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Uzbekistan, where
ore is processed for copper recovery and the rhenium-bearing residues are recovered at copper
smelters.
Rhenium Recycling
Rhenium is very important to jet engine manufacturing, and why it is not on the DOD stockpile list
is a mystery to me. From USGS Report, “Rhenium—A Rare Metal Critical to Modern
Transportation”:
Worldwide is used in superalloy production. These nickel-base alloys contain either 3 or 6 percent
rhenium, which is critical to the manufacture of turbine blades for jet aircraft engines and industrial

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gas turbine engines. The high-temperature properties of rhenium allow turbine engines to be
designed with finer tolerances and operate at temperatures higher than those of engines
constructed with other materials. These properties allow prolonged engine life, increased engine
performance, and enhanced operating efficiency. The other major use of rhenium, which accounts
for about 10 percent of worldwide rhenium consumption, is in platinum-rhenium catalysts. The
petroleum industry uses platinum-rhenium catalysts to produce high-octane, lead-free gasoline.
These catalysts boost the octane level of refined gasoline and improve refinery efficiency.
Secondary applications of rhenium include the manufacture of electrical contact points, flashbulbs,
heating elements, vacuum tubes, X-ray tubes and targets, and uses in various medical procedures.
The United States is unlikely to meet its rhenium requirements with domestic resources. Although
there are substantial, proven rhenium reserves in porphyry copper deposits in the United States,
special facilities are required to extract rhenium from the molybdenite concentrates recovered from
these deposits. In the United States, only one molybdenum concentrate roasting facility is
equipped to recover rhenium and although a second plant is under construction and could increase
U.S. production by about 50 percent, the potential rhenium production from these plants is far less
than current U.S. consumption. Therefore, it is likely that imports will continue to supply most of the
rhenium consumed in the United States. To determine where future rhenium supplies might be
located, USGS scientists study how and where rhenium resources are concentrated in Earth’s
crust and use that knowledge to assess the likelihood that undiscovered rhenium resources exist.
Techniques used to assess mineral resources were developed by the USGS to support the
stewardship of Federal lands and better evaluate mineral resource availability in a global context.
The USGS also compiles statistics and information on the worldwide supply of, demand for, and
flow of rhenium. These data inform U.S. national policymakers.
Obviously, rhenium is extremely important to the U.S. economy and is very expensive; therefore,
recycling rhenium might be important in the future.
From Titan International, Inc., the leading producer of recycled Rhenium metal products ("Re") in
North America, website:
Metal Recovery
SCRAP PROCESSING EXPERTISE USING STATE OF THE ART EQUIPMENT AND
TECHNIQUES
Over the past 20 years, Titan International has developed a variety of sophisticated and highly
effective metal recovery processes. We use state-of-the-art equipment and proprietary techniques
to recover high-value constituent metals from a variety of scrap sources, including aviation industry
superalloy scrap, foundry scrap, manufacturing scrap, spent targets and other similar scrap
sources, and attain the highest possible economic value for customers' scrap streams.

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RHENIUM METAL ("RE") AND AMMONIUM PERRHENATE ("APR") PRODUCTS
Titan is the leading producer of recycled Rhenium ("Re") metal products in North America. Titan's
has developed unique and proprietary manufacturing processes that enable Titan to produce the
world's finest and most pure Re Metal ("Re") and Ammonium Perrhenate ("APR") products. Titan's
Re pellets, APR and related specialty Re powders and other products have been approved for use
in the most demanding industries and by the world's most quality-conscious manufacturers.
SUPERALLOY SCRAP PURCHASE AND RECYCLING
Titan often directly purchase scrap streams generated by our clients. We can provide our clients
with the highest value for their superalloy scrap streams. Titan can purchase from you and recycle
Re-bearing and other superalloy scrap streams, including solids, grindings, spent superalloy
aviation scrap, swarfs, spills and other foundry scrap. Titan's unique and proprietary processes
enable Titan to provide our clients with the highest possible value for their scrap streams.
Ruthenium Production
From Wikipedia:
Ruthenium is a chemical element with symbol Ru and atomic number 44. It is a rare transition
metal belonging to the platinum group of the periodic table. Like the other metals of the platinum
group, ruthenium is inert to most other chemicals. The Baltic German scientist Karl Ernst
Claus discovered the element in 1844 and named it after his homeland, the Russian Empire (one
of Russia's Latin names is Ruthenia). Ruthenium is usually found as a minor component
of platinum ores; the annual production is about 20 tonnes. Most ruthenium produced is used in
wear-resistant electrical contacts and thick-film resistors. A minor application for ruthenium is in
platinum alloys and as a chemistry catalyst.
See Page 8.
Ruthenium Recycling
Ruthenium is in the Platinum Group metal classification, but is not nearly as expensive as the other
metals in the group. The same companies that recycle the other platinum group metals recycle
ruthenium. Colonial Metals, Inc. specializes in rhenium and ruthenium recycling. From the website:
The longstanding PGM chemical competency at Colonial Metals enables you to close your
production loop and achieve maximum value in all of your rhenium and ruthenium applications
through economic and high yield recycling. Our corporate flexibility enables us to offer customized
services, meet your specification, and undertake any refining stream.
Rhenium Refining

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CMI has large-scale rhenium refining capacity, with a demonstrated ability to effectively recover
rhenium from spent materials.
Common recovery streams include
• rhenium scrap
• rhenium-based alloys
• nickel-based superalloys
• rhenium containing catalyst
• CMI can return rhenium in the form of catalyst and metallurgical grade:
• Ammonium Perrhenate
• Perrhenic Acid
• rhenium Metal Powder
Any of CMI’s 15 rhenium chemical products
Ruthenium Refining
CMI operates the only on-site full-service Ruthenium refinery in the Americas.
Common recovery streams include:
• Spent Catalyst
• Catalyst Ash
• Spent Targets (Ru and Ru alloy)
• Target manufacturing and PVD shield scrap
• Ru machining parts and turnings
• Ru containing chemicals, solutions, and other chemical scrap
• CMI offers Ruthenium returns in the form of:
• Ruthenium (III) Chloride Solution
• Ruthenium (III) Chloride Crystal
• Metallurgical Grade Ruthenium Metal Powder
• Any of CMI's other 100+ Ruthenium chemical products
Selenium Production
Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal with
properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic
table, sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the
Earth's crust. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns

Page 21 of 92
Jacob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously
discovered tellurium (named for the Earth).
Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Commercially,
selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores, most often during production.
Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare. The chief commercial
uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor and is used
in photocells. Applications in electronics, once important, have been mostly supplanted
by silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge
protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot.
Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in
many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other
dietary supplements, including infant formula. It is a component of the antioxidant
enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce
certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in
three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements
in plants differ by species, with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others
apparently requiring none.
From USGS report on Selenium production:
Domestic Production and Use: Primary selenium was refined from anode slimes recovered from
the electrolytic refining of copper. Of the three electrolytic copper refineries operating in the United
States, one in Texas reported production of primary selenium, one exported semirefined selenium
for toll refining in Asia, and one generated selenium-containing slimes that were exported for
processing. In glass manufacturing, selenium is used to decolorize the green tint caused by iron
impurities in container glass and other soda-lime silica glass and is used in architectural plate glass
to reduce solar heat transmission. Cadmium sulfoselenide pigments are used in plastics, ceramics,
and glass to produce a ruby-red color. Selenium is used in catalysts to enhance selective
oxidation; in plating solutions, where it improves appearance and durability; in blasting caps; in gun
bluing to improve cosmetic appearance and provide corrosion resistance; in rubber compounding
chemicals to act as a vulcanizing agent; in the electrolytic production of manganese to increase
yields; and in copper, lead, and steel alloys to improve machinability. It is used in thin-film
photovoltaic copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells. Selenium is used as a human
dietary supplement and in antidandruff shampoos. The leading agricultural uses are as a dietary
supplement for livestock and as a fertilizer additive to enrich selenium-poor soils. Estimates for
world consumption are as follows: metallurgy, 40%; glass manufacturing, 25%; agriculture, 10%;
chemicals and pigments, 10%; electronics, 10%; and other uses, 5%.

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production, refinery ? ? ? ? ?
Imports for consumption,
metal and dioxide 601 460 439 441 480
Exports, metal, waste
and scrap 1,350 952 648 521 735
Consumption, apparent ? ? ? ? ?
Price, dealers, average,
dollars per pound,
100-pound lots, refined 66.35 54.47 36.17 26.78 22.80
a percentage of apparent
Recycling: Domestic production of secondary selenium was estimated to be very small because
most scrap from older plain paper photocopiers and electronic materials was exported for recovery
of the contained selenium.
Import Sources (2011–14): Japan, 21%; China, 16%; Belgium, 14%; Germany, 12%; and other,
37%.
World Resources: Reserves for selenium are based on identified copper deposits and average
selenium contents. Coal generally contains between 0.5 and 12 parts per million of selenium, or
about 80 to 90 times the average for porphyry copper deposits. The recovery of selenium from coal
fly ash, although technically feasible, appears unlikely to be economical in the foreseeable future.
Selenium Recycling
Selenium production is directly related to copper mining and refining. There isn’t much info on
selenium recycling. Umicore seems to be the most interested in selenium recycling but mainly
related to removing selenium from wastewater. From Chromatography Today, “Removal of
Selenium and Other Heavy Metals from Recycling Plant’s Wastewater”, May 25, 2012:
Umicore has selected GE’s (USA) Advanced Biological Metals Removal Process (ABMet*)
wastewater bioreactor technology to remove selenium and other heavy metals from wastewater
discharges at Umicore’s precious metals recycling facility near Antwerp, Belgium. The first full-
scale installation of GE’s ABMet technology in Europe, this project will help Umicore to achieve low
parts-per-billion (ppb) levels of heavy metals in wastewater discharges. Commercial operation will
begin by the end of 2013…
The Hoboken facility recovers a range of precious and specialty metals from recycled consumer
and industrial goods, and as a result, produces a highly complex wastewater stream requiring
different unit operations to remove and recover metals before discharge.

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Silicon Production
Silicon is a chemical element with symbol Si and atomic number 14. A hard and brittle crystalline
solid with a blue-gray metallic luster, it is a tetravalent metalloid. It is a member of group 14 in the
periodic table, along with carbon above it and germanium, tin, lead, and flerovium below. It is rather
unreactive, though less so than germanium, and has great chemical affinity for oxygen; as such, it
was first prepared and characterized in pure form only in 1823 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius.
Silicon is the eighth most common element in the universe by mass, but very rarely occurs as the
pure element in the Earth's crust. It is most widely distributed in dusts, sands, planetoids,
and planets as various forms of silicon dioxide (silica) or silicates. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is
composed of silicate minerals, making silicon the second most abundant element in the Earth's
crust (about 28% by mass) after oxygen.
Most silicon is used commercially without being separated, and often with little processing of the
natural minerals. Such use includes industrial construction with clays, silica sand, and stone.
Silicate is used in Portland cement for mortar and stucco, and mixed with silica sand and gravel to
make concrete for walkways, foundations, and roads. Silicates are used in
whiteware ceramics such as porcelain, and in traditional quartz-based soda-lime glass and many
other specialty glasses. Silicon compounds such as silicon carbide are used as abrasives and
components of high-strength ceramics.
Elemental silicon also has a large impact on the modern world economy. Most free silicon is used
in the steel refining, aluminium-casting, and fine chemical industries (often to make fumed silica).
Even more visibly, the relatively small portion of very highly purified silicon used in semiconductor
electronics (< 10%) is essential to integrated circuits — most computers, cell phones, and modern
technology depend on it. Silicon is the basis of the widely used synthetic polymers called silicones.
From USGS report on Silicon production:
Domestic Production and Use: Estimated value of silicon alloys and metal produced in the
United States in 2015 was $1.14 billion. Four companies produced silicon materials in seven
plants, all east of the Mississippi River. Ferrosilicon and metallurgical-grade silicon metal were
produced in four and five plants, respectively. Two companies produced both products at two
plants. Most ferrosilicon was consumed in the ferrous foundry and steel industries, predominantly
in the Eastern United States, and was sourced primarily from domestic quartzite (silica). The main
consumers of silicon metal were producers of aluminum and aluminum alloys and the chemical
industry. The semiconductor and solar energy industries, which manufacture chips for computers
and photovoltaic cells from high-purity silicon, respectively, accounted for only a small percentage
of silicon demand.

