Forage guide 2016

FORAGE AND
NUTRITION
GUIDE 2016
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MOLASSES: IMPROVING SILAGE
QUALITY FOR GENERATIONS
Benefits:
• Increases dry matter and lactic acid content of grass silage
• Stimulates fermentation and facilitates natural silage preservation
• Reduces pH and ammonia nitrogen levels of treated forage
• Increases clamp storage capacity
• Rich source of natural sugar and energy

3
Editor: Liam de Paor
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Publishers: IFP Media
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Copyright IFP Media 2016. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any material form without the express written
permission of the publishers.
CONTENTS
4 Optimising farm incomes for 2016
6 Product news
9 Pasture Profit Index for grass seed varieties
12 Update on the potential of perennial ryegrass ploidy and clover
15 Land drainage guidelines
18 Making best use of cattle slurry N, P and K
20 Parasite control at grass
22 Livestock benefits from film & film wrapping
24 Quality silage additive is an excellent investment
26 Cubicle housing for cows
30 Farming safely with electricity
32 Taking the hassle out of heifer management
35 Optimum replacement heifer calf nutrition
38 Rearing heifers for lifetime productivity
40 Production systems for dairy calves for beef finishing systems
43 IHFA national open day 2016
44 Accident and sickness support
45 Managing cashflow on farm is critical for success
48 Machinery news and views
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48
15
FORAGE AND NUTRITION Guide 2016

4
Liam de Paor
OPTIMISING FARM
INCOMES FOR 2016
The abolition of milk quotas has focused minds on future
expansion. According to the Central Statistics Office, the
number of dairy cows in the Republic had increased 10
per cent by December 2015 to 1.24 million.
However, much lower milk prices and the threat of future
price volatility is also focusing minds on how to improve
production while also reducing costs. As regards the
beef industry, the reduced value of sterling is making our
exports to Britain less competitive.
Beef cow numbers have increased by 1.1 per cent to 1.05
million. Most of the increase came from the rise in dairy
cow numbers, but there was also a significant increase in
cattle aged under one year of age.
The number of these cattle increased by 140,000 head
(+7.4 per cent) in December 2015, so this rise will result
in more cattle coming available for slaughter and could
impact on future cattle prices.
Indeed, Bord Bia predicts that an additional 60,000-
80,000 cattle will come on stream in the second half of
2016. So the bottom line is that all livestock farmers will
have to focus on improving technical performance to
protect their family farm incomes.
The new milk quota will be on land and labour. So
livestock farmers will need to significantly improve herd
performance if they are to make a decent profit from
their significant investment and from their increased
production.
Farmers need to optimise production from grass if they
are to increase milk yields/ha or to improve live weight
gain. Our most efficient farmers are growing, and
utilising, in excess of 12 tonnes of dry matter per hectare,
yet the national average is only 7.5 tonnes.
To improve farm incomes, all livestock producers need
to minimise the purchase of expensive concentrates and
have extra and better quality silage available for winter
feed.
According to Teagasc, dairy farmers are losing €300/ha
as a result of old pastures and such fields are 25 per cent
less responsive to fertilisers. So reseeding with new and
improved varieties is an excellent investment.
Poor health will impact on busy farmers, livestock
performance and farm incomes. So improving the
health of your herd or flock will save time, money and,
ultimately, will improve livestock performance.
For example, the average cost of a case of milk fever is
over €300. As regards high somatic cell counts (SCC),
Teagasc estimates that net farm profitability was
reduced from 5.9c/kg at an SCC of <100,000 cells/ml, to
2.3c/kg at an SCC of >400,000 cells/ml.
Many dairy farmers have cows that should be culled
for reasons such as poor fertility, lameness, high SCC
counts, mastitis problems and low milk solids. This is not
a year when producers can afford to carry passengers in
their herds.

6
FILM VERSUS NETWRAP
Innovations in agriculture take time to become
established. Some try their best and still don’t find
acceptance, others gather interest but may fail to bring
a revolution. This applies to the idea – first tried in the
early 1990s – of using film to bind round bales, instead
of netwrap.
In 2015, Teagasc conducted a study which compared
combinations of netwrap or binding film to establish
comparisons in chemical composition, mould and
sealing.
Bales were made, using combinations of two wraps,
three wraps and four wraps of netwrap, or 3.5 wraps
of binding film, then wrapped with either four or six
layers.
Teagasc’s Dr Padraig O’Kiely, MAgrSc, PhD, said: “The
chemical composition results showed that the quality
of fermentation was the same for the netwrap bales
and for those made with binding film, for the same
number of wrapping film layers.”
Silage chemical composition indices of nutritive value
and preservation were largely unaffected by netwrap
versus binding film.
Tested variables like pH, lactic acid and ammonia, had
statistically no significant difference between netwrap
or binding film wrapped bales.
Dry matter digestibility, an accurate and reliable test
of forage feeding value used to estimate energy of the
silage, as well as expected live weight gains/milk yields,
had only 1.5% difference between netwrap and binding
film bales, a difference also statistically insignificant.
Practical use has shown that the two different binding/
wrapping systems offer little difference in forage
quality and certain on-costs in using binding film
cannot be ignored.
Netwrap Binding film
Binding cost/bale €0.40 (4,500m at two wraps/bale) €1.30 (2000m at 3.5 wraps/bale)
Wrapping cost/bale €2.10 (four-layer application) €2.10 (four-layer application)
Extra capital cost €0.00 €0.23
TOTAL €2.50/bale €3.63/bale (10,000 bales x three years)

7
SHORTER CALVING INTERVAL
FOR HERDWATCH APP USERS
The national average calving interval for a dairy herd
in 2015 was 392 days, according to data from the Irish
Cattle and Beef Federation (ICBF). In comparison,
Herdwatch users saw this number reduced to 366 days,
26 days less.
One of the main reasons for this shorter calving interval
is the ability to record pre-heats and set reminders
through the Herdwatch app. When a cow shows heat
before the start of the breeding season, the farmer
can record that information on the spot and the app
will keep a reminder for when the cow is due again.
This greatly reduces the chance of missed heats which
would cost the average dairy farmer €250 per missed
heat, according to Teagasc.
All breeding information recorded through Herdwatch
also gets sent to the ICBF automatically. This year,
an estimated 130,000 cows will have their breeding
information recorded in Herdwatch, and passed on
to the ICBF automatically. This includes artificial
insemination, natural serves and pregnancy scans.
Declan, one of thousands of Herdwatch users,
commented: “It’s great, I can serve a cow and record
that straight away through the phone while she is still in
the crush and the information gets sent to the ICBF for
me, so it eliminates that job too.”
The app will also inform farmers of what cows are due
to repeat, which means the chances of missing a cow
breaking are also reduced.
Another Herdwatch farmer, Jim, commented that: “The
beauty of the Herdwatch app is that you can just check
your phone to see when that cow is due to be served.”
KVERNELAND’S NON-STOP BALER WRAPPER COMBINATION
One machine that took centre stage at Kverneland’s
‘Future of Farming Exhibition’ in February was its newly
developed FastBale baler wrapper.
Marketed under the company’s subsidiary brand, Vicon,
the new baler wrapper is reputed to offer productivity
increases and time saving of up to 25% on conventional
machines. The fact that the machine is a non-stop
round baler wrapper combination that integrates a pre-
chamber with a main chamber and a wrapper, should
mean exactly that – non-stop baling and wrapping
with no downtime for ejecting bales, no wear and tear
on clutches and no instances of gears starting and
stopping intermittently.
Designed and developed at the Kverneland Group’s
baler competence centre at Ravenna, Italy, FastBale
has two claims to being truly innovative: it is currently
the world’s only non-stop, fixed chamber baler; and
secondly, it is the world’s only non-stop, fixed chamber
baler wrapper combination.
The machine layout is quite novel with two chambers
arranged in series, allowing a number of rollers to be
shared. Operating as a pre-chamber, the first section
of FastBale produces two-thirds of the bale. As the
pre-chamber reaches its preset density, crop flow is
diverted into the main bale chamber allowing baling to
continue.
While the FastBale could not be described as a small
machine, its relative compactness includes a lot of
technology and Vicon says that it is shorter than any
other baler wrapper combination on the market.
The parent company insists that its new FastBale has
come through a significant testing process. It has
not undergone extensive fieldwork under Irish grass
conditions. That, inevitably, will be a true test of the
machine as Irish grass forage conditions are recognised
as being amongst the most rigorous in the world. The
FastBale won the Machine of the Year award in the
balers category at the 2015 SIMA Show.

8
A REVOLUTION IN DAIRY HYGIENE
Grassland Agro has recently launched Hypracid One,
an innovative non-chlorine, liquid detergent. Hypred,
Grassland Agro’s sister company in France, has
developed this product to provide a solution to the
ongoing problem of milk residues.
Hypracid One is a three-in-one product that will wash,
sterilise and descale your milking machine and bulk
tank. It is made up of a special formulation of organic
acids and surfactants. Unlike conventional detergent
descalers, it does not contain phosphates or nitrates.
Chlorine residues are of great concern to the dairy
industry and can arise at farm level due to an over
reliance on chlorinated products in dairy wash routines.
The presence of trichloromethane (TCM) residues in
milk has negative consequences for its processing.
In this context, certain dairy processors, such as Arla
a major EU Co-op with 12,000 milk suppliers has
banned the use of certain milking machine cleaning
products such as chlorine, nitric acid, phosphoric acid
and quaternary ammonium compounds (ref: Quality
Assurance Programme Arlagarden). This regulation
has been in place since January 2016. With Hypracid
One, Irish farmers have assistance in removing these
residues from their wash routines.
EFFECT OF RESIDUE IN MILK
TCM is formed when chlorine, present in chlorinated
alkaline detergent, is combined with the milk remaining
in the pipelines of the milking machine or tank following
an insufficient pre-rinse after milking or the emptying
of the tank. There is a risk that the milk could become
contaminated during the following milking. This can
have a negative impact on dairy products manufactured
using this milk as TCM tends to be associated with the
oil phase and, therefore, builds up in products which
are rich in fats such as butter, cream and infant formula.
TCM in dairy products can cause processing problems,
which affect the volumes exported and the prices
at which the products are sold. For example, some
importers of butter, such as Germany, have a maximum
threshold of 0.03mg of TCM/kg of butter. Therefore in
2009, Ireland, which is a large producer of butter with
a legal limit of 0.1mg/kg, launched a programme to
reduce residue to 0.03mg/kg.
EFFECT OF RESIDUE AND WASTE ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
In addition, these products can cause substantial
environmental damage. Phosphates and nitrates:
phosphoric acid or nitric acid, which combines both
degreasing and scale-inhibiting function are mainly
found in ‘white water’ and have harmful effects on the
environment.
FARM TRIALS
Hypracid One has been tested on various farms in
Ireland, including Teagasc Moorepark. It has also been
tested on over 15 farms in France, achieving excellent
results.

