This document discusses PEM fuel cell systems for distributed generation applications. It notes that distributed generation is growing due to concerns about fossil fuel shortages, emissions and energy security. PEM fuel cells are well-suited for distributed generation because they are efficient, scalable, low emission, and able to provide base load power and load following. The document identifies potential market applications including using by-product hydrogen from industrial processes to power fuel cells, providing power to remote communities currently relying on diesel generators, and enabling energy storage for renewable power systems.
Transient Stability Assessment of Hybrid Distributed Generation and its Impac...IJAEMSJORNAL
Presently, the grid accommodates several mixed energies so as to improve power generation and cater for demand which is ever increasing. These energy sources interact with each other and with the existing grid. Due to the complementary nature of most renewable energy and the mixed dynamics associated with them coupled with the bi directional power flow, transient stability based on single source will not give the overall assessment of the network. This paper presents the impact of hybrid Solar PV-Wind and Small Hydro distributed generation on transient stability of power system so as to take advantages of their complementary roles. To investigate this impact, a detail modeling of grid connected wind / solar PV and small hydropower system with single machine infinite system is carried out. The configuration of the proposed typical grid connected hybrid distributed generation (HDG) consists of hybrid Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), solar PV and small hydropower system. DFIG is integrated through PWM converter into the existing grid while the solar PV consisting of DC sources is integrated through PWM inverter and the hydro power is directly connected through a synchronous generator. The simulation was done in DIgSILENT power factory software
Design and Modeling of Grid Connected Hybrid Renewable Energy Power GenerationIJERA Editor
This paper proposes a design and modeling of grid connected hybrid renewable energy power generation. The
energy system having a photo voltaic (PV) panel, Srg wind turbine and fuel cell (sofc) for continuous power
flow management. Fuel cells (storage & generating) are added to ensure uninterrupted power supply due to the
discontinuous nature of solar and wind resources. Renewable energy generated during times of plenty can be
stored for use during periods when sufficient electricity is not available. But storing this energy is a difficult
task: batteries and similar technologies perform well over short timescales, but over periods of weeks or months
a different approach is necessary. Energy storage in the form of hydrogen is one such possibility: excess
electricity is fed into an electrolyser to split water into its constituent parts, oxygen and hydrogen. The hydrogen
is then used in fuel cells to produce electricity when needed which will overcome the problem of storage. This
work is mainly concentrated on the design, analysis and modelling of Fuel cells and Analysis and modelling of
Switched Reluctance Generator (SRG) in the application of Wind Energy Generation and pv cell. Also an
effective approach is proposed in this thesis to ensure renewable energy diversity and effective utilization. The
pv cell, wind and fuel cell renewable energy system is digitally simulated using the MATLAB/SIMULINK
software environment and fully validated for efficient energy utilizations and enhanced interface power quality
under different operating conditions and load excursions
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Modelling and Simulation of Grid-Connected Solar-Hydro based Hybrid Power Systemijtsrd
In this paper DC linked, grid connected solar/hydro hybrid system is modelled and simulated. A control scheme is developed for solar and hydro system for variable solar irradiance and variable load. Synchronous generator based hydro system is used to feed bulk of the power and whenever solar irradiance is available solar system along with hydro system and grid supply to the load. The performance analysis of the proposed HES and its power management strategy has been done using the simulink toolboxes of MATLAB software. The proposed system consists PV system hydro system, battery and grid. In some remote/rural areas, it is very difficult to satisfy the demand of electrical power throughout the year with the power grid. In such areas, the power requirement can be fulfilled by renewable energy system such as hydro or PV system. Either the hydro system or PV system is not capable of supplying power requirement throughout the year as both systems are intermittent. Hence, the judicious combination of hydro and PV system has been modeled for electrification. The power management strategy is modeled to manage the power flow of the energy systems to fulfill the load demand. The presented results clearly show that the proposed HES and its control strategy are suitable for implementation in remote/rural areas. Karan Sapotra"Modelling and Simulation of Grid-Connected Solar-Hydro based Hybrid Power System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd12954.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/12954/modelling-and-simulation-of-grid-connected-solar-hydro-based-hybrid-power-system/karan-sapotra
Transient Stability Assessment of Hybrid Distributed Generation and its Impac...IJAEMSJORNAL
