The document discusses fuel types, water treatment processes, and heat transfer calculations. It describes the three main types of fuels as solid, liquid, and gaseous. It also outlines several water treatment steps including removal of suspensions, dissolved salts, minerals, and pathogens. Specific heat capacity and formulas for calculating heat requirements for various processes like heating food or water are provided.
The document discusses fuels and combustion. It defines fuels and their classification based on occurrence and physical state. It describes the measurement of calorific value using a bomb calorimeter and Junkers gas calorimeter. It also discusses the gross and net calorific values, combustion calculations, proximate and ultimate analysis of solid fuels, and the theoretical calculation of a fuel's calorific value using Dulong's formula.
The document discusses various aspects of fuels and combustion. It defines fuels as combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce large amounts of heat during combustion. The main sources of fuel are coal and petroleum, which are fossil fuels formed from ancient plant and animal remains. Key characteristics of good fuels include high calorific value, moderate ignition temperature, and low moisture and non-combustible content. Liquid fuels like petroleum and its products are easily stored, transported and have high energy density. The processes of fractional distillation and refining of petroleum are described to produce useful fuel fractions like gasoline, diesel and kerosene. Calorific values indicate the energy content of fuels and can be measured using bomb calorime
The document discusses various types of fuels, their classification, properties, and uses. It describes solid fuels like wood, peat, lignite, and coal as well as liquid fuels derived from petroleum. The key solid fuel discussed is coal, which is classified based on carbon content and rank into peat, lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, semi-bituminous coal, and anthracite. Liquid fuels are obtained through refining of crude petroleum and include fuels like gasoline, kerosene and diesel.
The document discusses various types of fuels including their definition, classification, properties, and uses. It describes solid fuels like wood, coal, and charcoal as well as liquid fuels derived from petroleum. The key solid fuel discussed is coal, which varies in composition and energy content depending on its rank as peat, lignite, bituminous coal, or anthracite. Liquid fuels mainly come from refining crude petroleum into products like gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel that are widely used for transportation and energy needs due to their high energy density.
Fuels are substances that readily combine with oxygen to burn and release heat energy. There are three main types of fuels - solid, liquid, and gaseous. Solid fuels include coal and wood. Liquid fuels include kerosene, diesel, and furnace oil. Common gaseous fuels used in India are LPG, natural gas, and coal gas. The amount of heat released when fuels combust is measured by their calorific value, with gaseous fuels having the highest calorific value per unit weight. Proper use and safety precautions are required when using fuels to prevent fires and other hazards.
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which...drmanojkarar
Energy resources: While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the fuel selected must possess the following characteristic properties.
1) It should possess high calorific value.
2) It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low nor too high.
3) It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution o combustion.
4) It should have moderate rate of combustion.
5) Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when required.
6) It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7) It should be easily available in plenty.
8) It should have low moisture content.
9) It should be cheap.
10) It should be easy to handle and transport.
Calorific value: It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen.
Units of heat:
a) Calorie: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water through one degree centigrade.
b) Kilocalorie: It is equal to 1000 calories. The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K.cal = 1000 cals
c) British thermal unit (B.Th.U.): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 pound of water through one degree Farenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cals = 0.252 K.cal
d) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K. cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
For solids or liquid fuel: Calorie/gm (cal/gm) (or) Kilocalorie/Kg (K.cal/Kg) (or) B.Th.U/lb
For gaseous fuels: Kilocalorie/cubic meter (K.cal/m3) (or) B.Th.U/ft3
the slides explain about fuel and combustionrndfme
The document discusses different types of fuels and combustion. It provides classifications of fuels as primary, secondary, solid, liquid, and gaseous. It defines calorific value and explains gross calorific value and net calorific value. The document discusses solid fuels like coal, its classification and analysis including proximate analysis and ultimate analysis. It explains the importance of these analyses. It also discusses the production of metallurgical coke and its required properties.
The document discusses fuels and combustion. It defines fuels and their classification based on occurrence and physical state. It describes the measurement of calorific value using a bomb calorimeter and Junkers gas calorimeter. It also discusses the gross and net calorific values, combustion calculations, proximate and ultimate analysis of solid fuels, and the theoretical calculation of a fuel's calorific value using Dulong's formula.