9
Dr Mary McEvoy, Germinal Seeds
PASTURE PROFIT INDEX FOR
GRASS SEEDVARIETIES
Selecting the best grass seed mixture can be a difficult task. This
article examines the traits that are causing the biggest difference
between varieties, in order to better understand what is important
when examining varieties and comparing mixtures. The 2016
Pasture Profit Index (PPI) was recently released by Teagasc and
the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM). It is
modelled on a spring calving dairy system, but analysis shows that,
regardless of system, dairy or otherwise, the ranking of varieties
remains constant; the best
variety will always be the best,
so its worth paying attention to
individual varieties in a mixture
Seasonal dry matter (DM) yield is separated into three
categories in the PPI: spring; summer; and autumn.
Extra grass in the spring is of highest value in the index,
followed by autumn, with extra grass grown in the mid-
season period being of the lowest value. The reason
for this is, in a spring calving system spring grass has
the most value, displacing more expensive silage and
concentrate from the system, while also improving
animal performance. The difference between the best
and worst variety for spring growth is €105 ha/year.
Compared to summer growth, the difference between
the best and worst is only €33 ha/year, and in autumn the
difference is €56 ha/year.
QUALITY
The range in quality in the PPI is from €65 ha/year
(AberGain) to the lowest variety for quality at –€39 ha/
year, a difference of €104. Quality is a hugely important
trait, which has the potential to deliver big differences at
farm level.
In the PPI, €0 indicates a persistent variety, expected
to last 12 years or longer under good management.
The worst varieties in the 2016 PPI for persistency have
values of -€11 ha/year, indicating that they are expected

10
Late – Tetraploids
Variety Details
Pasture Profit Index Sub-indices (€ per ha per year) Total €/ha/year
Dry Matter Production Quality Silage Persistency
Variety Ploidy
Heading
date
Spring Summer Autumn
AberGain T Jun-05 38 44 32 65 25 -5 199
AberPlentiful T Jun-09 44 51 38 30 14 0 177
Solas* T Jun-10 34 45 51 31 14 0 175
Kintyre T Jun-07 28 35 47 33 13 0 156
Astonenergy T Jun-02 7 37 31 61 11 0 147
Xenon T Jun-11 22 39 26 46 14 0 147
Alfonso T Jun-04 13 38 27 51 4 0 133
Aspect T Jun-06 25 41 17 37 9 0 129
Navan T Jun-06 10 39 40 26 9 0 124
Delphin T Jun-02 17 40 19 16 20 0 112
Twymax T Jun-07 -13 44 7 35 16 0 89
Late – Diploids
Variety Details
Variety Ploidy
Heading
date
AberChoice D Jun-09 23 47 36 64 8 -5 173
Kerry D Jun-01 34 40 32 0 7 0 113
Glenroyal D Jun-05 29 40 31 2 7 0 109
Drumbo D Jun-07 26 30 24 44 -5 -11 108
Clanrye* D Jun-06 34 42 10 -10 15 0 91
Majestic D Jun-02 39 32 33 -16 -1 0 87
Glenveagh D Jun-02 27 35 20 -10 8 0 80
Stefani D Jun-02 21 27 16 -2 8 0 70
Tyrella D Jun-04 40 18 8 3 -1 -5 63
Piccadilly D Jun-03 26 31 12 -23 15 0 61
Intermediate – Tetraploids
Variety Details
Variety Ploidy
Heading
date
Dunluce T May-30 32 42 43 39 23 -5 174
Seagoe T May-28 33 41 29 20 37 0 160
Magician T May-22 53 30 26 7 26 -5 137
Carraig T May-24 46 37 23 -11 30 0 125
Intermediate – Diploids
Variety Details
Dry Matter Production Quality Silage
Variety Ploidy
Heading
date
Spring Summer Autumn Persistency
AberMagic D May-31 47 50 63 36 14 0 210
Nifty D May-27 77 50 49 -6 20 0 190
Rosetta D May-24 92 25 33 2 16 0 168
Solomon D May-21 69 29 22 -23 21 0 118
Boyne D May-22 54 29 24 -39 39 0 107

11
to last 10 years at farm level. The small variation
between the best and worst varieties for persistency in
the PPI demonstrates that there are small differences
between varieties in persistency terms. Soil fertility and
management are actually the biggest influencers of
sward persistency.
PERFORMANCE
When examining mixtures, it is important to look at
each variety’s performance across all traits. No variety
excels in every trait and it is important to ensure that
a mixture contains the appropriate balance of diploid
and tetraploid varieties. The general recommendation
is approximately 60% diploid and 40% tetraploid; on
heavier soils, increase the diploid proportion, but ensure
they are high quality diploids that are going into your
mixtures. Diploids bring density to a mixture, with
tetraploids generally being higher in yield and quality
and this can be clearly seen in the PPI. Tetraploids are
also generally more palatable to grazing animals. There
is growing evidence from farmers that very dense diploid
varieties are difficult to graze, resulting in poor utilisation
of mixtures containing these varieties. All diploids will
bring sufficient density to a sward. What is important
is ensuring that they are high in dry matter digestibility
(DMD) or quality value on the PPI. In the late diploid
category on the PPI it is easy to see that AberChoice
(+€64 ha/year for quality) and Drumbo (+€44 ha/year
for quality) are far ahead of the other late diploids in the
quality sub-indices.
Reseeding is an expensive investment, so it is important
to ensure you are using the best varieties available, as
by using lower performing varieties will have a negative
impact on your subsequent swards.
Opposite page: The 2016 Teagasc Pasture Profit Index, separated according to category.

12
Brian McCarthy, Michael Dineen, Clare Guy and Fergal Coughlan, Teagasc
UPDATE ONTHE POTENTIAL
OF PERENNIAL RYEGRASS
PLOIDY AND CLOVER
The effect of perennial ryegrass ploidy and white clover on the
productivity of pasture-based milk production systems – Clonakilty
experiment
INTRODUCTION
Irish dairy production systems are facing an increasingly
volatile environment due to fluctuations in milk price and
input costs. This will require our producers to increase
their efficiency by utilising their competitive advantage
over other EU milk-producing countries, which is the
ability to grow and utilise pasture over a long grazing
season.
Previous research has shown that both perennial
ryegrass ploidy (ie. tetraploid and diploid ryegrasses)
and white clover (Trifolium repens L.; hereafter referred
to as clover) have an effect on pasture dry matter (DM)
production and milk production per cow. Generally, cows
that grazed tetraploid cultivars and grass-clover swards
produced more milk than cows that grazed diploid
cultivars and grass-only swards. Therefore, there is
renewed interest in the use of perennial ryegrass ploidy
and clover to increase animal performance and pasture
DM production. This has been investigated in Clonakilty
Agricultural College over the last few years.
The experiment was established in Clonakilty Agricultural
College in 2012 and 2013. Seventy-five per cent of the
experimental area was reseeded in 2012 and 25 per cent
reseeded in 2013. Four separate grazing treatments were
sown on the experimental area: a tetraploid only sward
(TO); a diploid only sward (DO); a tetraploid with clover
sward (TC); and a diploid with clover sward (DC).
Four diploid (Tyrella, Aberchoice, Glenveagh and
Drumbo) and four tetraploid (Aston Energy, Kintyre,
Twymax and Dunluce) cultivars were sown as
monocultures with and without clover to create a
separate farmlet of 20 paddocks for each treatment.
In the clover paddocks, a 50:50 mix of Chieftain and
Crusader white clover was sown at a rate of 5kg per
hectare (kg/ha). There are 30 cows in each treatment
group and these were stocked at 2.75 cows per hectare
(cows/ha), received 250kg of nitrogen (N) fertiliser per
hectare, and target concentrate supplementation was
300kg/cow for each treatment.
As cows calved in 2014 and 2015, they were randomly
assigned to their treatments and they remained on
those treatments for the remainder of the grazing
season within each year. The four treatments (swards)
were rotationally grazed from mid-February until mid-
November each year. The objective was to compare
milk and pasture production from tetraploid and diploid
swards sown with and without clover over a full grazing
season. The results presented are from the first two full
years of the experiment (2014 and 2015).
PASTURE PRODUCTION RESULTS
Perennial ryegrass ploidy had an effect on DM content,
post-grazing height and pasture allowance as the diploid
treatments (DO and DC) had greater DM content (18.5
per cent vs 17.6 per cent), pre-gazing yield (1,789 vs
1,696kgDM/ha), post-grazing height (4.3 vs 4.1cm) and
pasture allowance (17.1 vs 16.0kgDM/cow per day) than
the tetraploid (TO and TC) treatments. On average, the
clover content was 28.3 per cent and 30.7 per cent for TC
and DC swards, respectively, during the two years of the
experiment.
Clover inclusion had a significant effect on sward DM
content as the grass-clover swards had a lower DM
content than the grass-only swards (16.7 per cent vs
19.3 per cent). Clover also had an effect on post-grazing
sward height as the grass-only swards had a greater
pre-grazing and post-grazing height compared with
grass-clover swards (9.1 and 4.4cm compared with 8.8
and 3.9cm, respectively). The effect of clover inclusion in
the sward on daily pasture growth during the two years

13
of the experiment is illustrated in Figure 1. Daily pasture
growth rates were greater for grass-clover (TC and DC)
swards than grass-only (TO and DO) swards from June
to September by an average of 15kgDM/ha per day. As a
result, on average, over the two years of the experiment
to date, total pasture DM production was 1.9t DM/
ha greater on the grass-clover swards (17.4t DM/ha)
compared with the grass-only swards (15.5t DM/ha).
MILK PRODUCTION RESULTS
On average, over the two years of the experiment,
concentrate supplementation across all treatments
was 338kg/cow. Average silage fed during lactation
was greater for the grass-clover cows (360kgDM/cow)
compared with the grass-only cows (314kgDM/cow). The
effect of treatment on milk production during the two
years is presented in Table 1.
Figure 1: The effect of sward type (grass only and grass clover)
on daily pasture growth rates for each month over two years
(2014 and 2015).
Dailygrassgrowth(kgDM/haperday)
Grass-only
Grass-clover
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Month
Figure 2: Autumn/spring feed budget average farm cover
(kgDM/ha) targets and actual values achieved in autumn 2014/
spring 2015 for the grass-only and grass-clover treatments.
39671
8/25/08
9/8/08
9/22/08
10/6/08
10/20/08
11/3/08
11/17/08
12/1/08
12/15/08
12/29/08
1/12/09
1/26/09
2/9/09
2/23/09
3/9/09
3/23/09
4/6/09
Target
Grass-only
Grass-clover
Date
Averagefarmcover(kgDM/ha)
1300
1075
850
625
400