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production:
Silicon alloys and metal 326 383 365 373 410
Imports for consumption:
Ferrosilicon, all grades 156 173 159 186 153
Silicon metal 187 136 118 139 150
Exports:
Ferrosilicon, all grades 20 12 10 9 10
Silicon metal 79 75 38 45 39
Consumption, apparent:
Ferrosilicon, all grades ? ? ? ? ?
Silicon metal ? ? ? ? ?
Total 564 601 602 642 660
Price, average, cents per
pound Si:
Ferrosilicon, 50% Si 111 100 103 108 104
Ferrosilicon, 75% Si 102 92 94 98 92
Silicon metal 158 127 122 140 136
percentage
of apparent consumption:
Ferrosilicon, all grades <50 <50 <50 <50 <50
Silicon metal <50 <50 <50 <50 <50
Total 42 36 39 42 38
Recycling: Insignificant.
Ferrosilicon: Russia, 42%; China, 26%; Canada, 11%; Venezuela, 10%; and other, 11%.
Silicon metal: Brazil, 32%; South Africa, 24%; Canada, 14%; Australia, 11%; and other, 19%.
Total: Russia, 23%
World Resources: World and domestic resources for making silicon metal and alloys are
abundant and, in most producing countries, adequate to supply world requirements for many
decades. The source of the silicon is silica in various natural forms, such as quartzite.
Silicon Recycling
Wikipedia says silicon recycling is insignificant, but I think that will change in the future. From SRS,
LLC website:
SRS, LLC, the world leader in solar and semiconductor feedstock processing, is an independently
owned company with sales and service provided around the world and operations in North America

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and Asia. SRS began operations in 1996 as Silicon Recycling Services, Inc. and was part of two
international companies from 2005-2010. The role of SRS is to recycle unusable and off-spec
silicon and process it into usable feedstock for the solar and semiconductor industries…
SRS could be considered one of the “greenest” companies on the planet, by taking unusable
silicon that has historically been land filled, and turning into a high quality, low cost feedstock that
ultimately finds its way into solar PV applications which collect free power from the sun…
SRS has an industry leading multi-step process that culminates with an innovative acid etching
process enabling SRS to achieve tremendous surface purity.
SRS is one of many companies already in the game, and more will enter.
Silicon Carbide Production
Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum /kɑːrbəˈrʌndəm/, is
a compound of silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It occurs in nature as the extremely
rare mineral moissanite. Synthetic silicon carbide powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for
use as an abrasive. Grains of silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very
hard ceramics that are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes,
car clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests. Electronic applications of silicon carbide such
as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and detectors in early radios were first demonstrated around 1907.
SiC is used in semiconductor electronics devices that operate at high temperatures or high
voltages, or both. Large single crystals of silicon carbide can be grown by the Lely method; they
can be cut into gems known as synthetic moissanite. Silicon carbide with high surface area can be
produced from SiO2 contained in plant material.
From USGS report on Abrasives production:
Domestic Production and Use: Fused aluminum oxide was produced by two companies at three
plants in the United States and Canada. Production of crude fused aluminum oxide had an
estimated value of $1.65 million. Silicon carbide was produced by two companies at two plants in
the United States. Domestic production of crude silicon carbide had an estimated value of about
$25.9 million. Domestic production of metallic abrasives had an estimated value of about $88.1
million. Bonded and coated abrasive products accounted for most abrasive uses of fused
aluminum oxide and silicon carbide.

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2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production:
Fused aluminum oxide,
crude 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
Silicon carbide 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000
Metallic abrasives (U.S.) 202,000 193,000 191,000 190,000 196,000
Imports for consumption
(U.S.):
Fused aluminum oxide 223,000 231,000 222,000 198,000 157,000
Silicon carbide 129,000 100,000 129,000 130,000 137,000
Metallic abrasives 49,600 22,000 23,900 23,500 27,000
Exports (U.S.):
Silicon carbide 27,800 20,000 18,400 22,300 21,700
Consumption, apparent
(U.S.):
Silicon carbide 136,000 115,000 145,000 142,000 151,000
Price, value of imports,
dollars per ton:
regular 627 560 663 659 598
high-purity 1,360 1,080 847 1,420 1,280
Silicon carbide, crude 260 877 638 660 583
Metallic abrasives 700 988 1,030 1,020 903
consumption (U.S.):
Fused aluminum oxide NA NA NA NA NA
Silicon carbide 74 70 76 75 77
Metallic abrasives 5 0 0 0 0
Recycling: Up to 30% of fused aluminum oxide may be recycled, and about 5% of silicon carbide is
recycled.
Fused aluminum oxide, crude: China, 83%; Canada, 11%; Venezuela, 5%; and other, 1%.
Fused aluminum oxide, grain: Germany, 15%; Austria, 14%; Brazil, 13%; China, 9%; and other,
49%.

