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NPF561: Class 2: Media and Ideology
Examining Media and Ideology. Our starting point "media and Ideology" chapter from the book Media society: industries, images, and audiences
by David Croteau, William Hoynes.
Bullet theory
The Hypodermic Needle Theory originated in the 1920s and posits that media has the power to directly inject influential messages into passive audiences, similar to how a hypodermic needle injects a substance. It assumes media can strongly impact public opinion and behavior in a uniform way. While influential early on, it is now seen as too simplistic given that audiences can reject messages and media effects vary between individuals and are influenced by other factors.
Representation in the media
This document discusses key concepts around how media representations are constructed rather than objective reflections of reality. It addresses how media images are often interpretations that say something about their subject and can endorse particular ideologies. Media representations may rely on shorthand like stereotypes due to limitations of time and resources. The meaning of representations depends on whose interpretation is being considered - the producer, audience or text itself. Representations can have political or social consequences by influencing how groups are seen and treated in society.
Critical Theory and Media Studies
The document discusses Critical Theory and its contributions to Media Studies and Media Education. It begins by outlining three main questions to address regarding Critical Theory, its role in Media Studies, and how it can benefit media education students. It then provides background on Critical Theory, noting it originated from the Frankfurt School and opposes capitalism and domination. Key concepts from Critical Theory are also listed. The document focuses on Theodor Adorno's theories around mass culture, the culture industry, and the standardization and commodification of culture through capitalism. It argues Critical Theory continues to be relevant today across various fields and can help media educators develop a critical pedagogy.
Political economy of the media and regulation
This document outlines key concepts from the critical political economy tradition for analyzing media and communications. It discusses concerns with ownership concentration, constraints on media messages, and the tension between private interests and public ideals of the media. The critical political economy perspective examines how economic forces shape cultural production and representations in ways that can perpetuate inequality in society. It is interested in the appropriate roles of the state, market, and public sphere in media and communications.
Paul Lazarsfeld limited effects theory
Paul Lazarsfeld developed the limited effects theory, which argues that the media has limited impact on shaping people's opinions. According to the theory, only a small subset of people are open to psychological manipulation by the media, and media messages are filtered through interpersonal relationships as people seek opinions from friends and family before forming their own views. The media also has limited impact because individuals and groups have different characteristics and backgrounds that influence how they perceive media messages.
The uses and gratification theory
The Uses and Gratification Theory proposes that people actively seek out specific media to satisfy certain needs. It focuses on understanding why and how audiences use media rather than how media affects people. The theory suggests people choose media to fulfill needs like information, personal identity, social interaction, and entertainment. It presents an audience-centered perspective on mass communication.
Ideology & representation in media
This document discusses different theories about how media represents and influences society:
- Functionalism says media informs, correlates information, provides continuity of culture and entertainment. Conflict theory says media representation is shaped by ideology and bias.
- Representation in media results from selection of possibilities and is ideological. Stereotypes in media content can reinforce power relations.
- Media can manipulate representation through techniques like mise-en-scene, editing, and framing. Content analysis is needed to understand media influence.
- Hegemony theory says the ruling class controls media to shape public opinion. Pluralism says media reflects diverse audiences rather than pushing ideology. Stereotypes arise from pleasing audience expectations.
Recommended
NPF561: Class 2: Media and Ideology
Examining Media and Ideology. Our starting point "media and Ideology" chapter from the book Media society: industries, images, and audiences
by David Croteau, William Hoynes.
Bullet theory
The Hypodermic Needle Theory originated in the 1920s and posits that media has the power to directly inject influential messages into passive audiences, similar to how a hypodermic needle injects a substance. It assumes media can strongly impact public opinion and behavior in a uniform way. While influential early on, it is now seen as too simplistic given that audiences can reject messages and media effects vary between individuals and are influenced by other factors.
Representation in the media
This document discusses key concepts around how media representations are constructed rather than objective reflections of reality. It addresses how media images are often interpretations that say something about their subject and can endorse particular ideologies. Media representations may rely on shorthand like stereotypes due to limitations of time and resources. The meaning of representations depends on whose interpretation is being considered - the producer, audience or text itself. Representations can have political or social consequences by influencing how groups are seen and treated in society.