14
Ploidy did not have a significant effect on any of the milk
production variables. Clover had a significant effect on
all milk production variables with the exception of days
in milk, fat and protein content. Cows on grass-clover
treatments produced 784kg more milk and 58kg more
milk solids than cows on the grass-only treatments,
which resulted in an extra 2,156kg and 168kg milk and
milk solids yield per ha, respectively. At a base milk price
of 29c/L, this would equate to an extra income of €245/
cow or €674/ha.
CHALLENGES
Although the early results for pasture DM production
and milk production are very positive with grass-clover
swards, we have encountered a number of challenges
that require further research. The over-winter growth
and spring pasture availability with grass-clover swards
can be poor relative to grass-only swards.
In Clonakilty, over the winter of 2014/2015, we had a
growth rate of 5kgDM/ha per day on the grass-only
swards compared with only 1kgDM/ha per day on the
grass-clover swards. As a result, we had lower pasture
availability on the grass-clover swards (300kgDM/ha
lower average farm cover on February 1; Figure 2) which
required the grass-clover cows to be housed at night
for six weeks in the spring and the feeding of an extra
165kgDM of silage to make up the deficit in pasture
supply.
However, pasture growth on the grass-clover swards
(21kgDM/ha per day) was similar to pasture growth
on the grass-only swards (24kgDM/ha per day) from
February 1 to April 1. This was achieved by spreading
2,500 gallons/acre slurry on 30 per cent of the area and
23 units/acre of N (urea) on 70 per cent of the area in late
January; 2,500 gallons/acre slurry on 30% of the area
and 46 units/acre of N on 70 per cent of the area in early
March; and hitting the spring rotation planner targets of
30 per cent and 60 per cent by March 1 and March 17.
These management practices combined to ensure
pasture growth on the grass-clover swards was similar
to the grass-only swards. During spring, autumn and
periods of very wet weather, grass-clover swards can
be difficult to graze as the soil can be very soft (due to
lower tiller densities) and liable to poaching even on dry,
free-draining soil types. Careful grazing management
is required during these times, with the use of on/
off grazing, accurate area allocations and accurate
supplementation strategies to minimise pasture
damage.
Bloat can also be an issue on grass-clover swards as we
have had one cow in 2014, and one cow in 2015, die from
bloat while grazing grass-clover swards. Bloat can occur
at any time of the year but it is more likely to occur in the
second half of the year when clover content in the sward
is highest. However, there are certain risks/triggers that
are indicators that bloat may occur, such as the clover
content of paddocks (ie. repeat incidences of bloat in
same paddock with very high levels of clover, >60 per
cent), weather conditions (high rainfall over prolonged
period leading to lower DM swards) and hungry cows
going into a paddock with high levels of clover.
Dispensing bloat oil through the water in the grass-
clover paddocks (from June to September) works well
as a preventative measure during dry weather. During
very wet weather, changing the grass allocation from
a 36-hour allocation to a three-hour allocation reduces
the area available for the cows and ensures cows graze
all the herbage available, not just clover, and reduces
the risk of bloat. Management practices can help to
reduce the risk of bloat, however constant vigilance and
a high level of management is required to minimise bloat
occurrences.
SUMMARY
Perennial ryegrass ploidy did not affect pasture DM
or milk production over the first two years of this
experiment. Despite a number of challenges with
incorporating clover into perennial ryegrass swards,
significant increases in pasture DM production and milk
production (per cow and per ha) can be achieved. The
early results from the Clonakilty experiment are very
promising, but potentially important issues with clover
persistency, spring pasture DM production and bloat
require further investigation.
Table 1: The effect of treatment on milk production variables over two years (2014 and 2015).
Treatment1
Significance2
TO DO TC DC P C P*C
Days in milk (days) 276 277 277 277 NS NS NS
Milk yield (kg/cow) 4972 4994 5783 5750 NS *** NS
Fat (g/kg) 46.9 46.4 46.2 46.1 NS NS NS
Protein (g/kg) 38.2 37.4 37.4 37.4 + NS NS
Lactose (g/kg) 47.7 47.7 48.2 48.4 NS ** NS
Milk solids yield (kg/cow) 420 423 481 478 NS *** NS
Milk yield (kg/ha) 13,673 13,732 15,904 15,814 NS *** NS
Milk solids yield (kg/ha) 1162 1145 1328 1316 NS *** NS
1. TO = tetraploid only; DO = diploid only; TC = tetraploid + clover; DC = diploid + clover
2. Significance: *** = P<0.001; ** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05; + = P<0.1; NS = not significant; P = ploidy; C = clover

15
Pat Tuohy, Owen Fenton and James O’ Loughlin, Teagasc
LAND DRAINAGE
GUIDELINESApproximately 49.5% (3.4 million hectares) of the total land area of
Ireland is classified as ‘marginal land’, which is affected by natural
limitations related to its soil, topography, relief and climate. The
major limitation is its poor drainage status, and much is in need of
artificial drainage if its productivity is to be improved. In wet years
poorly drained soils may never dry out as persistent rainfall maintains
high soil moisture content
Grass yields are limited due to the adverse effect of
excess water and a lack of air at rooting depth, which
limits plant respiration and growth. In cases of prolonged
water-logging, plants will eventually die due to a lack of
oxygen in the root zone. Furthermore, waterlogged soils
are impassable to machinery and livestock traffic for long
periods, due to high soil moisture content and reduced
soil strength. This reduces the number of grazing days
and hinders silage harvesting, thus introducing higher
costs related to imported feedstuffs.
The purpose of land drainage is to remove excess water
from the soil as quickly as possible. How best to achieve
this will vary with soil type. There is a need, therefore,
for a better understanding of the underlying causes of
drainage problems and of the design and implementation
of appropriate drainage systems to resolve these
problems.
We must move away from the short-sighted approach
that a broadly similar drainage system can be installed in
every wet field, regardless of soil and site conditions.
CAUSES OF IMPEDED DRAINAGE
The difficulties of drainage problems are largely due to
our complex geological and glacial history. Soil layers
of varying texture and composition have the effect of
irregularly distributing groundwater flow, with fine-
textured soils acting as a barrier to movement, impeding
drainage, and lenses of gravels and sands promoting
water flow, transmitting groundwater over large areas
with resulting seepages and springs on lower ground. In
poorly drained soils the rate of water infiltration at the
soil surface is regularly exceeded by the rainfall rate due
to:
• Low permeability in the subsoil (or a layer of the
subsoil);
• High water table due to low-lying position and poor/
poorly-maintained outfall;
• Upward movement of water from seepage and
springs.
OBJECTIVES OF LAND DRAINAGE
To achieve effective drainage, the works will have to
solve one or more of these problems. The objective of
any form of land drainage is to lower the water table,
providing suitable conditions for grass growth and
utilisation. A controlled water table promotes deeper
rooting which improves productivity and improves load-
bearing capacity of the soil.
The potential of the land to be drained needs to be first
assessed to determine if the costs incurred will result
in an economic return through additional yield and/or
utilisation, and also to decide on the most appropriate
part of the farm to drain. It is better to drain land which
is nearer to the farmyard and work outwards; however,
it may be more beneficial to target areas with high
potential for improvement. This ensures a better return
on the investment.
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS
What exactly is the problem? How good is the existing
drainage network (if any)? Is the whole profile made up of
poor soils or is the problem caused by specific layers? Is
there water movement at any depth?
Knowledge of previous drainage schemes in the area,
and their effectiveness, will often provide an insight. A
number (approximately one per hectare) of test pits (at

16
least 2.5m deep) should be excavated within the area to
be drained to investigate. These are dug in areas that are
representative of the area as a whole; consider digging in
wet and dry areas for comparison’s sake.
As the test pits are dug, the faces of the pits are
observed, soil type should be established and the rate
and depth of water seepage into the test pit (if any)
recorded. Visible cracking, and areas of looser soil and
rooting depth, should be noted as these can convey
important information regarding the drainage status
of the different layers. The depth and type of the drain
to be installed will depend on the interpretation of the
characteristics revealed by the test pits.
Two principle types of drainage system are distinguished:
• Groundwater drainage system – a network of piped
drains exploiting permeable layers; and
• Shallow drainage system – where movement of
water is impeded at all depths.
GROUNDWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Strong inflow of groundwater or seepage from the faces
of test pit walls, indicate that layers of high permeability
are present. Under these circumstances, the use of a
piped drainage system (at the depth of inflow) is advised
to capture and remove this water, thereby controlling the
watertable.
Deep piped drains are usually installed at a depth of 1.5-
2.5m and at spacings of 15-50m, depending on the slope
of the land and the permeability and thickness of the
drainage layer. Piped drains should always be installed
across the slope to intercept as much groundwater as
possible, with open drains and main piped drains running
in the direction of maximum slope.
Where groundwater seepage and springs are identified,
deep drains – 2-4m deep – can be used to intercept flow.
Pipe drains are most effective in the layer transmitting
groundwater flow, characterised by high water
breakthrough. This issue is very site specific.
Clean aggregate, in the 10-40 mm grading band, should
to be used to surround the drain pipe. The gravel should
be filled to a minimum depth of 300mm from the bottom
of the drain to cover the pipe. The stone should provide
connectivity to a layer of high permeability and should
not be filled to the ground surface. The purpose of a drain
pipe is to facilitate a path of least resistance for water
flow. In long drain lengths (greater than 30m) a drain pipe
is vital to allow as high a flow-rate as possible from the
drain, stone backfill alone is unlikely to have sufficient
flow capacity to cater for the water volume collected.
SHALLOW DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
Where a test pit shows no inflow of groundwater at any
depth, a shallow drainage system is required. These soils
with very low permeability throughout are more difficult
to drain. Shallow drainage systems aim to improve the
capacity of the soil to transmit water by fracturing and
cracking the soil. They rely on soil disruption techniques,
namely: mole and gravel mole drainage and sub-soiling.
Mole drainage is suited to stone-free soils with a high
clay content, which form stable channels. Mole drains are
formed with a mole plough comprised of a torpedo-like
cylindrical foot attached to a narrow leg, followed by a
slightly larger diameter cylindrical expander. The foot and
trailing expander form the mole channel while the leg
creates a narrow slot that extends from the soil surface
to the mole channel depth.
The mole plough creates both a zone of increased
permeability adjacent to the mole leg (shallower depths)
and a channel for water flow at moling depth. The
effectiveness of mole drainage will depend on the extent
of soil cracking during installation. As such, the ideal
time for carrying out mole drainage is during dry summer
Figure 1: Test pit excavation.
Figure 2: Drainage
trench excavation.