The document discusses various aspects of fuels and combustion. It defines fuels as combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce large amounts of heat during combustion. The main sources of fuel are coal and petroleum, which are fossil fuels formed from ancient plant and animal remains. Key characteristics of good fuels include high calorific value, moderate ignition temperature, and low moisture and non-combustible content. Liquid fuels like petroleum and its products are easily stored, transported and have high energy density. The processes of fractional distillation and refining of petroleum are described to produce useful fuel fractions like gasoline, diesel and kerosene. Calorific values indicate the energy content of fuels and can be measured using bomb calorime
The document discusses various types of fuels, their classification, properties, and uses. It describes solid fuels like wood, peat, lignite, and coal as well as liquid fuels derived from petroleum. The key solid fuel discussed is coal, which is classified based on carbon content and rank into peat, lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, semi-bituminous coal, and anthracite. Liquid fuels are obtained through refining of crude petroleum and include fuels like gasoline, kerosene and diesel.
The document discusses various types of fuels including their definition, classification, properties, and uses. It describes solid fuels like wood, coal, and charcoal as well as liquid fuels derived from petroleum. The key solid fuel discussed is coal, which varies in composition and energy content depending on its rank as peat, lignite, bituminous coal, or anthracite. Liquid fuels mainly come from refining crude petroleum into products like gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel that are widely used for transportation and energy needs due to their high energy density.
Fuels are substances that readily combine with oxygen to burn and release heat energy. There are three main types of fuels - solid, liquid, and gaseous. Solid fuels include coal and wood. Liquid fuels include kerosene, diesel, and furnace oil. Common gaseous fuels used in India are LPG, natural gas, and coal gas. The amount of heat released when fuels combust is measured by their calorific value, with gaseous fuels having the highest calorific value per unit weight. Proper use and safety precautions are required when using fuels to prevent fires and other hazards.
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which...drmanojkarar
Energy resources: While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the fuel selected must possess the following characteristic properties.
1) It should possess high calorific value.
2) It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low nor too high.
3) It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution o combustion.
4) It should have moderate rate of combustion.
5) Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when required.
6) It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7) It should be easily available in plenty.
8) It should have low moisture content.
9) It should be cheap.
10) It should be easy to handle and transport.
Calorific value: It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen.
Units of heat:
a) Calorie: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water through one degree centigrade.
b) Kilocalorie: It is equal to 1000 calories. The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K.cal = 1000 cals
c) British thermal unit (B.Th.U.): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 pound of water through one degree Farenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cals = 0.252 K.cal
d) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K. cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
For solids or liquid fuel: Calorie/gm (cal/gm) (or) Kilocalorie/Kg (K.cal/Kg) (or) B.Th.U/lb
For gaseous fuels: Kilocalorie/cubic meter (K.cal/m3) (or) B.Th.U/ft3
the slides explain about fuel and combustionrndfme
The document discusses different types of fuels and combustion. It provides classifications of fuels as primary, secondary, solid, liquid, and gaseous. It defines calorific value and explains gross calorific value and net calorific value. The document discusses solid fuels like coal, its classification and analysis including proximate analysis and ultimate analysis. It explains the importance of these analyses. It also discusses the production of metallurgical coke and its required properties.
Fuel is a combustible substance that generates heat when burned in the presence of oxygen. Carbon and hydrogen are the main constituents of fuel. Solid fuels include wood, peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite coal, and artificial solid fuels like coke and pulverized coal. Liquid fuels come from crude petroleum and include gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. Gaseous fuels include natural gas, blast furnace gas, producer gas, and water gas. The calorific value is a measure of the heat generated during combustion and is higher for liquid and gaseous fuels compared to solid fuels. Bomb calorimetry and Junker's gas calorimetry are common experimental
This document defines fuels and classifies them as primary or secondary. It discusses the characteristics of good fuels and defines gross calorific value and net calorific value. It describes how to determine calorific values using bomb calorimetry and gas calorimetry through calculations involving the mass of fuel burned, water mass, temperature changes, and corrections. Specific solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are also listed along with the combustion of fuels.
1. Fuels are combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce heat energy when burned. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are important primary fossil fuels found naturally.
2. Fuels can be classified based on their physical state as solid, liquid, or gaseous. They can also be classified as primary fuels found in nature or secondary fuels derived from primary fuels.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during complete combustion. It is usually measured in kilocalories per kilogram. Higher calorific value includes the heat of condensation of water vapor produced, while lower calorific value does not.
