2. The usual approximate dates given to Old English are ca. 450 and ca. 1100,
resulting in an era which lasted for more than 600 years.
It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the mid-5th century, and the
first Old English literary works date from the mid-7th century.
English was replaced, for a time, as the language of the upper classes by Anglo-
Norman, a relative of French. This is regarded as marking the end of the Old English
era, as during this period the English language was heavily influenced by Anglo-
Norman, developing into a phase known now as Middle English.
3. Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or Ingvaeonic dialects originally
spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
Old English had four
main dialects,
associated with
particular Anglo-
Saxon kingdoms:
Mercian,
Northumbrian,
Kentish and West
Saxon. It was West
Saxon that formed the
basis for the literary
standard of the later
Old English period,
although the
dominant forms of
Middle and Modern
English would develop
mainly from Mercian.
4. No longer protected by
the Roman military against
the constant threat from
the Picts and Scots of the
North, the Celts felt
themselves increasingly
vulnerable to attack. But
the Jutes were not the
only newcomers to Britain
during this period. Other
Germanic tribes soon
began to make the short
journey across the North
Sea. The Angles gradually
began to settle in
increasing numbers on the
east coast of Britain,
particularly in the north
and East Anglia.
The speech of eastern and northern parts of
England was subject to strong Old Norse influence
due to Scandinavian rule and settlement beginning
in the 9th century.
5. They all spoke variations of a West Germanic tongue, similar to modern Frisian,
variations that were different but probably close enough to be mutually
intelligible. The local dialect in Angeln is, at times, even today recognizably similar
to English, and it has even more in common with the English of 1,000 years ago.
Modern Frisian, especially spoken, bears an eerie resemblance to English, as can
be seen by some of the Frisian words which were incorporated into English.
6. Although the various different kingdoms waxed and waned in their power and
influence over time, it was the war-like and pagan Saxons that gradually became
the dominant group. The new Anglo-Saxon nation, once known in antiquity as
Albion and then Britannia under the Romans, nevertheless became known as
Anglaland or Englaland - the Land of the Angles.
7. It is impossible to say
just when English
became a separate
language, rather than
just a German dialect,
although it seems that
the language began to
develop its own
distinctive features in
isolation from the
continental Germanic
languages, by around
600AD. Over time, four
major dialects of Old
English gradually
emerged:
Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the midlands, West Saxon in the
south and west, and Kentish in the southeast.
8. In the present day, English is used in many parts of the world, as a first, second or
foreign language, having been carried from its country of origin by former colonial
and imperial activity, the slave trade, and recently, economic, cultural and
educational prestige.
It continues to change at all linguistic levels, in both standard and non-standard
varieties, in response to external influences (e.g. modern communications
technologies; contact with other world languages) and pressures internal to the
language system.