17
conditions, to allow for maximum cracking in the upper
soil layers and adequate traction to prevent wheel-spin
on the surface.
Gravel-filled moles employ the same principles as
ordinary mole drains but are required in soils which
will not sustain an unlined channel. The gravel mole
channel is filled with gravel from an attached hopper
which supports the channel walls. Gravel moles require
a very specific size range of gravel aggregate to ensure
that they function properly. Washed aggregate within a
10-20mm size range should be used. Sub-soiling is used
effectively where an iron pan or cemented layer impedes
drainage. The effect is to break the layer and crack the
soil. A stable channel will not be formed.
Collector drains, which are installed across the slope
at 0.8–1.0m deep, are required for all shallow drainage
systems. Depending on the topography and slope, the
collector drains will be at a spacing of 10-40m. A larger
spacing reduces costs but results in a much higher
chance of failure. The disruption channels themselves
are drawn at right angles to the collectors (up-slope)
at spacings of 1.0-1.5m and a depth of approximately
0.4-0.5m. Stone backfill for collectors should be filled to
within 250mm of the surface to ensure interconnection
with the disruption channels when installed afterwards.
OUTFALLS/MAINTENANCE
Every drainage scheme is only as good as its outfall.
Cleaning and upgrading of open drains acting as
outfalls from land drains is an important step in any
drainage scheme. Before commencing land drainage,
the proposed outfall should be assessed and, where
necessary, upgraded. Open drains, running in the
direction of maximum slope, should be established at the
greatest depth possible. Spoil from such works, where
suitable, can be spread over the adjoining land-filling
depressions and should not impede surface run-off to
the watercourse. Unsuitable spoil should be buried and
covered with topsoil or removed to waste ground.
When a drainage scheme has been completed, the layout
should be drawn and noted on a farm map. This map can
then be used as a guide when maintaining the works,
as well as a record of the works. Land drain outlets
should be regularly cleaned and maintained, especially
if open drains are cleaned/upgraded, as this will result
in blockages at the drain outlets. The use of a concrete
or un-perforated plastic pipe over the end of the drain
pipe, minimum 1m in length, will protect the outlet from
damage and will make locating and maintaining it easier.
Figure 3: Mole plough showing cylindrical foot and expander.
Figure 5: Single leg winged sub-soiler.
Figure 4: Gravel mole plough showing hopper.

18
Mark Plunkett and David Wall, Teagasc, Johnstown Castle, Wexford
MAKING BEST USE OF
CATTLE SLURRY N, P AND K
Slurry is a valuable source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium,
and effective use on farm can help to control fertiliser costs. To
maximise the nutrient value of cattle slurry, a number of decisions
should be made over the coming weeks as to where on the farm
slurry is required and application should be timed to maximise the
nitrogen recovery
Targeted early application of cattle slurry based on soil
test results will ensure efficient use of slurry nitrogen
(N) and that early-season phosphorus (P) and potassium
(K) requirements are satisfied. The typical value of
1,000 gallons of cattle slurry applied by splashplate in
springtime has an available N-P-K content equivalent to a
50kg bag of 6-5-30.
The nutrient content of cattle slurry will vary with
animal type and diet, and especially with slurry dilution
with water. Knowing the nutrient content will help to
ensure crops receive the planned levels of N, P and K to
maximise grass growth for either silage or grazing.
Laboratory analysis of slurry will help to estimate
the nutrient values for different slurries on the farm.
However, in practice this is rarely done. A more practical
approach may be to estimate the slurry dry matter on
farm using a slurry hydrometer. This is a low-cost and
useful tool to estimate the N-P-K value based on the dry
matter of the slurry.
PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM
Cattle slurry is a good source of P and K fertiliser and
should be applied to parts of the farm that have either
low soil P or K levels, or to crops with high P and K
demands such as grass/maize silage. Targeting these
areas will help to reduce fertiliser bills and replenish soil P
and K reserves.
Research shows that fields around the farmyard tend to
have higher levels of both P and K due to more regular
applications of manures. Silage fields tend to be the
furthest fields away from the yard and tend to have low
soil fertility levels plus the largest demand for both P and
K.
Slurry is a valuable fertiliser and the extra transport costs
in moving slurry to fields further from the farm may
offset the extra spreading charges associated with extra
transport. Slurry is also a very well-balanced fertiliser
(P:K ratio) for grass silage crops. For grazing ground, the
P and K demand will be lower and will depend on the
stocking rate and the soil test results.
The P in organic manures such as cattle slurry is 100 per
cent available relative to chemical fertiliser at soil P index
3 and 4. However, if a soil is P index 1 or 2, the availability
of the P will be only 50 per cent. A soil test will confirm
the P status of the soil and help with targeting slurry to
Index 1 and 2 soils for more efficient crop fertilisation and
P utilisation.
REDUCTION IN SLURRY POTASSIUM VALUE
Higher levels of K content in cattle slurry were assumed
in the past compared to the levels shown in Table 1.
Recent research surveying nutrient content in cattle
slurries has shown that the level of K in slurry has fallen
by approximately 25 per cent compared to levels that
were previously assumed based on older studies from
the early 1990s. This reduction in K content is not
surprising given the decline in K fertiliser inputs over the
same period.
NITROGEN CONTENT
The form of N in cattle slurry is ammonium-N and is
the same as the form of N as urea fertiliser. This form
of N is readily available for plant uptake provided soil
and weather conditions are favourable. Losses of
ammonium-N occur when there are drying conditions
such as warm, sunny and windy days.

19
To maximise N uptake, apply slurry on cool, overcast
or misty days. It is recommended to apply as much
slurry as possible in the springtime to maximise the
fertiliser N value of slurry. Spring-applied slurry is worth
approximately three units of N per 1,000 gallons (worth
approximately €2 per 1,000 gallons) extra compared with
summer application, due to better N recovery at that
time of the year (Table 1).
However, irrespective of timing, applying slurry in
the right weather conditions (cool, overcast, misty
conditions) is advised rather than in hot, dry weather.
Dilution of cattle slurry will also improve the N uptake
as the slurry will infiltrate faster into the soil compared
to thick slurry. Diluted slurry will also be washed off the
grass faster, resulting in reduced grass contamination.
Remember that dilution will increase the N efficiency
but will reduce the P and K content of the slurry, and this
needs to be accounted for in balancing crops’ P and K
requirements.
Many farmers have seen the benefits of diluting cattle
slurry with pig slurry rather than water. The available
N-P-K value of 70:30 and 50:50 mixtures of cattle and pig
slurry are shown in Table 2. Before importing pig slurry,
check your farm fertiliser plan to determine the volume
that can be imported onto the whole farm. Importing
pig slurry is not permitted on farms with a nitrates
derogation.
SLURRY APPLICATION EQUIPMENT
The method of slurry application (splashplate or trailing
shoe/band spreader) will have a large effect on nitrogen
losses. The splashplate technique broadcasts slurry
across the full spread width and, depending on timing/
weather conditions, high levels of N loss may occur as a
result.
The trailing shoe/band spreader places the slurry in
a narrow band close to the soil surface/below the
grass canopy and thus reduces the risk of N loss.
Other benefits include a wider window of opportunity
for application in better soil conditions. There is also
improved flexibility with application as a result of reduced
contamination of herbage leading to quicker return to
grazing and the opportunity to apply slurry into larger
grass covers. The odours released during and after
application are also usually reduced with trailing shoe or
bandspreader compared with splashplate.
Investment by an individual farmer in a trailing shoe or
bandspreader may be cost prohibitive as the savings
in N fertiliser may not cover the extra costs associated
with farmer-owned equipment. This will depend on
the volume of slurry on farm, and the value placed on
potential other benefits such as flexibility of timing into
taller grass covers, and reduced odours.
However, where a farmer is already using a contractor
for applying slurry by splashplate, using a contractor
with a bandspreader, trailing shoe or shallow injector
may be cost effective. The contractor price is usually
higher per hour, but the value of slurry is increased by
approximately €2 per 1,000 gallons by these methods, so
depending on the volume spread per hour, a higher cost
per hour of the contractor can be justified for using the
modern techniques.
The Green, Low-carbon, Agri-environment Scheme
(GLAS) rewards farmers for the use of low-emission
spreading equipment (trailing shoe/band spreader/
injection) at €1.20/m2
/year. Under the Targeted
Agricultural Modernisation Scheme (TAMS) 2, funding for
investment in low-emission slurry equipment is available.
SUMMARY
• Slurry is a valuable source of N, P and K;
• Target slurry to areas of the farm with large P and K
demands based on soil test results;
• Apply slurry on cool, overcast days in springtime to
maximise N recovery;
• Switching slurry application with splashplate from
summer to springtime will increase N value by
approximately three units per 1,000 gallons;
• Using band spreader or trailing shoe application
methods will also increase N value by approximately
three units per 1,000 gallons.
Time of application N kg/m3
(units/1,000 gal)
P kg/m3
(units/1,000 gal)
K kg/m3
(units/1,000 gal)
€/m3
(€/1,000 gal)
Spring 0.7 (6) 0.6 (5) 3.3 (30) €4.3 (19.5)
Summer 0.3 (3) 0.6 (5) 3.3 (30) €4.6 ( 21)
Table 1: Typical available N, P and K values kg/m3
for cattle slurry.
Dilution
N kg/m3
(units/1,000
gal)
P kg/m3
(units/1,000
gal)
K kg/m3
(units/1,000
gal)
70% cattle
30% pig
1.1(10) 0.65 (6) 3.0 (27)
50% cattle
50% pig
1.3 (12) 0.7 (6) 2.4 (22)
Table 2: Typical N, P and K values kg/m3
for cattle slurry when
diluted with pig slurry at different ratios.