Presently, the grid accommodates several mixed energies so as to improve power generation and cater for demand which is ever increasing. These energy sources interact with each other and with the existing grid. Due to the complementary nature of most renewable energy and the mixed dynamics associated with them coupled with the bi directional power flow, transient stability based on single source will not give the overall assessment of the network. This paper presents the impact of hybrid Solar PV-Wind and Small Hydro distributed generation on transient stability of power system so as to take advantages of their complementary roles. To investigate this impact, a detail modeling of grid connected wind / solar PV and small hydropower system with single machine infinite system is carried out. The configuration of the proposed typical grid connected hybrid distributed generation (HDG) consists of hybrid Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), solar PV and small hydropower system. DFIG is integrated through PWM converter into the existing grid while the solar PV consisting of DC sources is integrated through PWM inverter and the hydro power is directly connected through a synchronous generator. The simulation was done in DIgSILENT power factory software
Design and Modeling of Grid Connected Hybrid Renewable Energy Power GenerationIJERA Editor
This paper proposes a design and modeling of grid connected hybrid renewable energy power generation. The
energy system having a photo voltaic (PV) panel, Srg wind turbine and fuel cell (sofc) for continuous power
flow management. Fuel cells (storage & generating) are added to ensure uninterrupted power supply due to the
discontinuous nature of solar and wind resources. Renewable energy generated during times of plenty can be
stored for use during periods when sufficient electricity is not available. But storing this energy is a difficult
task: batteries and similar technologies perform well over short timescales, but over periods of weeks or months
a different approach is necessary. Energy storage in the form of hydrogen is one such possibility: excess
electricity is fed into an electrolyser to split water into its constituent parts, oxygen and hydrogen. The hydrogen
is then used in fuel cells to produce electricity when needed which will overcome the problem of storage. This
work is mainly concentrated on the design, analysis and modelling of Fuel cells and Analysis and modelling of
Switched Reluctance Generator (SRG) in the application of Wind Energy Generation and pv cell. Also an
effective approach is proposed in this thesis to ensure renewable energy diversity and effective utilization. The
pv cell, wind and fuel cell renewable energy system is digitally simulated using the MATLAB/SIMULINK
software environment and fully validated for efficient energy utilizations and enhanced interface power quality
under different operating conditions and load excursions
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Modelling and Simulation of Grid-Connected Solar-Hydro based Hybrid Power Systemijtsrd
In this paper DC linked, grid connected solar/hydro hybrid system is modelled and simulated. A control scheme is developed for solar and hydro system for variable solar irradiance and variable load. Synchronous generator based hydro system is used to feed bulk of the power and whenever solar irradiance is available solar system along with hydro system and grid supply to the load. The performance analysis of the proposed HES and its power management strategy has been done using the simulink toolboxes of MATLAB software. The proposed system consists PV system hydro system, battery and grid. In some remote/rural areas, it is very difficult to satisfy the demand of electrical power throughout the year with the power grid. In such areas, the power requirement can be fulfilled by renewable energy system such as hydro or PV system. Either the hydro system or PV system is not capable of supplying power requirement throughout the year as both systems are intermittent. Hence, the judicious combination of hydro and PV system has been modeled for electrification. The power management strategy is modeled to manage the power flow of the energy systems to fulfill the load demand. The presented results clearly show that the proposed HES and its control strategy are suitable for implementation in remote/rural areas. Karan Sapotra"Modelling and Simulation of Grid-Connected Solar-Hydro based Hybrid Power System" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-4 , June 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd12954.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/electrical-engineering/12954/modelling-and-simulation-of-grid-connected-solar-hydro-based-hybrid-power-system/karan-sapotra
Comparing the Dynamic Impact of Hybrid Distributed Generation with Single Sou...IJAEMSJORNAL
Due to the natural intermittent properties of some renewable energies, the grid is subjected to instability, insufficient power delivery and fluctuation. When these renewable energies are combined together to address the challenge of power shortage, increasing energy demand, and voltage drop, the grid is subject to different stabilities issues compare to the single energy source. This paper compares the dynamic behavior of single energy with mixed energy sources. The paper compares the impact of DFIG alone, Solar PV alone and Small Hydro power alone with hybrid type under distributed generation concept on transient stability of power system. To investigate this investigation, a DIgSILENT power factory library models was used as a component model for wind Turbine / Solar PV and small hydropower system. The simulation was carried out on single machine infinite system.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Distributed Generation generally refers to power generation at the point of end user or
customer. Distributed Generation is gaining worldwide acceptance due to it’s a number of benefits.
