- Forensic anthropology studies the human skeleton to determine identity, cause of death, and other clues from remains. - In the early 20th century, scientists began systematically using skeletal measurements and analysis to identify individuals and determine characteristics like sex. - Examination of bones can reveal information like age, sex, stature, ancestry, injuries, and medical conditions which helps investigators understand the identity and cause of death of skeletal remains.

1. FRS 304

2. • Forensic Anthropology is a specialized area of
anthropology (study of humankind) that
studies the human skeleton and how it has
evolved throughout history.

3. • In 1939 the FBI published “guide to the Identification
of Human Skeletal Material”
• In 1948 Mildred Trotter organized a laboratory to
examine bones of dead soldiers to identify them and
return them to their families
• Trotter also created new structural charts and
mathematical tables to aid in identification
• In 1979, the first forensic anthropology textbook was
written by Dale Steward (former curator of
anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution

4. • In Europe in the 1800s, scientists began using skull
measurements to differentiate among individuals.
Differences between male and female anatomy,
formation, aging, and fusing of bones were
examined.
• Leutgert murder case of 1897 – a man was accused
of killing his wife and boiling down her corpse.
Remains found appeared to fragments of his wife’s
skull, finger, and arm.

5. • 1932 – FBI announced the opening of its first crime
lab and the Smithsonian became a working partner,
aiding in identification of human remains
• 1939 – William Krogman published the Guide to the
Identification of Human Skeletal Material
• Remains of soldiers killed during World War II were
identified using anthropologic techniques
• New techniques in mitochondrial DNA have been
used in identification of skeletal remains

6. Examination of recovered bones can reveal
whether bones are human, age, height, sex,
injuries, nature of wounds, history of accidents
and medical conditions.

7. •
• Bones originate from cells called osteoblasts.
• Ossification – the process that replaces soft cartilage
with hard bone by the deposition of minerals
• By the 8th week of pregnancy, the outline of the
skeleton has formed and is visible in an X-ray
• As bone develops, a protective membrane layer that
contains nerves and blood vessels covers the surface
of the bone. This membrane, called the periosteum,
serves an important role in keeping bones moist and
aiding in the repair of injuries

8. • Human bones can be distinguished from other
species based on their size, shape, and structure.
• The number of individuals that are present as
skeletons can be determined by looking for
duplicate bones, and by looking for differences in
age, size, structure and preservation.
• DNA analysis of bones can identify if the bones
are from the same individual or if multiple
individuals are present

9. • Throughout our lifetime, bones are being produced
and being broken down.
• Children build more bones at a faster rate than the
rate of bones being broken down. As a result, the
bones grow!
• After 30 years, the process begins to reverse and
bones are broken down faster than they are built.
• The number of bones and their condition can tell an
investigator about a person’s age, health, and
whether they had enough calcium in their food

10. • Children are easier to analyze because of
skeletal growth is very well-documented and
bones fuse at very regular rates
• After puberty, it is often impossible to tell the
age

11. • Suture Marks - Suture marks with a zigzag
appearance are found on the skull where
bones meet. In an immature skull, areas of
softer tissue gradually become ossified
(harden). The suture marks slowly disappear
as the bones mature.

12. • Cartilaginous Lines - We are born with more
than 450 bones that later join together to
form 206 bones. As the cartilage is slowly
replaced with hard, compact bone, a
cartilaginous line is visible, called an epiphysis.
When the cartilage is fully replaced, a line is
no longer visible.

13. • Long bones - When the head of a long bone,
like the thigh or upper arm bone, has totally
fused to its shaft, it is another indication of
age.
Because this fusing occurs at different times
with different bones, this information can be
used to approximate age.

14. • It is difficult to determine the sex of children
because many changes in skeleton are
apparent after puberty
• Pelvis of a female is usually wider than male
to accommodate a baby
• Skulls:
– Males have a more square chin
– Male foreheads protrude further than female

15. (how long ago the individual died) depends on
several factors such as:
• temperature of environment
• presence of animal scavengers
• humidity
• rainfall
• depth of burial
• weight and build of individual
• clothing or other wrapping
• insect activity

16. Cranial Index = Cranial Width (cwt) x 100
Cranial Length (clt)
Nasal Index = Nasal Width (nwt) x 100
Nasal Height (nht)
Orbit Index = Orbit Height (oht) x 100
Orbit Width (owt)

17. • Vertebrae that is often fractured during
strangulation

18. Robusticity Index =
micf x 100
hlt
Hlt = full height
Micf = minimum
circumference

19. Scapular Index =
Scapular Width (swt) x100
Scapular Length (Slt)