20
Michael A O’Grady, operations and marketing manager, Osmonds
PARASITE CONTROL AT
GRASS
The main internal parasites affecting livestock at grass in Ireland are
stomach and intestinal worms, lungworms plus liver and rumen fluke.
In recent years, milder and wetter winters and more intense bouts of
severe weather throughout the year have increased the conditions
suitable for gutworms causing parasitic gastroenteritis (PGE)
Ostertagia (roundworms) and Cooperia are the two main
worms that cause diarrhoea and weight loss in young
animals. Weather conditions have contributed to the
increased presence of lungworm larvae and coughing in
stock at grass. This was particularly the case last July and
August.
Many dairy farms have increased stocking density since
the abolition of quotas and this has exacerbated parasite
problems at farm level. Another problem has been
the increase in pathogenic strains of Eimeria oocysts,
causing coccidiosis. The trend from faecal analysis from
samples taken from grazing animals over the last few
years confirm increasing burdens of these parasites.
The most vulnerable group are first-season grazing
calves, in particular dairy calves. Cattle in their second
grazing season and older adult cattle and cows must
be monitored. However, they tend to be immune to
Cooperia worms and lungworm if they encountered
infection in their first grazing season and may be partially
immune to Ostertagia.
Spring-born suckler calves have lower grass intakes
than autumn-born suckler calves and are initially at a
lower risk to these parasites. Their greatest risk is after
weaning in autumn when stress levels are high and
their grass consumption has increased significantly.
Weaned autumn-born calves and spring calves in their
second grazing season are susceptible to gutworms and
lungworms so close monitoring and strategic control
programmes should be considered. All animals should be
closely observed and monitored throughout the summer
– including older animals.
IMPACT OF PARASITES ON PERFORMANCE
In young cattle, gastrointestinal worms reduce
performance by up to 10 per cent bodyweight (ie. 20-
40kg in growing cattle) and can extend slaughter date by
up to three months. Losses in a severe outbreak in young
cattle could reach €150/head.
Similar losses are expected with a severe outbreak of
lungworm. Plus, secondary bacterial pneumonia can
follow lung damage necessitating antibiotic therapy. The
effect of worms on mature cows can lead to poor milk
production, reduced reproductive efficiency and greater
feed requirements to maintain body condition.
Stomach worm is one of the most common causes
of diarrhoea in cattle. The rate at which larvae mature
depends on temperature and moisture. Warm
temperatures will stimulate faster development,
resulting in the mid-summer peak of infective larvae on
pasture. A considerable number of infective larvae can
survive over the winter.
As outbreaks of lungworms (hoose) are unpredictable,
control by pasture management or through the strategic
use of wormers is largely unsuccessful. In spring, the
most important sources of infection on pasture are
overwintered larvae and larvae in the dung of animals
where infection has persisted from the previous year.
Clinical signs include coughing, and an increased rate and
depth of respiration may appear before larvae are seen
in dung samples. Treatment with a wormer, like Flexiben
SC dose, Lineout pour-on or Mectaject injection, early in
infection, should be effective, but care should be taken
as a second dose may be needed.
In contrast to roundworms, cattle only develop a partial
immunity against liver fluke; therefore, cattle of all ages
can become infected with liver fluke. The most common
manifestation of the disease in cattle is blood sucking
activity of the adult fluke, resulting in loss of condition
and longer finishing times. Liver fluke infections in cattle
can reduce weight gains by 0.5-1.6kg per week.

21
Coccidiosis is a disease of the intestinal tract, which
occurs most frequently in calves from one month up to
six months of age. Infected animals show clinical signs
of diarrhoea, have poor growth and body condition, and
sometimes die. Damage caused to the animal is never
repaired later in life.
Infections with all these parasites can build up over the
grazing season, and the period of greatest risk of illness
and production losses is during the second half of the
grazing season. Animals must be closely observed in the
time approaching housing. Use appropriate products,
such as Osmonds Ridacox oral dose, two weeks after
exposure to treat and prevent coccidiosis and to reduce
oocyst shedding in cattle and sheep.
FORMULATING A DOSING PLAN TO MAXIMISE
PERFORMANCE
Limiting a calf’s exposure to a large parasitic challenge
is the most effective method of controlling stomach
worms. Worming strategies include:
1. Dose calves during the spring and summer to
limit pasture contamination (calves should not be
treated until three weeks post-turnout). The interval
between treatments depends on the product used.
For example, it is five weeks for Lineout pour-on and
Mectaject injection. It is four weeks for Flexiben SC,
an oral drench;
2. Use of ‘safe’ pasture – for example silage after-grass;
3. Alternate grazing of pasture with cattle and sheep;
4. Graze young stock ahead of the immune adult stock;
5. Weighing cattle ensures you use the correct dose
per animal and this helps to prevent the build-up of
resistant worms. Weigh calves at four-to-six-week
intervals in the first grazing season. A good target is
>0.8kg daily live weight gain from birth to breeding;
6. The use of faecal analysis is essential to monitor
the efficacy of the dosing programme and to check
parasite burdens. Pooling samples from 8-10 calves
in early May will give an early indication of dosing
needs. Any result greater than 250 eggs per gram
require a dose;
7. Ensure dosing equipment is calibrated to the weight
of the animal and also that the seals are working
correctly on the dosing gun.
In summary, implement a dosing programme to match
the parasite burden; monitor performance by carrying
out faecal analysis and also regularly weighing stock to
assess ongoing animal performance; graze young stock
ahead of older stock; and also rotate the family of dose
used to eliminate the possibility of possible disease
resistance.

22
Sean O’Connor, Silotite Ireland
LIVESTOCK BENEFITS FROM
FILM & FILMWRAPPING
In July 2013, Silotite commissioned Dr Dave Davies from Silage
Solutions Ltd to assess this new wrapping system using a trial on a
British commercial sheep and beef farm. The bales were wrapped
using a McHale Fusion combi-wrapper fitted to apply either netwrap
or Baletite
Silotite arranged for the remaining film & film (F&F) bales
to be opened after 13 months. This second phase of
the trial concluded that the F&F system offered better
protection to silage. Dr Davies found that the F&F
wrapping system resulted in an increased average forage
yield of 5.7kg dry matter (DM) per F&F bale during phase
2 of the trial. In terms of metabolisable energy (ME) this
offers farmers an additional 11.6L of milk or an additional
1.5kg of beef. This second phase demonstrated that
the F&F wrapped bales had 54 per cent fewer losses on
average, compared to the traditionally wrapped net and
balewrap bales. The phase 2 bales were stored for 406
days. The key findings were as follows:
• The F&F wrapping system offered better protection
and preservation to silage bales stored for the
extended period;
• While the total storage losses for both wrapping
systems increased with a longer storage period,
the losses incurred on the net and balewrap bales
(24.5kg) were more than double those of the F&F
bales (11.4kg);
• The average mould losses for the net and balewrap
bales of 16.8kgDM were significantly higher than the
average mould losses of 6.59kgDM recorded for the
F&F bales;
• At 13 months, the F&F bales showed a similar level
of storage losses as the net and balewrap bales had
displayed at six months;
• While the longer storage period saw the sugar levels
drop in both wrapping systems, the sugar level
measured in the F&F bales (48.8g/kgDM) was 21 per
cent higher than the sugar level in net and balewrap
bales (38.4 g/kgDM).
As with phase 1 of the trial, the reduced losses that
resulted through F&F wrapping meant that the farmer:
• Gained an average of 5.7kgDM per F&F bale as
1kgDM = 11.8 megajoules (MJ) ME – this means that
the farmer gained 67.26MJ ME per F&F bale (5.7
kgDM x 11.8MJ ME);
• To produce 1kg of beef you need approx: 45MJ ME;
• Therefore, the 67.26MJ ME gained on average for
each F& F bale could give an additional 1.5kg of beef
production.
So a farm using 300 F&F bales during the winter
months could potentially add 450kg of additional beef
production.
Film & film
wrapping. Unwrapped F&F bale.

23
• A dairy farmer would gain an average of 5.7kgDM per
F&F bale;
• Therefore, the 67.26MJ ME averagely gained for each
of the F&F bales could give an additional 11.6L of
milk production (67.26 / 5.8 = 11.5L).
Commenting on the findings of phase 2 of the trial, Sean
O’Connor, Silotite Ireland, said: “Collectively, the F&F
system could provide an overall 387.5L of extra milk or
and additional 49.3kg of beef production across the 27
bales made using the F&F system during this trial.”
Dr Davies said: “It is also worth remembering that
mouldy silage in a mixed ration not only affects intake
but also increases the risk of mycotoxins developing,
and the costs of dealing with the effects of mycotoxins
consumed by livestock can be significant. Similarly, for
sheep farmers, the costs of the mouldy silage can be
considerable.”
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 1: Average sugar by g/kgDM per bale type.
Phase 1 Phase 1Phase 1 Phase 1
Netwrap NetwrapNetwrap Netwrap
Phase 2 Phase 2Phase 2 Phase 2
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Figure 2: Mould losses by kg FM.

24
Pat Cahill, Volac
QUALITY SILAGE ADDITIVE IS
AN EXCELLENT INVESTMENT
While dairy farmers are under pressure due to reduced milk prices
in 2016, a well-fermented silage will drive production potential,
maintain fertility and deliver higher profits
The Ecosyl silage additive is very cost-effective in
maintaining the nutritional quality of silage. Whether
clamp, big bale, maize or whole crop, they have all been
thoroughly researched and tested, and manufactured to
the highest specification. Grass silage, as a sole feed, is
often unable to meet the energy requirements of higher-
yielding cows during the winter feeding period. Therefore
high-cost concentrates are often required to supplement
silage and balance the energy demand.
WINTER HERD
Take your average 100-cow, winter milk herd on silage
over the winter. Assume cows are in good condition and
fed to post-mating conditions and the silage is 72 DMD.
Good-quality silage was made using a proven silage
inoculant. Seventy days are allowed for the winter indoor
feeding season. For example, the difference in quality
of a 72 DMD silage versus a 66 DMD silage is 1.5kg of
concentrate per cow/day to maintain condition (Table 1).
The calculation below shows how investing in a quality
inoculant can save lots of money.
Calculation:
100 cows x 70 days x 1.5kg = 10,500kg (10.5t) of meal to
maintain cows over the winter if silage quality was 66
DMD.
10.5t by €300 per tonne produces a meal bill of €3,500
because of poor quality silage.
However, the use of a quality inoculant helped
improve quality and reduce the reliance on expensive
concentrate. The return on investment is 3.5%, assuming
that the cost of a silage additive is €1,000.
SPRING HERD
Take your typical 100-cow spring calving herd on silage
over the winter. Assume cows are in good condition
and are being fed to post-mating conditions and the
silage is 65 DMD. Good quality silage was made using
a proven silage inoculant. Allow 45 days for the indoor
feeding season. For example, the difference in quality
of a 65 DMD silage versus a 55 DMD silage is 1.5kg of
concentrate per cow/day to maintain cow condition
(Table 2). Again, the calculation below demonstrates the
value of a good quality inoculant.
Calculation:
100 cows x 45 days x 1.5kg = 6,750 kg (6.75t) of a quality
dairy ration to maintain cows over the winter if DMD of
silage made was 55%.
6.75t by €300 per tonne produces a meal bill of €2,025
because of poor quality silage.
A scientifically researched additive helped improve
DMD quality and reduce the reliance on expensive
concentrate. The return on investment is twice to three
times the cost of the silage additive.
Table 1: Meal feeding rates (kg) depending on silage quality for
autumn calving herd.
Silage quality (60% DMD) (66% DMD) (72% DMD)
Cows in good condition
Pre-mating 3kg/day 2.5kg/day 1.8kg/day
Post-mating 2kg/day 1.5kg/day 0kg/day
Cows in poor condition
Pre-mating 3kg/day 2.5kg/day 1.8kg/day
Post-mating 3kg/day 2.5kg/day 1.8kg/day
Table 2: Meal feeding rates (kg) depending on silage quality for
spring calving herd.
Silage quality
Cows in good condition
70% DMD Silage restricted to 85% of intake
65% DMD Silage fed to appetite*
60% DMD Silage fed to appetite + 0.5kg
concentrate daily*
55% DMD Silage fed to appetite + 1.0-1.5kg
concentrate daily*
*Thin cows offered additional 1.5kg concentrate
daily.