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Silicon carbide, crude: China, 60%; South Africa, 18%; the Netherlands, 12%; Romania, 6%; and
other, 4%.
Silicon carbide, grain: China, 42%; Brazil, 22%; Russia, 11%; Germany, 6%; and other, 19%.
Metallic abrasives: Canada, 36%; Sweden, 24%; Germany, 9%; China, 8%; and other, 23%.
World Resources: Although domestic resources of raw materials for the production of fused
aluminum oxide are rather limited, adequate resources are available in the Western Hemisphere.
Domestic resources are more than adequate for the production of silicon carbide.
Silicon Carbide Recycling
I cannot find much information about silicon carbide recycling. I found a company website, APF
Recycling, in Warren, Ohio that says it recycles silicon carbide abrasives. Washington Mills, a
major player in abrasives production, recycles silicon carbide abrasives. NW Processing in
Portland Oregon was into recovering silicon carbide from solar and microelectronics wafers, but
appears to have shut down due to the slowdown in China, who may have been their major
customer.
Silver Production
From SNL Metals & Mining, “U.S. Mines to Market”, September, 2014:
Rather like gold, but notto the same degree, thedemand for silver comes from both the financial
markets as well as from direct consumption. Silver is used in photovoltaiccells,ethyleneoxide
catalysts,batteries, bearings,electronics,brazingandsoldering,automotive industry and jewelry (the
United States was the largest importer of silver jewelry in 2013).
Silver oxide batteries have begun to replace lithium batteriesas,althoughtheformeraremore
expensive, theyhave a higherpower to weight ratio. In industry, silverbearings are an essential
component of engines andmachinerythatrequirehighertemperaturesand continuousfunction.
Otherusages includepower switchesforelectronics that require high electrical conductivity, printed
circuit boards and TV screens. Within cars, electrical functions (suchasstartingtheengine,opening
powerwindows andadjustingpowerseats)usesilver-coatedcontacts. Some 36 million ounces of
silver are used annually in automobiles…
The United States is the seventh largest silver miner in the world, accounting for 4.2 percent of global
production in 2013. The domestic mined production of U.S. silver was estimated at 1,090 tons last year,
with refinery production.
See Figure 2, “Top U.S. Silver Mines”.

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Silver is produced in the United States at three primary silver mines and from 39 domestic base and
precious metal mines as a by-product. Globally,silver is predominantlyminedasaby-productmetal
witharound 20 percent from primary silver mines, 75 percent from multi-metallic mines (including
copper and zinc) and around 5 percent arising as a by-product of gold mines.
Because it is generally produced as a by-product at minesthatderive mostoftheir revenue fromother
metals (mainly lead, zinc, copper and gold), the mined supply of silver,both globally and domestically,
is largely determined by the price of other metals. One consequence of this is that the economics of
silver production are affected less by the silver price than they are by the prices of the primary metals
mined. Therefore, whenprices of by-andco- products metals are high, unit costs of mining silver can
appear low.
Average cash costs of mining silver in the United States are estimated at $11.9/oz in 2013, compared
with a global average of $12.0/oz. Globally, costs since 2008 have increased 81 percent compared
with a 63 percent increase in costs at U.S. operations.
Overthe past couple of years, silver production in the UnitedStateswasmoderatelycostcompetitive,
with around 54 percent of the industry producing the precious metal ata lower cost. Longer term, cost
competiveness will remain a challenge, andwill be largely dependent upon the strength of copper and
zinc prices which will influence the profitability of silver mine production.
From USGS report on Silver production:
Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, U.S. mines produced approximately 1,100 tons of silver
with an estimated value of $560 million. Silver was produced at 3 silver mines and as a byproduct
or coproduct from 37 domestic base and precious-metal mines. Alaska continued as the country’s
leading silver-producing State, followed by Nevada. There were 24 U.S. refiners that reported
production of commercial-grade silver with an estimated total output of 2,000 tons from domestic
and foreign ores and concentrates and from old and new scrap. The physical properties of silver
include high ductility, electrical conductivity, malleability, and reflectivity. In 2015, the estimated
domestic uses for silver were electrical and electronics, 29%; coins and medals, 25%;
photography, 8%; jewelry and silverware, 7%; and other, 31%. Other applications for silver include
use in antimicrobial bandages, clothing, pharmaceuticals, and plastics, batteries, bearings, brazing
and soldering, catalytic converters in automobiles, electroplating, inks, mirrors, photovoltaic solar
cells, water purification, and wood treatment. Mercury and silver, the main components of dental
amalgam, are biocides, and their use in amalgam inhibits recurrent decay.
Like copper, silver prices collapsed along with crude oil starting in 2014. However, consumption not
only held steady but increased from 2012, probably due to increased demand from the investment
market. See Figure 3, “Silver Production/Consumption and Net Trade”.

Page 29 of 92
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production: Mine 1,120 1,060 1,040 1,180 1,100
Refinery: Primary 790 796 800 800 800
Secondary (new and
old scrap) 1,710 1,660 1,700 1,400 1,200
Exports 904 946 409 383 900
Price, average, dollars
per troy ounce 35.28 31.22 23.87 19.37 16.00
Employment, mine and
mill, number 632 709 819 792 750
Recycling: In 2015, approximately 1,200 tons of silver was recovered from new and old scrap,
about 15% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2011–14): Mexico, 54%; Canada, 26%; Poland, 4%; Peru, 3%; and other, 13%.
World Resources: Although silver was a principal product at several mines, silver was primarily
obtained as a byproduct from lead-zinc mines, copper mines, and gold mines, in descending order
of production. The polymetallic ore deposits from which silver was recovered account for more than
two-thirds of U.S. and world resources of silver. Most recent silver discoveries have been
associated with gold occurrences; however, copper and lead-zinc occurrences that contain
byproduct silver will continue to account for a significant share of future reserves and resources.
Silver Recycling
North America represents the largest region for silver recycling, accounting for roughly one-third of
the global total this year. This in turn is dominated by the US, which accounts for over 90% of North
American silver scrap supply.
As covered in Chapter 3, silverware and jewelry recycling have since fallen back, with scrap from
both now not only below the 2011 peak but also below the more ordinary levels seen in 2010.
Turning to industrial scrap, this represents the largest segment of scrap supply in the region. It
includes two quite distinct recycling segments, electrical and electronic waste and the recovery of
silver from spent ethylene oxide (EO) plants. The latter accounts for the largest share of industrial
waste, but represents an anomaly in terms of our analysis of global scrap supply. For all other
areas, recycling is captured where the silver-bearing scrap is generated, not where the metal is
recovered. For the EO market, with over 400 plants operating globally, it makes sense, barring
certain exceptions, to capture the silver where it is treated.

