The document summarizes the formation and evolution of the Earth. It describes how the Earth formed from a large gas cloud following the Big Bang around 14 billion years ago. As the cloud contracted under gravity, it began to rotate and the planets of the solar system formed, including the Earth. The Earth developed layers, including a molten core and crust, around 4.5 billion years ago. By 3.5 billion years ago, the Earth had oceans and the first life emerged. Plate tectonics and the formation of continents began around 2.5 billion years ago.
Origin of Earth, Big Bang theory, Nebular hypothesis, Internal heating of earth, formation of Earth's crust and inner structure, evolution of continents, oceans and atmosphere, continental drift theory, origin of life, Geological Time Scale.
The universe began about 14.4 billion years ago.
The Big Bang Theory states that, in the beginning, the universe was all in one place.
To know more, see the presentation.
Origin of Earth, Big Bang theory, Nebular hypothesis, Internal heating of earth, formation of Earth's crust and inner structure, evolution of continents, oceans and atmosphere, continental drift theory, origin of life, Geological Time Scale.
The universe began about 14.4 billion years ago.
The Big Bang Theory states that, in the beginning, the universe was all in one place.
To know more, see the presentation.
Earth, along with the other planets, is believed to have been born 4.5 billion years ago as a solidified cloud of dust and gases left over from the creation of the Sun.
Maybe too in-depth for most elementary students, but very good broad coverage for teacher background or more advanced students in elementary or middle school.
Earth, along with the other planets, is believed to have been born 4.5 billion years ago as a solidified cloud of dust and gases left over from the creation of the Sun.
Maybe too in-depth for most elementary students, but very good broad coverage for teacher background or more advanced students in elementary or middle school.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
2. Origin of the Universe
The universe began
about 14.4 billion years
ago
The Big Bang Theory
states that, in the
beginning, the universe
was all in one place
All of its matter and
energy were squished
into an infinitely small
point, a singularity
Then it exploded
3. Origin of the Universe
The tremendous
amount of material
blown out by the
explosion eventually
formed the stars and
galaxies
After about 10 billion
years, our solar system
began to form
4. We know how the Earth and Solar System are today
and this allows us to work backwards and determine
how the Earth and Solar System were formed
Plus we can out into the universe for clues on how
stars and planets are currently being formed
Birth of the Solar System
5. In cosmogony, the Nebular Hypothesis is the
currently accepted argument about how a Solar
System can form
The Nebular Hypothesis
6. We have now discovered over two hundred planets
orbiting other stars
The processes that created our solar system have
also created an uncountable number of other solar
systems
Other Solar Systems
7. A large gas cloud (nebula) begins to condense
Most of the mass is in the center, there is
turbulence in the outer parts
The Nebular Hypothesis
8. The turbulent
eddies collect
matter measuring
meters across
Small chunks
grow and collide,
eventually
becoming large
aggregates of gas
and solid chunks
The Nebular Hypothesis
9. Pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope show
newborn stars emerging from dense, compact pockets
of interstellar gas called evaporating gaseous globules
The Nebular Hypothesis
10. Gravitational attraction causes the mass of gas
and dust to slowly contract and it begins to rotate
The dust and matter slowly falls towards the
center
The Nebular Hypothesis
12. The multi-colored area shows a dust disk
surrounding a newborn star
The red-orange area at the center represents the
brightest region, which contains the young star
It is surrounded by the cooler, dusty disk, which
appears as yellow, green and blue
The diameter of the disk is about 20 times larger
than our entire solar system
False Color Image of Protostar
13. After sufficient mass and density was achieved in
the Sun, the temperature rose to one million °C,
resulting in thermonuclear fusion.
H atom + H atom = He atom + energy
The Sun
15. Gravitational forces allow the inner planets to
accrue and compact solid matter (including light
and heavy atoms)
Solar radiation blew gases (primarily hydrogen,
helium) away from inner planets
These gases were collected and condensed into the
gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune)
Beyond Neptune, ice and frozen gases form Pluto,
Sedna and the Kuiper Belt Objects
Left-over debris form comets and asteroids
Protoplanets
18. Fig. 1.9
Venus, Earth and Mars
These maps are color coded to display different
elevations on the surface of each planet
19. Earth is ~ 4,570,000,000 years old
The Age of the Earth
Meteorites give us access to debris left over
from the formation of the solar system
We can date meteorites using radioactive
isotopes and their decay products
21. Bombardment From Space
For the first half billion years of its existence, the
surface of the Earth was repeatedly pulverized by
asteroids and comets of all sizes
One of these collisions formed the Moon
22. Formation of the Moon
The Giant Impact
Hypothesis predicts
that around 50 million
years after the initial
creation of Earth, a
planet about the size of
Mars collided with Earth
This idea was first
proposed about 30
years ago, but it took
calculations by modern
high-speed computers
to prove the feasibility
23. Formation of the Moon
This collision had to be very spectacular!