1. A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent that produces heat energy when burned. During combustion, carbon and hydrogen in the fuel combine with oxygen to produce heat.
2. Fuels are classified as primary fuels, which occur naturally like coal, petroleum and natural gas, or secondary fuels, which are derived from primary fuels like coke and gasoline. Fuels can also be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous based on physical state.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat produced during complete combustion of a unit mass or volume of fuel. Higher or gross calorific value includes the latent heat of condensation of water vapor produced,
1. Fuels are combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce heat energy when burned. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are important primary fossil fuels found naturally.
2. Fuels can be classified based on their physical state as solid, liquid, or gaseous. They can also be classified as primary fuels found in nature or secondary fuels derived from primary fuels.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during complete combustion. It is usually measured in kilocalories per kilogram. Higher calorific value includes the heat of condensation of water vapor produced, while lower calorific value does not.
This document discusses fuels and their analysis. It defines fuels and their classification as primary/natural or secondary/derived and solid, liquid or gaseous. Characteristics of good fuels like high calorific value and low ash are presented. Methods to determine calorific value using bomb calorimeter and calculations are described. Coal analysis techniques of proximate analysis (moisture, volatile matter, ash, fixed carbon) and ultimate analysis (C,H,N,S,O) are explained. The significance of the analyses for commercial classification and process heat balances is highlighted.
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
This document discusses solid fuels, with a focus on coal and coke. It defines primary and secondary fuels, and how they are classified based on physical state as solid, liquid, or gas. Coal forms from decayed vegetation over millions of years and is composed mainly of carbon. Coke is produced from coal through carbonization and is preferred for metallurgical processes due to its strength, porosity, and removal of undesirable sulfur. The document covers proximate and ultimate analysis methods to determine the composition of coal and evaluates quality based on factors like moisture, volatile matter, ash, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur content. High-temperature carbonization is used to produce strong, porous metallurgical coke while retaining purity.
This document provides information about fuels and lubricants. It discusses different types of fuels like coal, natural gas, and plastic waste. It also covers the classification of fuels based on rank like peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. The characteristics of good fuels and various units of heat measurement like calorie, kilocalorie, and British Thermal Unit are explained. The document discusses the gross calorific value and net calorific value of fuels. It provides details about the working of a bomb calorimeter and the proximate and ultimate analysis of coal.
1. The document discusses steam generators/boilers, including their classification and requirements for a good boiler.
2. It describes different types of boilers like water tube boilers, fire tube boilers, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, and locomotive boiler.
3. Boiler performance is discussed through concepts like equivalent evaporation, factor of evaporation, boiler efficiency, and heat balance sheets. Worked examples are provided to illustrate these concepts.
The ppt is especially designed for engineering students. The lecture explains about fuels, its types, characteristics and in the last we have discussed about measurement of calorific value using Bomb calorimeter.
This chemistry presentation discusses energy and fuels. It defines energy as the capacity to supply heat or do work, and lists different forms of energy. Fuels are defined as combustible substances containing carbon that produce heat when burned. Fuels are classified as solid, liquid, or gaseous. Calorific value measures the total heat produced from completely burning a fuel. There are gross and net calorific values. Proximate analysis measures the moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon content of a fuel. Ultimate analysis determines the carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen content.
The document summarizes key information about fuels and fuel technology. It defines what a fuel is, describes different types of fuels including solid fuels like coal and wood, liquid fuels like petroleum, and gaseous fuels like natural gas. It explains the energy content and combustion of different fuels. Key processes like fractional distillation of crude oil and destructive distillation of coal are summarized. Common fuel uses in transportation, electricity generation, and industry are also highlighted.
method to find calorific values of fuelsAWAISCHUDHARY
This document discusses calorific values, which measure the heating power or energy content of fuels and foods. It defines lower and higher calorific values, and explains that calorific value depends on a substance's composition. Junker's calorimeter is used to specifically measure the calorific value of gases. The document also provides the formula to calculate higher calorific value from experimental measurements of mass, temperatures, and heat capacities in a bomb calorimeter test.
Hydrogen can be produced through various methods such as steam reforming of natural gas, gasification of biomass/coal, and electrolysis of water. Steam reforming involves a reaction of methane and steam over a nickel catalyst to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Gasification converts carbon sources through partial oxidation to produce syngas. Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen through redox reactions. Hydrogen has the highest energy density by mass of common fuels and can help enable a green energy economy when produced from renewable resources.