Page 30 of 92
In contrast, electrical/electronic scrap is measured where it is generated. For North America, the
majority of end-of-life material is treated overseas, whereas an important share of process (or
production) scrap is reclaimed in North America.
Finally, turning to photography, this has declined to such an extent that it now contributes a smaller
share of North American recycling than silverware. The bulk of photographic waste is generated
from the supply of old x-rays released over time by hospitals, where the mandatory period to hold
archive material has expired. (The US health system is now digital-based and, although the US still
manufactures silver-bearing x-rays, this is largely consumed overseas.)
In contrast, paper, film and motion picture together account for only a small share of the recovered
silver from photo recycling, given the extent to which traditional silver-based technologies have
been replaced by digital solution.
The prospects for recycling more silver are not good. Combine that prospect with the chance that
individuals will start hording silver in the future, and the U.S. silver supply may be a problem in the
future. The price will certainly rise tremendously when the economic crisis begins. Mexico and
Canada are the main sources of imports.
Sodium Production
From Wikipedia:
Sodium is a chemical element with symbol Na (from Latin natrium) and atomic number 11. It is a
soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic
table, because it has a single electron in its outer shell that it readily donates, creating a positively
charged atom—the Na+
cation. Its only stable isotope is 23
Na. The free metal does not occur in
nature, but must be prepared from compounds. Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in the
Earth's crust, and exists in numerous minerals such as feldspars, sodalite and rock salt (NaCl).
Many salts of sodium are highly water-soluble: sodium ions have been leached by the action of
water from the Earth's minerals over eons, and thus sodium and chlorine are the most common
dissolved elements by weight in the oceans.
Sodium was first isolated by Humphry Davy in 1807 by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide.
Among many other useful sodium compounds, sodium hydroxide (lye) is used in soap
manufacture, and sodium chloride (edible salt) is a de-icing agent and a nutrient for animals
including humans.
Sodium is an essential element for all animals and some plants. Sodium ions are the major cation
in the extracellular fluid (ECF) and as such are the major contributor to the ECF osmotic
pressure and ECF compartment volume. Loss of water from the ECF compartment increases the
sodium concentration, a condition called hypernatremia. Isotonic loss of water and sodium from the
ECF compartment decreases the size of that compartment in a condition called ECF hypovolemia.

Page 31 of 92
By means of the sodium-potassium pump, living human cells pump three sodium ions out of the
cell in exchange for two potassium ions pumped in; comparing ion concentrations across the cell
membrane, inside to outside, potassium measures about 40:1, and sodium, about 1:10. In nerve
cells, the electrical charge across the cell membrane enables transmission of the nerve impulse—
an action potential—when the charge is dissipated; sodium plays a key role in that activity.
From USGS reports on Salt, Soda Ash, and Sodium Sulfate production:
Domestic Production and Use: Domestic production of salt was estimated to have increased by
6% in 2015 to 48 million tons. The total value of salt sold or used was estimated to be about $2.3
billion. Twenty-nine companies operated 64 plants in 16 States. The top producing States, in
alphabetical order, were Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas, and Utah. These
seven States produced about 95% of the salt in the United States in 2015. The estimated
percentage of salt sold or used was, by type, rock salt, 44%; salt in brine, 38%; solar salt, 9%; and
vacuum pan salt, 9%. Highway deicing accounted for about 46% of total salt consumed. The
chemical industry accounted for about 36% of total salt sales, with salt in brine accounting for 88%
of the salt used for chemical feedstock. Chlorine and caustic soda manufacturers were the main
consumers within the chemical industry. The remaining markets for salt were, in declining order of
use, distributors, 7%; food processing, 4%; agricultural, 3%; general industrial, 2%; primary water
treatment, 1%; and other uses combined with exports, 1%.
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production 45,000 37,200 39,900 45,300 48,000
Sold or used by producers 45,500 34,900 43,100 46,000 47,200
Exports 846 809 525 940 846
Consumption: Reported 48,000 36,900 47,600 56,500 57,000
Apparent 58,500 44,000 54,500 65,200 69,500
Price, average value of
bulk, pellets and
packaged salt, dollars
per ton, f.o.b. mine and
plant:
Vacuum and open pan
salt 174.00 169.93 172.09 180.61 182.00
Solar salt 51.19 71.87 78.04 83.90 89.00
Rock salt 38.29 36.89 47.22 48.11 50.00
Salt in brine 8.14 8.44 8.49 9.08 9.15
plant, number 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,200 4,200

Page 32 of 92
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2011–14): Chile, 37%; Canada, 36%; Mexico, 12%; The Bahamas, 5%; and other,
10%.
World Resources: World continental resources of salt are vast, and the salt content in the oceans
is virtually inexhaustible. Domestic resources of rock salt and salt from brine are primarily in
Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, Ohio, and Texas. Saline lakes and solar evaporation salt
facilities are in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Utah. Almost every
country in the world has salt deposits or solar evaporation operations of various sizes.
Domestic Production and Use: The total value of domestic natural soda ash (sodium carbonate)
produced in 2015 was estimated to be about $1.7 billion.1 U.S. production of 11.7 million tons was
about equal to that in 2014 but about 1 million tons higher than production in 2011. The U.S. soda
ash industry comprised four companies in Wyoming operating five plants, one company in
California with one plant, and one company (which owned one of the Wyoming plants) with one
mothballed plant in Colorado,. The five producing companies have a combined annual nameplate
capacity of 13.9 million metric tons (15.3 million short tons). Borax, salt, and sodium sulfate were
produced as coproducts of sodium carbonate production in California. Chemical caustic soda,
sodium bicarbonate, and sodium sulfite were manufactured as coproducts at several of the
Wyoming soda ash plants. Sodium bicarbonate was produced at the Colorado operation using
soda ash feedstock shipped from the company’s Wyoming facility. Based on 2015 quarterly
reports, the estimated 2015 distribution of soda ash by end use was glass, 47%; chemicals, 30%;
soap and detergents, 7%; distributors, 6%; flue gas desulfurization and miscellaneous uses, 4%
each; pulp and paper; and water treatment, 1% each.
The series on sodium sulfate was discontinued in 2014, but the following covers through 2012.
Domestic Production and Use: The domestic natural sodium sulfate industry consisted of two
producers operating two plants, one each in California and Texas. Nine companies operating 11
plants in 9 States recovered byproduct sodium sulfate from various manufacturing processes or
products, including battery reclamation, cellulose, resorcinol, silica pigments, and sodium
dichromate. About one-half of the total output was a byproduct of these plants in 2012. The total
value of natural and synthetic sodium sulfate sold was an estimated $42 million. Estimates of U.S.
sodium sulfate consumption by end use were soap and detergents, 35%; glass, 18%; pulp and
paper, 15%; carpet fresheners and textiles, 4% each; and miscellaneous, 24%.
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Production, total (natural
and synthetic) 319 260 297 NA NA
Imports for consumption 69 77 77 85 85
Exports 107 140 196 199 210
Consumption, apparent