Distributed Generation eliminates the cost and complexity and reduces the chances of inefficiency
which occur in the transmission and distributed network [1]. Basically electricity produced is
generated at large generating stations which is then send at high voltages through the transmission
lines to the load centers and then through local distribution network distributed to the customers at
distribution level voltage. In present scenario there is an increase in demand which is creating gap
between demand and supply to fulfill this gap distributed generation can plays the significant role.
The main reason for the need of distributed generation is it is clean and continuous. Distributed
generation means generating power on site not centrally. Distributed generation is the best way for
rural electrification. This paper will discuss the importance and benefits of Distributed Generation in
near future
GRAPHENE WILL BECOME THE GAME CHANGER - it is a thinnest and strongest material ever tested and high efficient capacity to overcome in all fields especially in biomedical and energy storage applications.
Rural electrification by Lakshmi.Nidoni-Seminar report finallakshmi nidoni
ABSTRACT
In India, more than 200 million people live in rural areas without access to grid-connected power. A convenient & cost-effective solution would be hybrid power systems which can reduce dependency on grid supply, improve reliability. For a typical domestic load a solar –wind hybrid system is designed with charge controller to charge a conventional battery. To optimize system efficiency, a simple algorithm is developed for system sizing. Total cost of unit is calculated using life cycle cost analysis and payback period.
This report discusses new advances in technologies like regenerative breaking, mass production that reduces cost, battery management system, and higher battery life and battery efficiency are the few of the techies that made electric cars a within the reach of the common man.
Revolutionary ideal on how we can solve the US long term energy problem while developing an energy system that cannot be attacked and destroyed by enemies.
Electric Power Management for a Grid Connected Renewable Energy Sourcestheijes
Operation of a grid connected hybrid system for renewable energy sources has been presented. The hybrid system composed of a photovoltaic (PV) array and a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is considered. The operation modes used in the hybrid system are unit-power control (UPC) and the feeder-flow control (FFC) modes. In the UPC mode, variations of load demand are compensated by the main grid because the hybrid source output is regulated to reference power. Renewable energy is currently widely used because fossils are known to endanger the environment. One of these resources is solar energy. The photovoltaic (PV) array normally uses a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique to continuously deliver the highest power to the load when there are variations in temperature. The disadvantage of PV energy is that the PV output power depends on weather conditions and cell irradiation and temperature, making it an uncontrollable source. Moreover, the sun is not available during the night. In order to overcome these inherent drawbacks, alternative sources, such as PEMFC in the hybrid system are used. By changing FC output power, the hybrid source output becomes controllable. Therefore, the reference value of the hybrid source output is determined. In the FFC mode, the feeder flow is regulated to a constant, the extra load demand is picked up by the hybrid source, and, hence, the feeder reference power must be known. Thus the hybrid system can maximize the generated power when load is heavy and minimizes the load shedding area.
Comparing the Dynamic Impact of Hybrid Distributed Generation with Single Sou...IJAEMSJORNAL
Due to the natural intermittent properties of some renewable energies, the grid is subjected to instability, insufficient power delivery and fluctuation. When these renewable energies are combined together to address the challenge of power shortage, increasing energy demand, and voltage drop, the grid is subject to different stabilities issues compare to the single energy source. This paper compares the dynamic behavior of single energy with mixed energy sources. The paper compares the impact of DFIG alone, Solar PV alone and Small Hydro power alone with hybrid type under distributed generation concept on transient stability of power system. To investigate this investigation, a DIgSILENT power factory library models was used as a component model for wind Turbine / Solar PV and small hydropower system. The simulation was carried out on single machine infinite system.
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
Distributed Generation generally refers to power generation at the point of end user or
customer. Distributed Generation is gaining worldwide acceptance due to it’s a number of benefits.