A considerable amount of material was blown off
into space, but most fell back onto the Earth
24. Formation of the Moon
Part of the material from the collision remained
in orbit around the Earth
By the process collision and accretion, this
orbiting material coalesced into the Moon
The early Moon orbited very close to the Earth
25. The Early Earth Heats Up
1. Collisions (Transfer of
kinetic energy into
heat)
2. Compression
3. Radioactivity of
elements (e.g. uranium,
potassium, or thorium)
Three major factors that caused heating and melting
in the early Earth’s interior:
26. The Core
About 100 million years after initial accretion,
temperatures at depths of 400 to 800 km below the
Earth’s surface reach the melting point of iron
In a process called global
chemical differential, the
heavier elements, including
the melted iron, began to
sink down into the core of
the Earth, while the lighter
elements such as oxygen
and silica floated up towards
the surface
27. Global Chemical Differentiation
This global chemical differential was completed by
about 4.3 billion years ago, and the Earth had
developed a inner and outer core, a mantle and crust
28. Chemical Composition of Earth
Whole Earth:
Fe+O+Si+Mg = 93%
Crust:
Si+O+Al = 82%
Each of the major layers has a distinctive
chemical composition, with the crust being
quite different from the Earth as a whole
29. Lithosphere: strong, rocky outer shell of the solid
Earth including all the crust and the upper part of
the mantle to a depth of ~100 km (forms the
plates)
Asthenosphere: weak,ductile layer of the mantle
beneath the lithosphere; deforms to
accommodate the motions of the overlying plates
Deep Mantle: mantle beneath the asthenosphere
(~400 to 2900 km in depth)
Outer core: liquid shell composed of mostly iron
Inner core: innermost sphere composed primarily
of solid iron
Chemical Composition of Earth
30. Continents: Formed from solidified magma that
floated up from the Mantle
Chemical Composition of Earth
Oceans and Atmosphere:
Fluid and gaseous outer
layers believed to have
been created by out-
gassing of gases and
fluids from volcanic
eruptions (in a process
called volatile transfer)
31. The Evolving Atmosphere
Right after its creation, the Earth is thought to have
had a thin atmosphere composed primarily of
helium (He) and hydrogen (H) gases
The Earths gravity
could not hold these
light gases and they
easily escaped into
outer space
Today, H and He are
very rare in our
atmosphere
32. The Evolving Atmosphere
For the next several hundred million years,
volcanic out-gassing began to create a thicker
atmosphere composed of a wide variety of gases
The gases that were released were probably similar
to those created by modern volcanic eruptions
33. These would include:
Water vapor (H2O)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Ammonia (NH3)
Methane (CH4)
The Evolving Atmosphere
Note that oxygen (O2) gas is not created by
volcanic eruptions
34. It is hypothesized that water vapor escaping from
the interior of the Earth via countless volcanic
eruptions created the oceans (this took hundreds
of millions of years)
Creating the Oceans
35. Astronomers also
hypothesize that
comets impacting the
Earth were a major
source of water that
contributed to creation
of the oceans
Remember, that
comets are best
described as “dirty ice
balls”
Creating the Oceans
36. Creating the Oceans
The earliest evidence of surface water on
Earth dates back about 3.8 billion years
38. A billion Year Old Earth
By 3.5 billion years ago, when the Earth was a
billion years old, it had a thick atmosphere
composed of CO2, methane, water vapor and
other volcanic gases
By human standards
this early atmosphere
was very poisonous
It contained almost no
oxygen
Remember, today our
atmosphere is 21%
oxygen
39. A billion Year Old Earth
By 3.5 billion years ago, the Earth also had
extensive oceans and seas of salt water, which
contained many dissolved elements, such as
iron
40. A billion Year Old Earth
But most important, by 3.5 billion years
ago, there was life on Earth
41. The Continents
By 2.5 billion years ago, the
continents had been formed
The density of the continental
crust (2.8 gr/cm3) is lighter
that the crust found on ocean
bottoms (3.2 gr/cm3), so the
continents rise above the
ocean floor
A question that remains
unanswered is, when did
plate tectonics start?