Page 33 of 92
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
(natural and synthetic) 281 197 178 NA NA
Price, quoted, sodium
sulfate (100% Na2SO4),
bulk, f.o.b. works, East,
dollars per short ton 134 134 134 134 140
Employment, well and
plant, number 225 225 225 225 225
Recycling: There was some recycling of sodium sulfate by consumers, particularly in the pulp and
paper industry, but no recycling by sodium sulfate producers.
Import Sources (2008–11): Canada, 87%; China, 4%; Japan, 3%; Finland, 2%; and other, 4%.
World Resources: Sodium sulfate resources are sufficient to last hundreds of years at the present
rate of world consumption. In addition to the countries with reserves listed above, the following
countries also possess identified resources of sodium sulfate: Botswana, Egypt, Italy, Mongolia,
Romania, and South Africa. Commercial production from domestic resources is from deposits in
California and Texas. The brine in Searles Lake, CA, contains about 450 million tons of sodium
sulfate resource, representing about 35% of the lake’s brine. In Utah, about 12% of the dissolved
salts in the Great Salt Lake is sodium sulfate, representing about 400 million tons of resource. An
irregular, 21-meter-thick mirabilite deposit is associated with clay beds 4.5 to 9.1 meters below the
lake bottom near Promontory Point, UT. Several playa lakes in west Texas contain underground
sodium-sulfate-bearing brines and crystalline material. Other economic and subeconomic deposits
of sodium sulfate are near Rhodes Marsh, NV; Grenora, ND; Okanogan County, WA; and Bull
Lake, WY. Sodium sulfate also can be obtained as a byproduct from the production of ascorbic
acid, boric acid, cellulose, chromium chemicals, lithium carbonate, rayon, resorcinol, silica
pigments, and from battery recycling. The quantity and availability of byproduct sodium sulfate are
dependent on the production capabilities of the primary industries and the sulfate recovery rates.
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production 10,700 11,100 11,500 11,700 11,700
Imports for consumption 27 13 13 39 44
Exports 5,470 6,110 6,470 6,670 6,700
Consumption: Reported 5,150 5,060 5,120 5,170 4,950
Apparent 5,220 4,980 4,990 5,110 5,070
Price: Quoted, yearend,
soda ash, dense, bulk:
F.o.b. Green River, WY,
dollars per short ton 260.00 275.00 275.00 290.00 302.00

Page 34 of 92
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Average sales value
(natural source), f.o.b.
mine or plant, dollars per
short ton 133.57 141.90 133.18 135.68 142.00
plant, number 2,400 2,400 2,500 2,500 2,500
Recycling: No soda ash was recycled by producers; however, glass container producers are using
cullet glass, thereby reducing soda ash consumption.
Import Sources (2011–14): Germany, 30%; Canada, 21%; Italy, 21%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 20%.
World Resources: Soda ash is obtained from trona and sodium carbonate-rich brines. The world’s
largest deposit of trona is in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. About 47 billion tons of identified
soda ash resources could be recovered from the 56 billion tons of bedded trona and the 47 billion
tons of interbedded or intermixed trona and halite, which are in beds more than 1.2 meters thick.
Underground room-and-pillar mining, using conventional and continuous mining, is the primary
method of mining Wyoming trona ore. This method has an average 45% mining recovery, whereas
average recovery from solution mining is 30%. Improved solution-mining techniques, such as
horizontal drilling to establish communication between well pairs, could increase this extraction rate
and enable companies to develop some of the deeper trona beds. Wyoming trona resources are
being depleted at the rate of about 15 million tons per year (8.3 million tons of soda ash). Searles
Lake and Owens Lake in California contain an estimated 815 million tons of soda ash reserves. At
least 95 natural sodium carbonate deposits have been identified in the world, only some of which
have been quantified. Although soda ash can be manufactured from salt and limestone, both of
which are practically inexhaustible, synthetic soda ash is more costly to produce and generates
environmental wastes.
Sodium Recycling:
From Ceramatec website:
Industrial Sodium Waste Stream Recycling
Several industrial processes contain or require sodium (Na). As a result, their waste streams also
contain high amounts of sodium which can be recycled using our technology. Some potential
possibilities that we are exploring are:
(1) Separation and recycling of sodium in the form of sodium hydroxide from chemical process
streams.