Calorimeter to measure the calorific value of fuelsatechnicalboard
Calorimetry is the field of science that deals with the measurement of the state of a body with respect to the thermal aspects in order to examine its physical and chemical changes. The changes could be physical such as melting, evaporation or could also be chemical such as burning, acid-base neutralisation etc.
A calorimeter is what is used to measure the thermal changes of a body.
Calorimetry is applied extensively in the fields of thermochemistry in calculating the enthalpy, stability, heat capacity etc.
What Is a Calorimeter?
A calorimeter is a device used for heat measurements necessary for calorimetry. It mainly consists of a metallic vessel made of materials which are good conductors of electricity such as copper and aluminium etc. There is also a facility for stirring the contents of the vessel. This metallic vessel with a stirrer is kept in an insulating jacket to prevent heat loss to the environment. There is just one opening through which a thermometer can be inserted to measure the change in thermal properties inside. Let us discuss how exactly heat measurements are made. In the previous article, we discussed the specific heat capacity of substances.
Such measurements can be made easily with this. Say in a calorimeter a fixed amount of fuel is burned. The vessel is filled with water, and the fuel is burned, leading to the heating of the water. Heat loss by the fuel is equal to the heat gained by the water. This is why it is important to insulate the calorimeter from the environment; to improve the accuracy of the experiment. This change in heat can be measured through the thermometer. Through such a measurement, we can find out both the heat capacity of water and also the energy stored inside a fuel.
Uses of Calorimetry
It is well known now that matter always obeys the principle of lowest energy i.e. given the option, the matter will exist in the lowest energy state possible. Despite this, matter can have a variety of energetic states. Uranium atoms, for example, are a powerhouse.
The energy of matter has a profound effect on its natural occurrence and its reactivity etc. If we can unravel the relationship between them, then we can predict the natural occurrence, reactivity and physical properties based on the energy measurements we make through calorimetry. Understanding the thermodynamic properties of a substance will inevitably yield answers to structure and other properties.
This document discusses fuels and their analysis. It begins by defining fuels and providing examples of primary and secondary fuels. It then discusses the characteristics of a good fuel and explains calorific value. It describes how to determine calorific value using a bomb calorimeter and provides the calculation. The document also explains proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of coal, including how each analysis is performed and its significance. In summary, it provides an overview of different fuel types, characteristics of good fuels, methods of determining calorific value, and approaches to analyzing coal composition.
The document provides a self-study report submitted by Government First Grade College, Sandur to the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) for accreditation. It includes details about the college such as its establishment, location, programs offered, student enrollment data, committees, and facilities. The report also summarizes the college's performance in key areas like curricular aspects, teaching-learning and evaluation, research activities, and infrastructure and learning resources to aid the accreditation process.
Prevention of Food Adulteration - Full Act.pdfKiranMayiAudina
This document provides an arrangement of sections for The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954. It outlines 21 sections covering preliminary matters like short title, definitions, prohibition of import/manufacture/sale of certain food articles, analysis of food, penalties, offences by companies, and powers of the central/state governments. Key aspects include establishing a Central Committee for Food Standards and Central Food Laboratory to advise on the act's administration and set food standards. It aims to prevent adulteration of food and ensure food safety.
Fuel is a combustible substance that generates heat when burned in the presence of oxygen. Carbon and hydrogen are the main constituents of fuel. Solid fuels include wood, peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite coal, and artificial solid fuels like coke and pulverized coal. Liquid fuels come from crude petroleum and include gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. Gaseous fuels include natural gas, blast furnace gas, producer gas, and water gas. The calorific value is a measure of the heat generated during combustion and is higher for liquid and gaseous fuels compared to solid fuels. Bomb calorimetry and Junker's gas calorimetry are common experimental
This document defines fuels and classifies them as primary or secondary. It discusses the characteristics of good fuels and defines gross calorific value and net calorific value. It describes how to determine calorific values using bomb calorimetry and gas calorimetry through calculations involving the mass of fuel burned, water mass, temperature changes, and corrections. Specific solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are also listed along with the combustion of fuels.
1. Fuels are combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce heat energy when burned. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are important primary fossil fuels found naturally.