26
Tom Ryan, Teagasc
CUBICLE HOUSING FOR
COWSAt grass, animals have space, rest, feed, air, water and light available
to them in abundance. With so many farms renovating or building
new facilities, we need to plan for the basic needs of the cow, such as
resting, feeding and ruminating
STANDARD LAYOUTS
Looking at floor plans of standard designs can help us
tease out various options and find a suitable design and
layout for your farmyard. A selection of these and other
standard drawings referred to in this article are available
from Teagasc. There is also a video on www.teagasc.ie
entitled ‘Cubicle design for dairy cows’.
Standard designs can be used as templates for
converting existing buildings. Modifying existing facilities
can be costly so you need a layout that is conveniently
located, designed to meet animal needs, cost and labour
efficient and safe to work in. Other considerations are
slurry storage and safe agitation, ventilation, site slopes,
etc. The general appearance, colours and roof shapes are
also important.
ANIMAL AREA
Cows should have access to a minimum of 6.5m2
; with
some designs, over 8m2
is available. There must be
enough space at the crossover points, too. Space here
will reduce bullying and ensure adequate space for
drinking. The crossover point should be the width of
three cubicles if it contains a drinker. It can be the width
of two cubicles if the drinker is elsewhere.
The tendency in the past has been to go for small
cubicles, narrow passages, short feed space, few
and narrow crossovers and narrow tractor passages.
Nowadays, having plenty of space is deemed to be more
important. Space allowances and design criteria for
cubicle house designs are available from Teagasc.
More tanks, longer tanks or different storage systems are
needed for parts of the country requiring 18, 20 and 22
weeks storage. Extra storage over the legal requirement
is desirable and allows more efficient use of animal
manures and reduce the panic around the end of the
closed periods.
LAYING SPACE
Provide one cubicle space per cow. Cows need to spend
12-14 hours a day lying down resting; she is ruminating

27
for six of these. Resting is more important for milking
cows. Cows that spend only nine hours lying down yield
3-5L less than cows lying down for the 12-14 hours. Good
occupancy and correct lying times can only be achieved
if cows are able to lie down and get up with ease. If
cubicles are too small, cows will be reluctant to lie down
and will not rest for as long as they should. Cows need to
be able to stretch their necks straight out in order to cud
properly.
There will be more lameness because they are standing
for longer, especially if they are standing perched with
two legs up and two down in the cubicle space. This
posture will weaken the tendons in the back feet over
time. The back feet will be on hard concrete and in slurry
more often also.
CUBICLE DESIGN
The size of cubicle beds will vary according to size but,
for dairy cows, it is recommended that beds against a
wall should be 2.6m (8’6”) long – this might come as a
surprise to many – but up to 3.0m (10’) is recommended
for big cows in some countries. The cubicles should be
about 1.15-1.18m (3’ 9” to 3’ 10”) wide with a 5 per cent
Figure 1: Ventilation inlet in a dairy unit.

28
slope (one in 20). Increase the width of cubicles beside
end walls and walls at crossover points by 10 per cent.
When deciding on step height, allow for the thickness of
the cubicle mat. Step height should be 150-175mm (6” to
7”).
The length of cubicles face to face should be 2.4m long
(8’) for each. Each cow in a face-to-face cubicle will be
surrounded by five other cows when she is lying down,
so it is important that each animal has enough lunging
space and space to breathe in fresh air. The main issue
is that cows must display natural movement when lying
down and getting up. Cows should lie straight on the
cubicle bed and stand with all four feet on the cubicle
bed.
FEED SPACE
Feed space and access to feed are important for good
performance. Cows spend five to six hours feeding, in
nine to 14 feeds throughout the day. Feeding that takes
longer than this will lower intake and leave less time for
resting.
There are several feed barrier designs and all can work
well if installed and adjusted properly.
Many straight-rail barriers on farms are restrictive and
need adjustment; however, most are never adjusted.
Also, many straight-rail feed barriers are too difficult to
adjust and lack fine adjustment. Straight-rail feeding
barriers should be adjustable and easy to adjust.
Adjustment will allow more access to feed. This will
increase intake, lessen pressure on the barrier and less
silage will have to be pushed in. A reach of at least 1m
from the stub wall is a reasonable target. Observe stock
while feeding to evaluate your setup. Do one bay initially
to see if it improves things.
GOOD VENTILATION
Plenty of fresh air is required for health and performance.
Poor ventilation allows corrosion from dust, gases and
condensation to weaken and shorten the life of any
building.
Ventilation is influenced mainly by the size of the
openings, the roof slope, drift distance and height
difference between inlets and outlets. Building
orientation and the effects of surrounding buildings and
landscape also have a bearing.
You want plenty of fresh air but no draughts. Sizes of
inlets and outlets mainly depend on the width of the
house. Inlets at each eave equivalent to a clear opening
of 450mm, 600mm and 750mm are recommended
for house widths of up to 15m, 15-24m and over
24m, respectively. Corresponding outlet sizes are
recommended in the roof, usually at the roof apex.
Figure 1 shows an effective inlet where a clear opening
under a short (600mm) roof overhang allows plenty of
fresh air in. If the side cladding had been lowered even
more it would have been better. The vented side cladding
on its own would not provide enough fresh air in calm
conditions.
WATER
All animals should have access to sufficient water
whenever they need it. Most people assume that flow
rate is not a problem for housed animals. However, it all
depends on the number of troughs/groups and group
sizes of animals that are drawing off the system, possibly
all at the same time.
Lactating cows need more water than dry cows and the
dry feed will also affect their thirst. Use pipe sizes that
will not restrict flow rate. Use at least 19mm bore heavy
duty water pipe to bring water to various animal houses
in the farmyard (25mm bore or more for large units).
Narrow bore (12mm bore) water pipes will reduce flow
rate.
Erring on the high side with pipe sizes will reduce
pumping costs and ensure a plentiful supply. Jets in
ballcocks can get blocked so frequent checking is
recommended.
Ensure that water troughs/bowels are secure, have no
sharp edges or loose covers and that water pipes aren’t in
danger of being pulled loose by animals. A good standard
of installation with no joints buried under concrete
is desirable. Water bowls should be large enough for
a cow’s muzzle. If installed properly, animals will be
able to drink without blocking access at a feed barrier,
crossovers, etc.
LIGHTING
Both natural and artificial light are required. Good use
of daylight is important for safe working conditions and
for animal health. Natural light is normally provided by
translucent roof sheets. The Department of Agriculture,
Food and the Marine specification for these is S102,
and a stronger non-fragile type is now specified. It is
recommended that 12-16 per cent the roof area should
have roof light sheets.
A good level of artificial light is needed also. Fluorescent
lamps are ideal for this purpose. A 1.5m, T5 type, twin
fluorescent lamp, will give good energy-efficient light for
about 25m2 of floor area. Clean windows and roof lights
to maximise natural daylight and reduce the dependence
on artificial lighting. Anything to do with farm building
maintenance and working on roofs is dangerous so take
appropriate safety precautions.

• Electricity wires can end up on the ground or resting on a fence.
• Electricity wires are never safe to touch.
• Report any damage immediately.
www.esbnetworks.ie
Phone 1850 372 999 (24 hour/7 day service).
STEER CLEAR OF
ELECTRICITY POLES
Damage to poles puts people and livestock at risk of electrocution.

30
Liam de Paor
FARMING SAFELYWITH
ELECTRICITYA large proportion of all fatal workplace accidents occur in
agriculture, even though just a small proportion of the workforce is
employed in farming. The level of farm accidents is not decreasing.
Similar accidents occur each year. Research indicates that, in general,
farmers’ attitudes to safety only change after serious injury occurs
The age profile of those killed is of serious concern. The
old and the young are exceptionally vulnerable to death
and injury on Irish farms. The average farmer is getting
older and, of course, children live and play around
the farm yard so they are at a higher risk than urban
children.
Early in the year there is an increased risk of electrical
accidents due to storm damage, flooding and of course
livestock housed indoors may die in fires caused by
faulty electrical wiring. And, of course, after the slurry
spreading season reopens there have been quite a few
incidents when slurry has hit overhead power lines,
resulting in damage to the electrical networks.
When an electrical current passes through the human
body this can result in deep burns that often require
major surgery and are permanently disabling. Burns are
more common with higher voltages but may occur from
domestic electricity supplies if the current flows for
more than a few fractions of a second.
People who receive an electric shock often get painful
muscle spasms that can be strong enough to break
bones or dislocate joints. This loss of muscle control
often means the person cannot ‘let go’ or escape the
electric shock. The person may fall if they are working
at height or be thrown into nearby machinery and
structures.
Some examples of electrical accidents in recent years
are detailed hereunder and of course there have been
hundreds of near misses when people or their valuable
stock could have been electrocuted:
• In November 2015, an overhead power cable fell
and electrocuted eight cattle near Lahinch, Co
Clare;
• During March 2015, a farmer lost 15 valuable calves
in a fire believed to be caused by an electrical fault
in a hay shed on a farm near Causeway, Co Kerry;
Charles Gallagher, CEO of IHFA, and Arthur Byrne, public safety
manager with ESB Networks, inspect a stanchion damaged by
farm machinery.