Page 35 of 92
(2) Recycling of sodium salts based contaminated aqueous stream to produce the acid and base
constituents.
(3) Recycling of sodium sulfate from Paper and Pulp industries and other chemical processes to
make value added chemicals such as Caustic (NaOH) and acid constituents.
(4) Separation of sodium from organic streams containing glycerine base, lignin, Tall oil, black
liquor and any biomass derived processes.
Sodium hydroxide, which is a liquid, and other sodium liquid waste streams are being recycled.
What about soda ash and sodium sulfate? At present, no producers recycle soda ash or sodium
sulfate.
Steel (Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel) Production
Look at Figure 4, “Steel Production in the United States”, to understand what has happened to the
U.S. steel industry. It is indicative of what has happened to U.S. manufacturing in general. From
CNBC,” Donald Trump increases pressure on pipeline makers, his latest industry target”, Tom
DiChristopher, 30 January 2017:
President Donald Trump on Monday reiterated his insistence that pipeline makers use U.S.
materials when they build projects in the United States, a sign that he will keep pressure on
companies in the middle of the energy sector.
In a meeting with small business leaders, Trump clarified that he not only wants pipeline
companies to purchase pipes fabricated in the United States, but also expects the pipe suppliers to
use raw U.S. steel. This comes at a time when some manufacturers are already struggling under
the rising cost of raw steel, due to efforts to prevent foreign countries from dumping cheap supplies
in the North American market.
Trump also revealed how he would pressure pipeline companies to comply: by potentially refusing
to exercise eminent domain, the government's ability to appropriate private land.
Notice the Globalist spin CNBC puts on these three paragraphs with “This comes at a time
when some manufacturers are already struggling under the rising cost of raw steel, due to efforts to
prevent foreign countries from dumping cheap supplies in the North American market.” This
statement captures the problem the U.S. has faced since the 1980s when international companies
started invading the United States simultaneous to the Baby Boomer generation becoming the
primary consumer of the world.
What the U.S. has increasingly become is an economy based on selling food and services to each
other. Therefore, Goggle, Facebook, and Twitter become the household names, and the deluded

Page 36 of 92
Millennial generation think they can survive in this situation created by their parents and
grandparents.
Trump is going to bring manufacturing back to the United States but not without consequences.
The price of everything is going to rise, and tariffs will be the only way to keep the cheap foreign
goods from killing the revival of American manufacturing. The alternative is that Uncle Sammy
becomes a slave consumer of the Globalists controlled by foreign international companies and
their friends in Europe and China. More on this future trend in a later report.
As the price of everything new starts to rise so will the price of recycled materials. This developing
situation will cause the recycling industry to begin expanding at a more rapid rate. Steel and non-
ferrous metal recycling will be major part of that expansion.
From USGS report on Steel production:
Domestic Production and Use: The iron and steel industry and ferrous foundries produced goods
in 2015 with an estimated value of about $103 billion. Pig iron was produced by four companies
operating integrated steel mills in 11 locations. About 58 companies produce raw steel at about
110 minimills. Combined production capability was about 110 million tons. Indiana accounted for
27% of total raw steel production, followed by Ohio, 13%; Michigan, 6%; and Pennsylvania, 5%,
with no other States having more than 5% of total domestic raw steel production. The distribution of
steel shipments was estimated to be warehouses and steel service centers, 26%; construction,
17%; transportation (predominantly automotive), 19%; cans and containers, 2%; and other, 36%.
Million Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Pig iron production 30.2 30.1 30.3 29.4 26
Steel production 86.4 88.7 86.9 88.2 81
Basic oxygen furnaces,
percent 39.7 40.9 39.4 37.4 37
Electric arc furnaces,
percent 60.3 59.1 60.6 62.6 63
Continuously cast steel,
percent 98.0 98.6 98.8 98.5 99
Shipments:
Steel mill products 83.3 87.0 86.6 89.1 89
Steel castings 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Iron castings 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
Imports of steel mill
products 25.9 30.4 29.2 40.2 39
Exports of steel mill
products 12.2 12.5 11.5 10.9 11
Apparent steel
consumption 90 98 100 107 110
Producer price index for

Page 37 of 92
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
steel mill products
(1982=100) 216.2 208.0 195.0 200.2 200
Steel mill product stocks
at service centers,
yearend 7.6 7.8 7.6 9.0 9.0
Total employment,
average, number:
Blast furnaces and steel
mills 142,021 148,688 147,418 149,000 149,000
Iron and steel foundries 68,456 70,506 67,566 69,000 69,000
percentage of
Recycling: See Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron and Steel Slag.
Import Sources (2011–14): Canada, 14%; the Republic of Korea, 12%; Brazil, 11%; Russia, 11%;
and other, 52%.
From Wikipedia:
As of 2015, major steel-makers in the United States included: AK Steel, Carpenter Technology,
Commercial Metals Company, and Nucor, Steel Dynamics, and U.S. Steel…
In 2014, there were 11 operating integrated steel mills in the United States, down from 13 in 2000...
Current integrated steel mills in the US (as of 2014)
Name Location Owner Status and Date
Gary Works Gary, Indiana US Steel
Operating, February
2015
Mon Valley Works - Irvin Plant,
Edgar Thomson Steel Works
North
Braddock,
Pennsylvania
US Steel
East Chicago Tin
East Chicago,
Indiana
US Steel
Midwest Plant
Portage,
Indiana
US Steel
Rouge Steel
Dearborn,
Michigan
AK Steel
Holding

Page 38 of 92
Fairfield Works
Fairfield,
Alabama
US Steel
Plan to convert to electric
arc furnace, February
2015.
Granite City Works
Granite City,
Illinois
US Steel
Indiana Harbor Works
East Chicago,
Indiana
ArcelorMittal
Burns Harbor Works
Burns Harbor,
Indiana
ArcelorMittal
Cleveland Works Cleveland, Ohio ArcelorMittal
Specialty steel mills / minimills (as of 2014)
Name Location Owner Status and Date
Brackenridge Works
Brackenridge,
Pennsylvania
Allegheny
Technologies
Former Colorado Fuel
and Iron plant
Pueblo, Colorado Oregon Steel Mills
Former integrated
mill
Evraz Claymont Steel Claymont, Delaware Evraz Group Closed
Mississippi Steel Flowood, Mississippi Nucor
Pennsylvania Steel
Company
Steelton,
Pennsylvania
ArcelorMittal
Former integrated
mill
Raw materials used in US iron and steel production, 2012
Input metric tons Purpose
Iron ore 46,900,000 Iron source
Iron and steel scrap 104,100,000 Iron source
Coke 9,490,000 Reducing agent
Lime 5,730,000 Flux
Fluorspar 47,800 Flux
Manganese 382,000 Alloy
Chromium 251,000 Alloy
Nickel 194,000 Alloy