Critical Theory and Media Studies
The document discusses Critical Theory and its contributions to Media Studies and Media Education. It begins by outlining three main questions to address regarding Critical Theory, its role in Media Studies, and how it can benefit media education students. It then provides background on Critical Theory, noting it originated from the Frankfurt School and opposes capitalism and domination. Key concepts from Critical Theory are also listed. The document focuses on Theodor Adorno's theories around mass culture, the culture industry, and the standardization and commodification of culture through capitalism. It argues Critical Theory continues to be relevant today across various fields and can help media educators develop a critical pedagogy.
Political economy of the media and regulation
This document outlines key concepts from the critical political economy tradition for analyzing media and communications. It discusses concerns with ownership concentration, constraints on media messages, and the tension between private interests and public ideals of the media. The critical political economy perspective examines how economic forces shape cultural production and representations in ways that can perpetuate inequality in society. It is interested in the appropriate roles of the state, market, and public sphere in media and communications.
Paul Lazarsfeld limited effects theory
Paul Lazarsfeld developed the limited effects theory, which argues that the media has limited impact on shaping people's opinions. According to the theory, only a small subset of people are open to psychological manipulation by the media, and media messages are filtered through interpersonal relationships as people seek opinions from friends and family before forming their own views. The media also has limited impact because individuals and groups have different characteristics and backgrounds that influence how they perceive media messages.
The uses and gratification theory
The Uses and Gratification Theory proposes that people actively seek out specific media to satisfy certain needs. It focuses on understanding why and how audiences use media rather than how media affects people. The theory suggests people choose media to fulfill needs like information, personal identity, social interaction, and entertainment. It presents an audience-centered perspective on mass communication.
Ideology & representation in media
This document discusses different theories about how media represents and influences society:
- Functionalism says media informs, correlates information, provides continuity of culture and entertainment. Conflict theory says media representation is shaped by ideology and bias.
- Representation in media results from selection of possibilities and is ideological. Stereotypes in media content can reinforce power relations.
- Media can manipulate representation through techniques like mise-en-scene, editing, and framing. Content analysis is needed to understand media influence.
- Hegemony theory says the ruling class controls media to shape public opinion. Pluralism says media reflects diverse audiences rather than pushing ideology. Stereotypes arise from pleasing audience expectations.
Gatekeeping framing theory summary
1) Gatekeeping theory and framing theory describe how individuals and organizations filter information and influence how audiences think about issues.
2) Gatekeepers control what information passes through systems by selecting which stories to publish or broadcast. Framing influences how audiences perceive issues by emphasizing specific aspects.
3) These theories are important for understanding strategic communication and how media coverage can shape public opinion.
Adorno and Horkheimer - The Culture Industry
Adorno and Horkheimer argue that cultural production has become standardized and industrialized like other manufacturing industries. They call this the "culture industry" which treats creative works as mass-produced commodities. It produces homogeneous, undemanding content through organized procedures aimed solely at profit. This standardized cultural output in turn creates passive, uniform consumption that is easily manipulated for commercial or political ends.
Ideological Apparatuses
1) Althusser discusses ideological state apparatuses and how they function through ideology rather than violence to reproduce societal conditions.
2) He identifies several ideological state apparatuses including religious, educational, family, political, trade unions, media, and cultural institutions.
3) Althusser argues that ideology interpellates or hails individuals as subjects, recognizing themselves in the ideology of the state apparatuses. This recognition and misrecognition is how ideology reproduces the relations of production in society.
Media representation theory
Media Representation Theory discusses how media constructs representations of reality through various processes. Some key aspects of representation theory are:
1) Representation involves the construction of people, places, events and identities in any medium like mass media.
2) Representations involve how identities are constructed in the text as well as in the processes of production and reception.
3) Representations aim to seem 'natural' by positioning subjects in particular ways that serve ideologies.
Analyzing representations involves considering whose realities are represented and whose are denied through semiotics and other formal analysis methods.
M6 com320 mass_commtheories
This document outlines several mass communication theories: the Magic Bullet Theory which suggests media has a direct influence on audiences; the Two-Step Theory where opinion leaders influence the public; the Agenda-Setting Theory where media tells the public what issues are important; Diffusion Theory where opinion leaders spread messages to influence the masses; and Framing Theory where how an issue is presented influences choices. It provides diagrams and brief explanations of each theory and links to additional mass communication theory resources.
Feminist Film Theory
This document summarizes the history and key developments in feminist film theory from the 1960s to the present. It discusses the major theorists and texts that shifted the focus from class to examining feminine identity and gender construction. Theories analyzed how women were portrayed in films and the male gaze of the spectator. Psychoanalytic approaches examined concepts like scopophilia and how cinema reinforced patriarchal ideals. Later works addressed issues like bisexual spectatorship and challenged the notion that femininity must be defined in relation to masculinity.