Distributed Generation eliminates the cost and complexity and reduces the chances of inefficiency
which occur in the transmission and distributed network [1]. Basically electricity produced is
generated at large generating stations which is then send at high voltages through the transmission
lines to the load centers and then through local distribution network distributed to the customers at
distribution level voltage. In present scenario there is an increase in demand which is creating gap
between demand and supply to fulfill this gap distributed generation can plays the significant role.
The main reason for the need of distributed generation is it is clean and continuous. Distributed
generation means generating power on site not centrally. Distributed generation is the best way for
rural electrification. This paper will discuss the importance and benefits of Distributed Generation in
near future
GRAPHENE WILL BECOME THE GAME CHANGER - it is a thinnest and strongest material ever tested and high efficient capacity to overcome in all fields especially in biomedical and energy storage applications.
Rural electrification by Lakshmi.Nidoni-Seminar report finallakshmi nidoni
ABSTRACT
In India, more than 200 million people live in rural areas without access to grid-connected power. A convenient & cost-effective solution would be hybrid power systems which can reduce dependency on grid supply, improve reliability. For a typical domestic load a solar –wind hybrid system is designed with charge controller to charge a conventional battery. To optimize system efficiency, a simple algorithm is developed for system sizing. Total cost of unit is calculated using life cycle cost analysis and payback period.
This report discusses new advances in technologies like regenerative breaking, mass production that reduces cost, battery management system, and higher battery life and battery efficiency are the few of the techies that made electric cars a within the reach of the common man.
Revolutionary ideal on how we can solve the US long term energy problem while developing an energy system that cannot be attacked and destroyed by enemies.
Electric Power Management for a Grid Connected Renewable Energy Sourcestheijes
Operation of a grid connected hybrid system for renewable energy sources has been presented. The hybrid system composed of a photovoltaic (PV) array and a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is considered. The operation modes used in the hybrid system are unit-power control (UPC) and the feeder-flow control (FFC) modes. In the UPC mode, variations of load demand are compensated by the main grid because the hybrid source output is regulated to reference power. Renewable energy is currently widely used because fossils are known to endanger the environment. One of these resources is solar energy. The photovoltaic (PV) array normally uses a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique to continuously deliver the highest power to the load when there are variations in temperature. The disadvantage of PV energy is that the PV output power depends on weather conditions and cell irradiation and temperature, making it an uncontrollable source. Moreover, the sun is not available during the night. In order to overcome these inherent drawbacks, alternative sources, such as PEMFC in the hybrid system are used. By changing FC output power, the hybrid source output becomes controllable. Therefore, the reference value of the hybrid source output is determined. In the FFC mode, the feeder flow is regulated to a constant, the extra load demand is picked up by the hybrid source, and, hence, the feeder reference power must be known. Thus the hybrid system can maximize the generated power when load is heavy and minimizes the load shedding area.
While a majority of the worlds current electricity supply is gener.pdfapleathers
While a majority of the world\'s current electricity supply is generated from fossil fuels such as
coal, oil and natural gas, these traditional energy sources face a number of challenges including
rising prices, security concerns over dependence on imports from a limited number of countries
which have significant fossil fuel supplies, and growing environmental concerns over the climate
change risks associated with power generation using fossil fuels. As a result of these and other
challenges facing traditional energy sources, governments, businesses and consumers are
increasingly supporting the development of alternative energy sources and new technologies for
electricity generation. Renewable energy sources such as solar, biomass, geothermal,
hydroelectric and windpower generation have emerged as potential alternatives which address
some of these concerns. As opposed to fossil fuels, which draw on finite resources that may
eventually become too expensive to retrieve, renewable energy sources are generally unlimited
in availability.
Solar power generation has emerged as one of the most rapidly growing renewable sources of
electricity. Solar power generation has several advantages over other forms of electricity
generation:
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels. Solar energy production does not require fossil fuels and
is therefore less dependent on this limited and expensive natural resource. Although there is
variability in the amount and timing of sunlight over the day, season and year, a properly sized
and configured system can be designed to be highly reliable while providing long-term, fixed
price electricity supply.
Environmental Advantages. Solar power production generates electricity with a limited impact
on the environment as compared to other forms of electricity production.