31
• During April 2014, thousands of pigs died in a farm
buildings fire in county Armagh. In total, about 500
sows and 2,000 piglets were burnt to death and of
course the piggeries were destroyed in the blaze,
which was caused by an electrical fault;
• During March 2014, over two and a half thousand
residents in north Fermanagh were without
electricity for a time due to slurry hitting overhead
lines;
• Due to operator fatigue, poor visibility or
carelessness, farm machinery often hits ESB poles
which may be carrying transformers, and in these
cases local electricity supplies will be knocked out.
In addition, there is a serious risk of injury or even
death to the farmer, farm worker or agri contractor
if overhead power lines fall on their machinery.
SERIOUS ACCIDENT SITUATIONS
According to Arthur Byrne, public safety manager with
ESB Networks, since the year 2000, 49 people have
died after coming into contact with electricity; some
involved the equipment and wiring on the premises
or farms. Others occurred when machinery came into
contact with overhead electricity wires on the land.
Six of those who lost their lives were farmers. Some
causes of the tragic deaths include: power washing on
a farm (2013); silage harvester contacted an overhead
10,000-volt line (2004); two people electrocuted
moving a high pole under an overhead line; milking
parlour became live (2000); death after contact with a
fallen 10,000-volt wire (2000).
Other electrical accidents on farms have included:
• Welding – electric fence connected directly to an
ESB line, milking machine became live; cutting
timber too near to a 10,000-volt line; damage to
transformer poles causing lines to fall to ground;
• There have been many hundreds of incidents where
livestock have perished because of electricity, and
where farmers had lucky escapes when trying to
rescue stricken animals.
STRAY ELECTRICITY PROBLEMS
Stray electricity can arise because of poor connections,
corroded switches, defective wiring, frayed insulation,
faulty equipment or heavily loaded power lines.
Voltages greater than 1v may reduce milk yields,
increase somatic cell counts, increase mastitis levels
and lower live weight gain in cattle.
Of all diseases of cattle, mastitis is the disease which
costs the most. Cows with mastitis produce less milk,
get pregnant less quickly, lose more body condition and
are more likely to be culled early.
Animals experiencing even a minor electrical shock may
be reluctant to drink from a trough which will impact on
their health and performance
In summary, Arthur says that “working near overhead
power lines and having an unsafe or inadequately
protected electrical installation are the main causes of
electrical accidents on farms.”
On a positive note, he goes on to say: “Looking back
over the decades, starting in the 1930s, I can tell you
that the average number of deaths from electrocution
is five. In recent years that has come down very
significantly to about two per annum – but it needs to
be zero.”
The emergency telephone number for ESB Networks
1850 372 999 is open 24 hours a day at all times.

32
Jiska Healy, veterinarian, Dairymaster
TAKINGTHE HASSLE OUT OF
HEIFER MANAGEMENT
When herd size increases, a lot of animals live in close proximity to
each other, making the entire population more vulnerable to various
health hazards. As a result, infection risks can increase exponentially
Expanding herd size, if not done properly, can create
some challenges. Traditionally, farmers would buy and
sell livestock at the mart. Nowadays, more and more
farmers opt for internal expansion rather than external.
Buying in stock always incurs a risk. This is the reason
why many Irish farmers choose to rear extra heifers to
expand their herds.
The question is: how many heifers one should keep on
for a rapid herd expansion model? The answer, however,
is not that simple. It all depends on some preconditions,
with the culling percentage as the most important
factor. The more cows you cull, the more you will
need to replace. Proper health management and early
detection of problems with the MooMonitor+ will aid
in keeping the farm sustainable, ensuring longevity for
your animals. The ideal situation for most profitability

33
is to get at least five lactations per cow. The average
in Ireland currently is 3.3. This is greatly reducing
profitability on farm.
The amount of heifers to keep on to break even
should always be at least 5 per cent higher than the
percentage of animals culled per year. This 5 per cent
accounts for the possible losses throughout the raising
of young stock period. For example, if 30 per cent of
your 100 cow herd is culled (for various reasons) over
the course of a year, 35 heifer calves should be kept for
replacements only. Since it takes approximately two
years before a heifer comes into production, the total
amount of replacement heifers (from birth to calving)
in this example should be between 65 and 70. Also take
into account that it is not always only heifers that are
born. Using normal semen will give a 50/50 chance for
a heifer calf. Increasing herd size requires even more
dedication. You would want to have close to 40 or 50
heifer calves a year to grow your herd at a fast enough
rate. This requires craftsmanship as a farm manager and
leaves little room for management mistakes.
Another factor you should take into account is calving
age of heifers. When expanding herd size, one would
like to have their heifers calve at around 22 to 24
months of age. This reduces feed costs and heifer
numbers needed for replacement, leaving more heifers
for growing your herd. Currently, in Ireland, heifers
calve between 27 and 29 months of age. Good rearing
of young stock management and early breeding can
enhance the speed at which your herd is growing.
To expand your herd size heat detection needs to be
top notch. In order to decrease calving interval of your
animals you should aim to have one calf per year per
cow at the right time of the year (early spring calving
for a grass-based system). Proper calving management,
easy calvings and hygiene will influence the fertility
status of your cows in a good way. Heifers, and
especially cows, should be ‘prepped’ before breeding in
order to increase heat expression.
This means keeping your livestock healthy and starting
recording heats before the breeding season begins. A
lot of information is given by the cow well before the
breeding season and, if you watch closely, you can
pick up on them and flag them for a vet-check in time.
Prepping also includes to have cows that are at risk (ie.
hard calving, low in energy, skinny or obese animals,
milk fever, ketosis, retained foetal membranes or other
illness during the transition period) followed-up on and
scanned before breeding to see if their reproductive
system is ready to conceive.
If any problems are found at this stage one can quickly
act upon it without losing time. This allows for healthy
animals in the right body condition at the start of
breeding which will then, again, increase chances for
a quick conception. Of course, all of this is more easily
said than done: the MooMonitor+ system is not only an
advanced heat detection and animal health monitoring
tool, it is the ultimate management tool that gives the
farmer accurate information at their fingertips.
Other factors that should be considered are the time
when a heat starts (the majority of heats happen
overnight) and what is the best time to inseminate. The
MooMonitor+ has the highest heat detection rates, it
follows the full heat event from start to finish, which
makes it easier for you to find the right timeframe for
insemination, increasing conception rates on farm. In
order to maintain a compact calving pattern, maiden
heifers should be bred to calve at the very start of
the calving period. This is also known as frontloading
your calving season with heifers and maximises their
chances of staying in the herd for longer, increasing
lifetime productive performance.

34
Inseminating young heifers can bring some challenges
along the way. The heat cycle of a heifer differs from an
adult cow. So does the best timeframe to inseminate
heifers. This is something to keep in mind while working
with any type of system. Too early insemination
decreases fertile capacity of the semen. Too late
decreases fertility of the egg cell. With MooMonitor+
technology we know exactly at what point in time a
heifer is at her most fertile. Insemination within that
timeframe increases conception success significantly.
In addition, exact timing of insemination and knowing
exactly when a heat starts are paramount for success,
reducing the number of straws used and eliminating the
need for a sweeper bull.
THE MOOMONITOR+ – MORE THAN JUST HEAT
DETECTION ALONE
Can I ask you a question? During those early mornings,
late nights and very little sleep… more than 10 calvings
per day onwards… How are you coping? Do all animals
get the same amount of time you were giving them a
few months ago? And what about the fresh cows? It is
well known that the transition period (three weeks pre-
calving and post-calving) is the most important period
for cows health wise, but did you know how important
exactly? Over 75 per cent of all disease-related events in
the adult life of a cow occur around this time.
This puts the importance of transition management
into perspective. However, with larger herd sizes and
high labour costs it becomes harder for the farmer to
keep on top of everything. Consider, then, as well, that
good health equals fertility and good fertility equals
productivity. If one of the three fails it has an effect on
the other two. This is where the MooMonitor+ comes in.
The advanced settings in the device not alone allows for
very accurate heat detection – daily rumination, feeding
and resting times are also measured.
Monitoring these behaviours – next to daily activity
and restlessness – the smart MooMonitor+ software
can tell you when a cow is not behaving as she should,
detect illness and other health-related problems. Over
3,000,000 data points per day are collected, which gives
you an accurate and real-time view of your herd more
so than any other system out there. With data updated
every 15 minutes, all cows are monitored 24x7 and in
great detail in a very easy-to-use system.
On the system, cows are automatically divided by base
of days in milk. Both close-up cows as well as fresh
cows have their own specified group, making it easier
to quickly browse through their health and behaviour
status on a daily basis. Customising groups to your own
preferences is also possible.
Looking at your entire herd performance or comparing
individual cows to the herd is made easy by the use
of behaviour scatter graphs. Observing the normal
daily distribution of your herd and their behaviours
will quickly teach you where the outliers are and
which production group could benefit from altered
management procedures. It will also show you which
animals are starting to get sick and lets you follow the
course of health events and the recovery period fully.
All of this data and capabilities of the system translates
into a management system that saves you a lot of time
and allows you to manage each cow as an individual.
Animal identification, correct recording of events and
other information can be hard at times when it is very
busy on the farm and is it often forgotten about or
viewed as the least important job. However, having this
information is vital when you need to make important
decisions that will affect the profitability of your farm.
In order to get the most benefits we advise you to
put all your events in the system: The more heats are
confirmed, the more accurate the device becomes.
Entering data such as calvings will prompt voluntary
waiting periods for your cattle automatically. For a
self-specified number of days they will not show up on
the heat list, even though their activity patterns can
still just as easily be followed up on. Entering scanning
results can aid you in deciding whether to cull the cow
or to inseminate her one more time. All information is
available on the go on your phone. You have access to it
from all over the world and from any platform you may
choose. With the MooMonitor+ it is no longer necessary
to be sitting watching your cows for hours. In the
morning you only need to have a quick look through the
well-visualised graphs of animals with an alert and your
close-up groups, and you will know what to expect for
the day to come.

35
Ian Hutchinson, technical manager, Nutribio Ltd
OPTIMUM REPLACEMENT
HEIFER CALF NUTRITION
Dairy heifer calves represent the future of the herd, and in
progressive breeding programmes these calves represent the
best genetics in the herd. They are, therefore, a vital resource for
a sustainable dairy farm, and must be properly managed in order
to reach target weights and achieve the goal of a long productive
lifetime in the herd
DRY COW NUTRITION
The first step along this road begins with the dry cow.
The nutritional and immune status of the dry cow has a
profound effect on foetal development and colostrum
quality. A common issue on Irish dairy farms is selenium-
deficient soils, leading to a deficiency in dairy cow diets.
In severe cases, this may cause still births, and the birth
of very weak calves. Forage mineral analysis or a blood
mineral analysis of adult cows will identify any issues,
and effective selenium supplementation of late lactation
and dry cows will minimise the impact on calf health.
Supplementing a good dry cow mineral with high levels
of macro minerals (magnesium, phosphorus) and other
key trace elements (eg. copper, cobalt, iodine and zinc)
will enhance the metabolic and immune function of both
cow and calf. Dry cow minerals should also contain high
levels of vitamins A, D and E. These vitamins do not cross
the placenta in significant amounts, so the calf must
rely on colostrum to obtain these crucial vitamins for
immune function. Calves that receive colostrum low in
vitamin A, D and E will be at a greater risk of infection,
leading to scours, pneumonia and reduced growth rates.
COLOSTRUM QUALITY
Newborn calves are reliant on the passive immunity
imparted through the colostrum from the dam, as their
own immune systems do not fully develop until four to
six weeks of age. Colostrum contains antibodies, growth
factors and essential vitamins as discussed above, and
should be collected from the cow and fed to the calf as
soon as possible after calving. This is for two reasons:
the quality of colostrum produced by the cow declines
by approximately 3.7 per cent per hour from calving; and
the absorptive capacity of the calf’s gut starts to decline
within four to six hours after birth. Therefore, in order to
get the greatest absorption of high-quality colostrum,
calves should be fed a minimum of 3L of colostrum from
the first milking after calving, within two hours of birth.
A second feed should be given within 12 hours of birth,
and colostrum should be fed until the calf is three to
four days old. The colostrum should be from the calf’s
mother, as the antibodies it contains will be specific to
the pathogens present on the home farm. Using only
colostrum from the calf’s mother will also reduce the risk
of spreading Johne’s disease.
MILK
Following on from colostrum, calves should be fed 13-15
per cent of the birth weight in milk or milk replacer. This
typically translates as 6L per day (depending on breed of