Page 39 of 92
Molybdenum 11,800 Alloy
Vanadium 2,500 Alloy
Tungsten 123 Alloy
Source: US Geological Survey, Minerals Yearbooks, 2012 and 2013.
Stainless Steel Production
From The Lane Report, “Stainless Steel’s Kentucky Home”, Josh Shepard, July 9, 2015:
With little fanfare, the largest stainless steel mill in North America operates on the banks of the
Ohio River between Cincinnati and Louisville, where it has access to inexpensive electricity and
the U.S. manufacturing heartland…
Today, after 25 years and an estimated $2.6 billion investment, NAS is the largest fully integrated
stainless steel manufacturing plant in North America, melting 1.2 million tons of product last year…
In May, North American Stainless celebrated the 25th anniversary of its Carroll County plant. The
Kentucky organization welcomed the leadership of its parent, Acerinox Europa, customers from
across the country, commonwealth political and economic leaders, and its entire workforce of
1,400 to 1,500.
NAS is a one-stop shop for its customers with the capacity to produce every grade of stainless
steel: ferritic, austenitic, martensitic, precipitation hardening grades as well as the long product,
Riley said…
But these high-profile applications are not the company’s bread and butter, she continued. The
automotive industry is among its largest customers, along with appliance manufacturers and
producers of commercial restaurant equipment. Surgical instruments, industrial grade fasteners,
plumbing and specialized pipe fittings are manufactured from long-product stainless steel because
of its relatively higher level of resistance to corrosion.
As of January, 2012, there were 12 stainless steel mills in the United States located in the states of
Alabama, Indiana, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, and New York. The U.S. has been a net importer of
stainless steel for some time. See Figure 6, “Imports of Stainless Steel into the U.S”. My guess is
that the West Coast imports steel and stainless steel mainly from Asia.
From Economics 274 Winter 2017, “Why Chinese Steel Exports Are Stirring Protests”, Posted
on March 16, 2015 by Sam Wilson:
In January China’s steel exports have risen a whopping 63% from just last years numbers, a
change of 9.2 million tons. “China produces as much steel as the rest of the world combined—
more than four times the peak U.S. production in the 1970s.”

Page 40 of 92
“The global steel industry suffers from overcapacity in part because many countries make it a point
of national pride to support a domestic steel industry.” This makes sense and shows why China’s
excess sales create a very real threat. The excess causes prices of steel to decrease, which
means that many companies will take it rather than the steel from the local/country’s companies.
Since most countries have their own steel industry this could cause a great pain on the world as a
whole. It will be interesting to see how this will affect the world economy and to see how the
countries will react to help preserve their economies.
You see there is more involved in steel production than just economics.
Steel Recycling
Figure 5, “Overall Steel Recycling Rates Through 2013”, shows that steel recycling is already a
substantial effort, but it can be improved and it will be improved along with the steel fabrication
industry in the United States.
From USGS report on iron and steel scrap:
Domestic Production and Use: In 2015, the total value of domestic purchases (receipts of ferrous
scrap by all domestic consumers from brokers, dealers, and other outside sources) and exports
was estimated to be $18.3 billion, approximately 30% less than that of 2014. U.S. apparent steel
consumption, an indicator of economic growth, decreased to about 102 million tons in 2015.
Manufacturers of pig iron, raw steel, and steel castings accounted for about 91% of scrap
consumption by the domestic steel industry, using scrap together with pig iron and direct-reduced
iron to produce steel products for the appliance, construction, container, machinery, oil and gas,
transportation, and various other consumer industries. The ferrous castings industry consumed
most of the remaining 9% to produce cast iron and steel products, such as machinery parts, motor
blocks, and pipe. Relatively small quantities of steel scrap were used for producing ferroalloys, for
the precipitation of copper, and by the chemical industry; these uses collectively totaled less than 1
million tons.

Page 41 of 92
During 2015, raw steel production was about 81 million tons, down by 8% from 88 million tons in
2014; annual steel mill capability utilization was about 71% compared with 78% for 2014. Net
shipments of steel mill products were about 89 million tons, about the same as those in 2014.
Million Metric Tons (Production and Consumption):
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Production:
Home scrap 10 10 8.5 7.3 7
Purchased scrap 72 70 77 62 67
Imports for consumption 4.0 3.7 3.9 4.3 3.9
Exports 24 21 18 15 13
Consumption, reported 63 63 59 59 49
Consumption, apparent 61 63 71 59 63
Price, average, dollars per
metric ton delivered,
No. 1 Heavy Melting
composite price, Iron Age
Average, Pittsburgh,
Philadelphia, Chicago 392 360 341 352 228
Employment, dealers
brokers, processors,
number 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000
percentage of
reported consumption 0 0 0 0 0
Recycling: Recycled iron and steel scrap is a vital raw material for the production of new steel and
cast iron products. The steel and foundry industries in the United States have been structured to
recycle scrap, and, as a result, are highly dependent upon scrap.
In the United States, the primary source of old steel scrap was the automobile. The recycling rate
for automobiles in 2013, the latest year for which statistics were available, was about 85%. In 2013,
the automotive recycling industry recycled more than 14 million tons of steel from end-of-life
vehicles through more than 300 car shredders, the equivalent of nearly 12 million automobiles.
More than 7,000 vehicle dismantlers throughout North America resell parts.
The recycling rates for appliances and steel cans in 2013 were 82% and 70%, respectively; this
was the latest year for which statistics were available. Recycling rates for construction materials in
2013 were, as in 2012, about 98% for plates and beams and 72% for rebar and other materials.
The recycling rates for appliance, can, and construction steel are expected to increase not only in
the United States, but also in emerging industrial countries at an even greater rate. Public interest
in recycling continues, and recycling is becoming more profitable and convenient as environmental
regulations for primary production increase.

Future Trends - Recycling - Metals - Part III

Future Trends - Recycling - Metals - Part III

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