Matching Peak Time Output with Peak Time Demand. Solar energy can effectively supplement
electricity supply from an electricity transmission grid, such as when electricity demand peaks in
the summer
Modularity and Scalability. As the size and generating capacity of a solar system are a function
of the number of solar modules installed, applications of solar technology are readily scalable
and versatile.
Flexible Locations. Solar power production facilities can be installed at the customer site
which reduces required investments in production and transportation infrastructure.
Government Incentives. A growing number of countries have established incentive programs
for the development of solar and other renewable energy sources, such as (i) net metering laws
that allow on-grid end users to sell electricity back to the grid at retail prices, (ii) direct subsidies
to end users to offset costs of photovoltaic equipment and installation charges, (iii) low interest
loans for financing solar power systems and tax incentives; and (iv) government standards that
mandate minimum usage levels of renewable energy sources.
Despite the cost, an advantage of photovoltaic systems is.
Self-recharging Fuel Cell's. Acta's fast track to Telecom Adoption for backupmshiels
The opportunity for fuel cell deployment is well understood in the telecom sector, offering significant operational and environmental benefits over traditional technologies such as diesel generators and batteries. Acta has developed the Acta Power self-recharging fuel cell system, which regenerates the hydrogen used onsite, using electricity from the grid or renewable sources plus water. This eliminates the need to swap hydrogen cylinders, removing a major barrier to the deployment of hydrogen fuel cells in the telecom sector.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
1. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems
and Distributed Generation
Jeffrey D. Glandt, M. Eng.
Principal Engineer, Solutions Engineering
May 2011
The information contained in this document is derived from selected public sources. Ballard does not guarantee the
accuracy or completeness of the information and nothing shall be construed as a representation of such a guarantee.
Ballard accepts no responsibility for any liability arising from use of this document or its contents. Nothing in this
document constitutes or should be construed to constitute investment advice. Any opinions presented are subject to
change without notice.
2. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems and Distributed Generation 1
THE TREND TOWARD DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
The global grid-connected electricity market grows in capacity by approximately one
hundred gigawatts annually1
. In the past, this demand would have been met through the
continued development of centralized power plants, with extensive transmission lines to
distribute the power. Power distribution based on this centralized grid structure features
high emissions and poor efficiency, as a result of mainly fossil-based primary energy sources
and power-line losses during transmission.
Now, with concerns regarding the shortage of fossil fuels, global warming due to greenhouse
gas emissions, and energy security, users are turning to alternative energy sources to meet
this growing demand for electricity. Distributed generation using renewable energy sources
is seen as the best means of meeting such increased demand while simultaneously
increasing efficiency, reducing emissions and reducing the burden on the existing grid.
Smaller scale power plants (from the low kilowatts to multi-megawatts) are located closer to
the point of demand, allowing users to control their production and demand, and improving
efficiency by reducing losses through transmission and distribution. Energy security is
enhanced through lessened dependence on a single source of power, with diversified mix of
sources dispersed throughout a region. In addition, distributed power generation provides
more opportunities for cogeneration, with heat generated by power plants captured and
used for industrial and district heating applications. This reduces the total amount of energy
required for electricity and heating purposes, improving overall system efficiency.
FUEL CELLS FOR DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Fuel cell and hydrogen technology are important components of the evolving distributed
power generation landscape. Fuel cells, combined with hydrogen storage, have the potential
to save energy and reduce emissions when compared to other conventional systems.
Fuel cell systems are two to three times more efficient than internal combustion engines and
can be scaled in power output to match the fuel supply. Fuel cells also maintain a very high
efficiency at all power levels whereas diesel and gas turbine generators have very poor
efficiency when “turned down” in power level.
When operated on pure hydrogen, fuel cells do not emit carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
particulate matter, or other emissions at the point of use. This zero emission technology can
greatly facilitate siting relative to conventional distributed generation power systems. In
addition, fuel cells are quieter, more reliable and have lower maintenance costs than most
technologies used for distributed generation.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells, in particular, have the unique ability to meet
the power demands of distributed generation. In comparison to other types of fuel cells, PEM
fuel cells are one of the few capable of providing both base load power and load following
capabilities. As a result of many years of focused development for transportation
applications, PEM fuel cells feature the capacity for fast startup and dynamic operation. This
allows the systems to closely follow electricity demand, further heightening efficiency.
3. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems and Distributed Generation 2
MARKET APPLICATIONS
Market analysis has identified potential distributed generation applications for PEM fuel cell
systems, including:
Industries generating by-product hydrogen - the system provides base load power,
using by-product hydrogen to produce electricity that is either sold back to the grid
through the electricity utility or used to offset power demand on site.
Remote communities - off-grid communities in remote locations can be served
through a combination of hydrogen production using renewable energy and fuel cell
power, displacing diesel generator noise and emissions.
Renewable energy producers - when coupled with a wind or PV system, the fuel cell
system can provide large-scale energy storage using hydrogen produced during off-
peak times.
Industrial Processes Generating By-Product Hydrogen
Certain chemical processes, such as chlorine and sodium chlorate production, generate
hydrogen as a by-product. In cases where this by-product hydrogen is flared (vented) or
burned for its heating value, the chemical producer is failing to maximize the full value of
this hydrogen. There is an opportunity to produce clean, zero-emission electricity that is
either sold back to the grid, through the electricity utility, or used to offset power demand
on site. Because the hydrogen is a by-product of another process, the economics of using
the hydrogen with a PEM fuel cell system is quite attractive.
For example, a one-megawatt system utilizing hydrogen from a nonrenewable source will
qualify under California’s Self-Generation Incentive Program (SGIP) for funding of $2,500
per kilowatt. Federal incentives of up to 30% of capital expenditures are also available.
These incentives, coupled with the high base electricity rate of $0.12/kWh and a hydrogen
opportunity cost of $0.60/kg (natural gas equivalent lower heating value price), drive an
internal rate of return of approximately 20% over fifteen years.
ASSUMPTIONS:*
Power output 1 MW
Hydrogen source By-product hydrogen
California’s Self-Generation Incentive
Program (SGIP)
$2500/kW up to 1 MW
Federal stimulus 30% of capital expenditures, less SGIP grant
Kilowatt hours generated 8,320 MW hours per year, per MW installed
Amount of H2 consumed 63kg/hour
Up-time >95%
*California’s SGIP requires that power be used on-site, not sold to the grid.
An estimated 1,000 MW of this by-product hydrogen is available globally, sufficient to power
up to one million homes a year. In addition, industries that utilize hydrogen in their
processes, such as refineries and ammonia production plants, could capture excess
hydrogen that is flared or vented for pressure control and use it instead in a PEM fuel cell
system for onsite power generation.
4. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems and Distributed Generation 3
In addition, approximately 700 miles of hydrogen pipelines are currently operating in the
United States2
and over 900 miles in Europe3
. Owned by merchant hydrogen producers,
these pipelines are located where large hydrogen users, such as petroleum refineries and
chemical plants, are concentrated (for example, in the Gulf Coast region). Other industries
located near hydrogen pipelines can take advantage of easy access to this hydrogen,
installing a PEM fuel cell system to generate lower cost power during times of peak demand
and high electricity prices.
Renewable Power Systems for Remote Communities
Around the world there are many remote communities not connected to a large, stable
electrical grid. Canada, for example, has approximately 300 of these remote communities4
and it is estimated there are up to 4,000 such communities globally. Typically, these small,
isolated communities, having (at best) unstable grid connectivity, generate much or all of
their electricity using diesel generators.
While diesel generators have a relatively favourable capital cost, they have exceptionally
high operating costs due to their low efficiency combined with the high cost of transporting
diesel fuel to these remote sites, often under very difficult circumstances. Furthermore,
diesel fuel prices are expected to increase further in the coming years. In addition, diesel
generators emit harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Remote communities are interested in
improving utility service to support social well-being and, at the same time, reducing their
dependence on diesel-powered electricity for social and environmental reasons. In addition,
governments are looking at ways to create job opportunities in these remote communities,
leveraging alternative energy as a job creator.
Renewable sources of electricity, such as wind, hydropower and solar are particularly
attractive for remote communities since they offer a clean source of power in locations that
cannot be economically served by means of a grid extension. A significant issue in relation
to renewable power systems, however, is their intermittency and unpredictability. Often they
cannot be relied upon to meet 100% of power demand, particularly during peak usage
periods, but also relative to base power requirements.