Lesson 1 Media concepts - Representation & mediation
The document discusses media representation and how the media constructs aspects of reality through the ways it chooses to portray people, places, events, and issues. It explains that representation involves re-presenting reality, not presenting it directly, and different people will have different representations based on their own experiences and perspectives. It also discusses how media producers mediate, or control, representations to try and influence the messages and meanings audiences take away. Producers do this through techniques like editing, camera angles, music, and captions that can shape interpretations. Overall, the document emphasizes that all media representations are constructions of reality, not reality itself, and will reflect the perspectives and agendas of those creating the representations.
Cultivation theory
The cultivation theory developed by Gerbner posits that heavy television viewing shapes peoples' perceptions of social reality. Gerbner's research found that heavy viewers perceived the world as a more dangerous place and overestimated risks like crime rates. Later research criticized some of Gerbner's conclusions. Gerbner then added the concepts of mainstreaming, where heavy viewing leads different groups to share outlooks, and resonance, where effects are stronger for groups relating to television content. The theory now claims television effects vary between subgroups rather than having uniform effects on all heavy viewers.
Representation theory
The document discusses the concept of representation in media. It defines representation as the process by which media present versions of reality through images, words or sounds. These representations are ideological constructions that reflect the values of their creators rather than objective reality. The document also discusses how representations impact our understanding of the world and can reinforce dominant ideologies through simplistic or stereotypical portrayals. Analyzing representations involves considering who and what is represented and the intentions and effects of the representation.
Development media theory (Mass communication theory)
Development media theory refers to using communication to facilitate social development in developing countries. It posits that mass media should support national development programs and nation building. The theory originated in the 1940s due to the development gap between first-world and third-world countries and aims to help people through ethical, two-way communication rather than propaganda while respecting local cultures.
Knowledge gap theory
This theory explain the gap, in gaining of knowledge, between high social status and low social status.
Representation of race & ethnicity
The document discusses representation of race and ethnicity in media. It notes that while race has biological elements, there are also cultural components to representation. Media often relies on rigid racial stereotypes, especially in portrayals of minority groups. This can negatively impact viewers' perceptions, especially for children who have little other exposure to different cultures. The document calls for more accurate and diverse portrayals of various racial and ethnic groups in television, films, and other media to avoid perpetuating harmful stereotypes. It provides several specific examples of how different minority groups such as African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans have been stereotyped in media over time.
The application of semiotics in advertising
the symbolic messages of two pairs of advertisements (perfumes and cigarettes) are decoded using semiotic analysis in order to compare the different strategies that are utilized to target different customer groups according to demographic variables such as gender and age. The findings of the semiotic analysis are discussed from the point of view of effective advertising campaigns.
Media Theories.
The document discusses several media theories:
- Effects theory argues that media has direct effects on audiences, potentially manipulating them
- Uses and gratifications theory examines what audiences do with media to fulfill needs
- Reception theory views audiences as active interpreters of media texts based on their social and cultural backgrounds, leading to varied readings of the same text.
Spiral of Silence
The theory talks about the relationship between minority and majority of people and how they express themselves. It proves minority people keep silent on their views on any particular subject.
Framing Theory By Dilawar Dar
Erving Goffman was a highly influential Canadian-American sociologist known for his studies of everyday social interactions and symbolic meaning. His most famous work was Frame Analysis (1974) which introduced the concept of "framing" to describe how people interpret situations based on social expectations and cues. According to framing theory, people make sense of situations through mental frameworks or "frames" informed by past experiences and media messages. These frames can be resistant to change and arouse strong emotions. Framing theory provides insights into how social interactions and media representations reinforce societal norms and power structures through subtle cues.
Genre Hybrid - Media Studies
A genre hybrid combines elements from two or more genres such as literature, art, and music. Genre hybrids often occur when an author or director wants to appeal to more people by merging genres. Some examples of genre hybrids include action/comedy films, comedy/dramas, romantic comedies, crime/fantasy works, and horror/romance stories.