36
calf), which should be fed twice a day until four weeks
of age, and can be fed once a day thereafter. Waste
milk should not be fed as it contains increased levels of
pathogens, and also increases the risk of development
of antibiotic resistance on farms. Calf nuts should be
offered from very early in life, even if calves eat only
small amounts, as this will encourage early rumen
development. A constant supply of clean water is also
very important for rumen development. Small amounts
of hay or straw can be offered, though excessive intakes
of hay should be avoided as this result in lower intakes of
starter ration, delaying rumen development.
ENVIRONMENT
Rearing healthy calves requires not only excellent
colostrum and nutritional management, but also
minimising disease pressure from the calf’s environment.
Calf housing should be clean, well ventilated, and
draught-free. All sheds should be thoroughly disinfected
in the summer to prevent the carry-over of pathogens
from one year to the next. Calf housing should also be
regularly cleaned during the busy spring period, and a
deep bed of clean straw maintained.
GROWTH RATES AND TARGET WEIGHTS
Research from Teagasc Moorepark and other institutions
worldwide has demonstrated that heifer bodyweight
is the most important factor in determining pubertal
rates, and that larger, better grown heifers will be more
profitable due to superior lifetime production potential.
Heifers in the seasonal dairy production system prevalent
here in Ireland must be bred at approximately 15 months
old to fit in to the system, and calve down around two
years old. Figures from Teagasc put replacement heifer
rearing costs at €1,500 per heifer, and these costs are
not paid back until that animal is halfway through her
second lactation. These rearing costs will rapidly escalate
if targets are missed and heifers calve down beyond 26
months of age. Target weights have been established
for key time points in order to achieve first calving by
two years old – heifers should be 30 per cent of mature
weight at six months old, 60 per cent of mature weight
at 15 months old and 90 per cent of mature weight at
first calving. The mature weight will be dependent on the
breed of the calf, but can be easily defined for individual
farms by weighing third and fourth lactation cows at
approximately 150 days in milk.
NUTRITION AND GROWTH RATES DURING THE PRE-
WEANING PERIOD
Nutrition and growth rates during the pre-weaning period
(first eight weeks of life) have a significant impact on the
lifetime productivity and profitability of heifer calves.
Crucial events in the development of both the rumen
and the mammary gland take place during these first
eight weeks of life, and this point is the single biggest
opportunity for farmers to influence development and
ensure the genetic potential of these animals is realised.
Prior to transitioning from milk to solid feed, early
growth and development of the absorptive surface area
(papillae) of the rumen is crucial for maximising the
absorption and digestion of nutrients, and subsequent
protein synthesis and energy assimilation. Enhanced
rumen development will lead to greater utilisation
of nutrients, and improved growth rates, which will
be clearly evident in calves that thrive on solid feed
following weaning. It is also essential to maintain the
integrity of the lower digestive tract, and maximise the
absorption of nutrients from the small intestines.
Any factor which reduces nutrient absorption, such as
scours and other health events, will have considerable
negative effects on growth rates and animal
performance. This point is emphasised by research from
the Agri-Food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI) and the
Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM),
which illustrates the profound effects of health events on
calf growth rates. Calves with pneumonia were shown
to have a decline in growth rates of 8 per cent; calves
with diarrhoea 18 per cent; and 29 per cent reduction in
growth rates was seen for calves with both pneumonia
and diarrhoea.
Further evidence of the critical importance of pre-
weaning growth rates comes from research into the
effect on future milk yield and survivability to second
lactation. It has been shown that for every 100g of
additional average daily gain during the first two months
of the calf’s life, an additional 225kg of first-lactation
milk yield could be expected. This effect is thought
to be mediated through an increase in mammary cell
growth during the pre-weaning period. It is important
to note that the critical time for imprinting mammary
gland capacity is limited to the first eight to 10 weeks
of life, and there does not appear to be any scope for
compensatory growth in these mammary cells after
weaning.
In summary, the health and nutrition of calves during
the first two months of life is a vital component of a
successful dairy farm business, and lays the foundations
for these animals to have long, productive and profitable
lifetimes in the herd. Ensuring adequate, timely intakes
of high-quality colostrum is the essential first step, which
must be followed by excellent hygiene and nutritional
management to ensure optimal development and
growth rates.

The grass silage produced on
Irish farms varies dramatically
in both its feed value and also
its chemical composition.
This variation, can be due to
the different management
practices that are
implemented on farms at the
time of harvesting and also
the quality of the herbage
entering the silage clamp.
Producing Quality Silage:
Crop harvesting date can be counted
as one of the most important factors
to influence silage quality. In many
cases farmers delay the harvest date
in order to increase forage yield. This
however, has a negative impact on
the overall quality of the forage, as a
greater proportion of mature crops
contain elongated stem which has a
low feeding value. As a rule of thumb
aim to harvest the crop when it is still
in the leafy stage and approximately
50% of ear emergence has occurred.
This generally happens from mid-
May onwards, depending on grass
variety. Weather conditions at the
time of harvest also impact on silage
quality. Crops, should be harvested
after a period of good sunshine
followed by a short wilting period of
no longer than 48 hours. This should
allow for the achievement of a plant
dry matter (DM) content of 250 g/
kg. Therefore, helping to increase
sugar concentration within the
herbage and also reducing effluent
losses from the forage clamp during
storage.
Correct management of the forage
clamp during the ensiling process
is also very important. Herbage
should be well consolidated once
it has entered the clamp. This
helps expel any excess trapped air
therefore promoting an anaerobic
environment. The ensiled herbage
should be free of contamination
from soil and manure in order to
prevent any unwanted clostridial
fermentation occurring. Moreover the
clamp should be sealed immediately
after silage harvesting is completed
therefore, restricting any plant
enzyme activity and promoting
anaerobic fermentation.
Principles of Silage Making:
The basic process of silage
production can be best described
as the conversion of plant sugars
to fermentation acids through the
rapid achievement of an anaerobic
environment. In practice, this
environment is achieved by chopping
the crop during harvesting, followed
by the rapid filling, consolidation
and sealing of the herbage in forage
clamps. Efficiently completing this
process firstly helps stimulate the
fermentation process and secondly
helps prevent any mould growth
from occurring during the storage
period.
The overall sugar content of herbage
at harvest greatly influences this
fermentation process. Generally,
a plant sugar content of between
2 and 3 percent is deemed to be
sufficient for the production of
good quality silage. However, once
sugar levels drop below 2 percent
production of good quality silage can
be difficult and it would be advised
that a fermentation stimulant eg:
molasses should be applied. Plant
sugar levels can be influenced by
many different factors including the
dry matter (DM) and maturity of
the herbage and also the weather
conditions at the time of harvesting.
When to use Molasses:
Where plant sugar levels are low the
addition of a fermentation stimulant
such as molasses is very important.
Depending on sugar levels, an
application rate of between 9 and
18 litres should be applied to every
tonne of fresh herbage harvested. In
forage clamps molasses acts as more
than just a fermentation stimulant, it
also increases lactic acid production,
lowers ammonia-N and silage pH,
while also improving the overall dry
matter digestibility (DMD) of the final
forage. Moreover molasses also helps
bind the clamp together, reduce air
availability and increase the overall
storage capacity of the forage clamp.
Another major advantage in applying
molasses is its flexibility of use.
Molasses can be applied accurately
to the sward or at the forage clamp,
either through the use of a sward
applicator or hydraulic molasses
pump.
For more information on the benefits
of using molasses on silage, contact
Premier Molasses, Harbour Road,
Foynes, Co. Limerick on 069-
65311 or visit our website at www.
premiermolasses.ie.
Molasses: Improving Silage Quality
Robert Flynn, Premier Molasses

38
Dr Mary Newman, Zoetis
REARING HEIFERS FOR
LIFETIME PRODUCTIVITY
Heifer rearing is the most important annual investment on dairy
farms. Optimising health and growth rates in heifer calves protects
the future of the herd’s productivity. This article explores the cost of
rearing a heifer for lifetime productivity
The cost of rearing a heifer to calve at 24 months is
approximately €1,500, according to Teagasc. When a
heifer is calved at this age the cost will be paid off, on
average, at 42 months.
On the other hand, if a heifer does not calve until 30
months, or older, the cost of rearing her is not returned
until 52 months. If these late-calving heifers do not last
in the herd for a third lactation, then there is little or no
profit from them. Research has shown that heifers that
calve at 30 months or older do not last as long in the
herd and, therefore, are a poor investment.
Growth rates and age at first calving influence how much
milk a cow produces over her lifetime and how long she
remains part of the herd. Top performing cows have
consistent growth rates as calves, excellent fertility as
heifers and produce the most milk over their lifetime.
The main objective of good heifer rearing is to ensure
optimal lifetime productivity:
• Heifers to calve at 22-24 months weighing 85-90%
of mature body weight, ie. 500-550kg; and
• Heifers to calve at the beginning of the calving
season to maximise grass use and to ensure tight
calving pattern in future.
Growth targets:
• At six months of age: 30% of mature body weight;
• At breeding (13-15 months): 55-60% of mature body
weight; and
• At calving (22-24 months): 85-90% of mature body
weight.
To achieve these target growth rates a 40kg calf at birth
requires a daily live weight gain (DLWG) of 720g per day,
ie. 280kg in 390 days/13 months = 720g per day.
In addition, for every 70kg of additional body weight at
calving, an average additional 1,000kg of milk could be
expected in the first lactation.1
KEY POINT
A DLWG of 720g is required for a 40kg calf to be bred at
13-15 months, weighing 340kg.
Three pillars of good heifer rearing are:
• Calf health;
• Calf nutrition; and
• Good breeding programme.
Feeding methods and management practices for
heifers influence the future performance and economic
returns of dairy herds. Good rearing management is the
cornerstone of future herd production and profitability.
Feeding proper amounts of good quality and clean
colostrum is the first step in managing calf health.
Calving at 24m results in a positive ROI
by mid 2nd lactation
Birth 1st lactation
Weaning
Breeding
Delay 1st calving
Investment period
Negative economic balance Positive economic balance
Delayed AFC extends the time to net profit
Payback period
3rd
lactation
Netprofit
0
+++
--
-
2nd lactation
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53

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