These issues of intermittency and reliability can be effectively addressed by storing surplus
off-peak power for use during peak power periods. Off-peak energy can be stored in the
form of hydrogen (produced using renewable energy and electrolysers), which will produce
power during peak times by means of a PEM fuel cell system.
While renewable power systems typically have relatively high capital cost, their operating
costs are very low in comparison to diesel generators. Therefore, they have lower life-cycle
cost and associated levelized cost of energy. Short term payback periods for renewable
power systems relative to diesel systems are achievable, when combined with fuel cells. For
an in-depth economic analysis, see Ballard’s white paper entitled “Fuel Cell Power as a
Primary Energy Source for Remote Communities”.
Energy storage in the form of hydrogen (using renewable sources and electrolyser
technology) combined with power production using a fuel cell system can enable remote
communities to meet all – or a significant proportion – of their power needs in a highly
economical manner.
5. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems and Distributed Generation 4
Energy Storage for Renewable Power Systems
The evolution of the smart grid is facilitating distributed generation, providing an advanced
management system that has the capability to balance electrical loads from diverse, and
often intermittent, alternative generation sources. Prior to the integration of renewable
energy sources like wind and solar to the electrical grid, the task of load-balancing was
simpler, with conventional centralized power plants producing a predictable amount of
energy on demand. Renewable energy sources, however, are subject to the natural
conditions they encounter. Wind, solar and wave energy may only produce power during
certain times, often not timed to match peak energy demand. A key component of the smart
grid is the capacity to store electrical energy and to draw upon it when needed.
Fuel cells coupled with electrolysers can offer a cost competitive grid scale energy storage
solution. An economic analysis comparing the capital cost of a hydrogen energy storage
system (electrolysers, compressors, storage tanks, and fuel cells) to a sodium sulfur (NaS)
energy storage system for which off-peak electricity price is assumed to be $0.04/kWh. The
results of this analysis are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Cost of hydrogen versus NaS energy storage system.
Beginning at approximately nine hours of energy storage required, hydrogen systems can
offer both a lower capital cost and lower levelized cost of energy compared to NaS systems.
This is mainly due to the fact that in order to increase energy storage duration of NaS
systems, additional (and expensive) batteries must be added. However, to increase the
energy storage duration of hydrogen systems, only additional storage tanks (which are
inexpensive) need be added. Additional electrolysers and fuel cells, the highest cost
components, are not required to increase the energy storage duration.
6. A Discussion of PEM Fuel Cell Systems and Distributed Generation 5
CONCLUSIONS
When used in distributed generation applications, PEM fuel cell systems have the potential to
save energy and reduce emissions over conventional power generation technologies.
Compared to diesel and gas turbine generators, PEM fuel cell systems are more efficient,
have lower greenhouse gas emissions, are readily scalable to meet power requirements and
maintain high efficiency at all power levels during “turn down”. PEM fuel cell systems are a
better choice for distributed power generation than other fuel cell technologies because they
are capable of both load following and fast startup, at the lowest capital and operating cost.
Market analysis has identified key distributed generation applications for PEM fuel cell
systems. For industries that vent or burn by-product hydrogen, more value can be extracted
using a PEM fuel cell system for electricity and heat. In remote communities, hydrogen
powered PEM fuel cell systems can offer cleaner, more reliable source of energy than diesel
and gas turbine generators. And, for grid scale energy storage applications that require
significant durations of energy storage, hydrogen systems can offer a lower capital cost and
levelized cost of energy than battery systems.
REFERENCES
1
Sustainable Development Technology Canada
(http://www.sdtc.ca/sdtc_projects/index_en.htm)
2
U.S. Department of Energy
(http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/delivery/current_technology.html)
3
Hydrogen Fuel Cars & Vehicles
(http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/blog2/index.php/infrastructure/hydrogen-pipelines-
are-already-part-of-infrastructure/)
4
Renewable Energy in Canada’s Remote Communities, Kim Ah-You and Greg Leng,
Renewable Energy for Remote Communities, Natural Resources Canada
(http://canmetenergy-canmetenergie.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/fichier.php/codectec/En/1999-26-
27/1999-27e.pdf)