Representations of gender in the Media
This document discusses gender representation in media. It begins by outlining the learning objectives of exploring how femininity and masculinity are represented in media through stereotypes in film, music and advertising. It then discusses student tasks analyzing representations of gender in magazines, television shows, and advertisements. Specifically, it notes that women are often represented narrowly through domestic or sexualized roles, while representations of men increasingly focus on physique, strength, and sexuality. The document aims to have students understand and critique common gender stereotypes in various media.
Stuart hall (1980) audience reception theory
Reception theory proposes that media texts contain encoded messages from producers but audiences decode texts in different ways based on their own experiences and perspectives. According to Stuart Hall, audiences may have a dominant, oppositional, or negotiated reading of a text. A dominant reading accepts the producer's intended meaning while an oppositional reading rejects this. A negotiated reading finds a compromise by accepting some aspects but not others. How a text is read depends on individual audience characteristics and context.
Media industries theories
The document discusses several academics and their views on media ownership and regulation. It describes how James Curran and Jean Seaton argue that increasing media concentration limits diversity and quality as companies prioritize profit. It also explains that Hesmondhalgh asserts cultural industries follow capitalist patterns of consolidation to reduce risk, relying on repetition of formulas to appeal to mainstream audiences.
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Gatekeeping framing theory summary
1) Gatekeeping theory and framing theory describe how individuals and organizations filter information and influence how audiences think about issues.
2) Gatekeepers control what information passes through systems by selecting which stories to publish or broadcast. Framing influences how audiences perceive issues by emphasizing specific aspects.
3) These theories are important for understanding strategic communication and how media coverage can shape public opinion.
Adorno and Horkheimer - The Culture Industry
Adorno and Horkheimer argue that cultural production has become standardized and industrialized like other manufacturing industries. They call this the "culture industry" which treats creative works as mass-produced commodities. It produces homogeneous, undemanding content through organized procedures aimed solely at profit. This standardized cultural output in turn creates passive, uniform consumption that is easily manipulated for commercial or political ends.
Ideological Apparatuses
1) Althusser discusses ideological state apparatuses and how they function through ideology rather than violence to reproduce societal conditions.
2) He identifies several ideological state apparatuses including religious, educational, family, political, trade unions, media, and cultural institutions.
3) Althusser argues that ideology interpellates or hails individuals as subjects, recognizing themselves in the ideology of the state apparatuses. This recognition and misrecognition is how ideology reproduces the relations of production in society.
Media representation theory
Media Representation Theory discusses how media constructs representations of reality through various processes. Some key aspects of representation theory are:
1) Representation involves the construction of people, places, events and identities in any medium like mass media.
2) Representations involve how identities are constructed in the text as well as in the processes of production and reception.
3) Representations aim to seem 'natural' by positioning subjects in particular ways that serve ideologies.
Analyzing representations involves considering whose realities are represented and whose are denied through semiotics and other formal analysis methods.
M6 com320 mass_commtheories
This document outlines several mass communication theories: the Magic Bullet Theory which suggests media has a direct influence on audiences; the Two-Step Theory where opinion leaders influence the public; the Agenda-Setting Theory where media tells the public what issues are important; Diffusion Theory where opinion leaders spread messages to influence the masses; and Framing Theory where how an issue is presented influences choices. It provides diagrams and brief explanations of each theory and links to additional mass communication theory resources.
Feminist Film Theory
This document summarizes the history and key developments in feminist film theory from the 1960s to the present. It discusses the major theorists and texts that shifted the focus from class to examining feminine identity and gender construction. Theories analyzed how women were portrayed in films and the male gaze of the spectator. Psychoanalytic approaches examined concepts like scopophilia and how cinema reinforced patriarchal ideals. Later works addressed issues like bisexual spectatorship and challenged the notion that femininity must be defined in relation to masculinity.
Lesson 1 Media concepts - Representation & mediation
The document discusses media representation and how the media constructs aspects of reality through the ways it chooses to portray people, places, events, and issues. It explains that representation involves re-presenting reality, not presenting it directly, and different people will have different representations based on their own experiences and perspectives. It also discusses how media producers mediate, or control, representations to try and influence the messages and meanings audiences take away. Producers do this through techniques like editing, camera angles, music, and captions that can shape interpretations. Overall, the document emphasizes that all media representations are constructions of reality, not reality itself, and will reflect the perspectives and agendas of those creating the representations.
Cultivation theory
The cultivation theory developed by Gerbner posits that heavy television viewing shapes peoples' perceptions of social reality. Gerbner's research found that heavy viewers perceived the world as a more dangerous place and overestimated risks like crime rates. Later research criticized some of Gerbner's conclusions. Gerbner then added the concepts of mainstreaming, where heavy viewing leads different groups to share outlooks, and resonance, where effects are stronger for groups relating to television content. The theory now claims television effects vary between subgroups rather than having uniform effects on all heavy viewers.
Representation theory
The document discusses the concept of representation in media. It defines representation as the process by which media present versions of reality through images, words or sounds. These representations are ideological constructions that reflect the values of their creators rather than objective reality. The document also discusses how representations impact our understanding of the world and can reinforce dominant ideologies through simplistic or stereotypical portrayals. Analyzing representations involves considering who and what is represented and the intentions and effects of the representation.
Development media theory (Mass communication theory)
Development media theory refers to using communication to facilitate social development in developing countries. It posits that mass media should support national development programs and nation building. The theory originated in the 1940s due to the development gap between first-world and third-world countries and aims to help people through ethical, two-way communication rather than propaganda while respecting local cultures.
Knowledge gap theory
This theory explain the gap, in gaining of knowledge, between high social status and low social status.
Representation of race & ethnicity
The document discusses representation of race and ethnicity in media. It notes that while race has biological elements, there are also cultural components to representation. Media often relies on rigid racial stereotypes, especially in portrayals of minority groups. This can negatively impact viewers' perceptions, especially for children who have little other exposure to different cultures. The document calls for more accurate and diverse portrayals of various racial and ethnic groups in television, films, and other media to avoid perpetuating harmful stereotypes. It provides several specific examples of how different minority groups such as African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans have been stereotyped in media over time.
The application of semiotics in advertising
the symbolic messages of two pairs of advertisements (perfumes and cigarettes) are decoded using semiotic analysis in order to compare the different strategies that are utilized to target different customer groups according to demographic variables such as gender and age. The findings of the semiotic analysis are discussed from the point of view of effective advertising campaigns.
Media Theories.
The document discusses several media theories:
- Effects theory argues that media has direct effects on audiences, potentially manipulating them
- Uses and gratifications theory examines what audiences do with media to fulfill needs
- Reception theory views audiences as active interpreters of media texts based on their social and cultural backgrounds, leading to varied readings of the same text.
Spiral of Silence
The theory talks about the relationship between minority and majority of people and how they express themselves. It proves minority people keep silent on their views on any particular subject.
Framing Theory By Dilawar Dar
Erving Goffman was a highly influential Canadian-American sociologist known for his studies of everyday social interactions and symbolic meaning. His most famous work was Frame Analysis (1974) which introduced the concept of "framing" to describe how people interpret situations based on social expectations and cues. According to framing theory, people make sense of situations through mental frameworks or "frames" informed by past experiences and media messages. These frames can be resistant to change and arouse strong emotions. Framing theory provides insights into how social interactions and media representations reinforce societal norms and power structures through subtle cues.
Genre Hybrid - Media Studies
A genre hybrid combines elements from two or more genres such as literature, art, and music. Genre hybrids often occur when an author or director wants to appeal to more people by merging genres. Some examples of genre hybrids include action/comedy films, comedy/dramas, romantic comedies, crime/fantasy works, and horror/romance stories.
Representations of gender in the Media
This document discusses gender representation in media. It begins by outlining the learning objectives of exploring how femininity and masculinity are represented in media through stereotypes in film, music and advertising. It then discusses student tasks analyzing representations of gender in magazines, television shows, and advertisements. Specifically, it notes that women are often represented narrowly through domestic or sexualized roles, while representations of men increasingly focus on physique, strength, and sexuality. The document aims to have students understand and critique common gender stereotypes in various media.
Stuart hall (1980) audience reception theory
Reception theory proposes that media texts contain encoded messages from producers but audiences decode texts in different ways based on their own experiences and perspectives. According to Stuart Hall, audiences may have a dominant, oppositional, or negotiated reading of a text. A dominant reading accepts the producer's intended meaning while an oppositional reading rejects this. A negotiated reading finds a compromise by accepting some aspects but not others. How a text is read depends on individual audience characteristics and context.
Media industries theories
The document discusses several academics and their views on media ownership and regulation. It describes how James Curran and Jean Seaton argue that increasing media concentration limits diversity and quality as companies prioritize profit. It also explains that Hesmondhalgh asserts cultural industries follow capitalist patterns of consolidation to reduce risk, relying on repetition of formulas to appeal to mainstream audiences.
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