2. Fuels can be classified based on their physical state as solid, liquid, or gaseous. They can also be classified as primary fuels found in nature or secondary fuels derived from primary fuels.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during complete combustion. It is usually measured in kilocalories per kilogram. Higher calorific value includes the heat of condensation of water vapor produced, while lower calorific value does not.
1. A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent that produces heat energy when burned. During combustion, carbon and hydrogen in the fuel combine with oxygen to produce heat.
2. Fuels are classified as primary fuels, which occur naturally like coal, petroleum and natural gas, or secondary fuels, which are derived from primary fuels like coke and gasoline. Fuels can also be classified as solid, liquid or gaseous based on physical state.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the total quantity of heat produced during complete combustion of a unit mass or volume of fuel. Higher or gross calorific value includes the latent heat of condensation of water vapor produced,
1. Fuels are combustible substances containing mainly carbon that produce heat energy when burned. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are important primary fossil fuels found naturally.
2. Fuels can be classified based on their physical state as solid, liquid, or gaseous. They can also be classified as primary fuels found in nature or secondary fuels derived from primary fuels.
3. The calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat released during complete combustion. It is usually measured in kilocalories per kilogram. Higher calorific value includes the heat of condensation of water vapor produced, while lower calorific value does not.
This document discusses fuels and their analysis. It defines fuels and their classification as primary/natural or secondary/derived and solid, liquid or gaseous. Characteristics of good fuels like high calorific value and low ash are presented. Methods to determine calorific value using bomb calorimeter and calculations are described. Coal analysis techniques of proximate analysis (moisture, volatile matter, ash, fixed carbon) and ultimate analysis (C,H,N,S,O) are explained. The significance of the analyses for commercial classification and process heat balances is highlighted.
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
This document discusses solid fuels, with a focus on coal and coke. It defines primary and secondary fuels, and how they are classified based on physical state as solid, liquid, or gas. Coal forms from decayed vegetation over millions of years and is composed mainly of carbon. Coke is produced from coal through carbonization and is preferred for metallurgical processes due to its strength, porosity, and removal of undesirable sulfur. The document covers proximate and ultimate analysis methods to determine the composition of coal and evaluates quality based on factors like moisture, volatile matter, ash, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur content. High-temperature carbonization is used to produce strong, porous metallurgical coke while retaining purity.
This document provides information about fuels and lubricants. It discusses different types of fuels like coal, natural gas, and plastic waste. It also covers the classification of fuels based on rank like peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite. The characteristics of good fuels and various units of heat measurement like calorie, kilocalorie, and British Thermal Unit are explained. The document discusses the gross calorific value and net calorific value of fuels. It provides details about the working of a bomb calorimeter and the proximate and ultimate analysis of coal.
1. The document discusses steam generators/boilers, including their classification and requirements for a good boiler.
2. It describes different types of boilers like water tube boilers, fire tube boilers, Cochran boiler, Babcock and Wilcox boiler, and locomotive boiler.
3. Boiler performance is discussed through concepts like equivalent evaporation, factor of evaporation, boiler efficiency, and heat balance sheets. Worked examples are provided to illustrate these concepts.
The ppt is especially designed for engineering students. The lecture explains about fuels, its types, characteristics and in the last we have discussed about measurement of calorific value using Bomb calorimeter.
This chemistry presentation discusses energy and fuels. It defines energy as the capacity to supply heat or do work, and lists different forms of energy. Fuels are defined as combustible substances containing carbon that produce heat when burned. Fuels are classified as solid, liquid, or gaseous. Calorific value measures the total heat produced from completely burning a fuel. There are gross and net calorific values. Proximate analysis measures the moisture, ash, volatile matter, and fixed carbon content of a fuel. Ultimate analysis determines the carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen content.
The document summarizes key information about fuels and fuel technology. It defines what a fuel is, describes different types of fuels including solid fuels like coal and wood, liquid fuels like petroleum, and gaseous fuels like natural gas. It explains the energy content and combustion of different fuels. Key processes like fractional distillation of crude oil and destructive distillation of coal are summarized. Common fuel uses in transportation, electricity generation, and industry are also highlighted.
method to find calorific values of fuelsAWAISCHUDHARY
This document discusses calorific values, which measure the heating power or energy content of fuels and foods. It defines lower and higher calorific values, and explains that calorific value depends on a substance's composition. Junker's calorimeter is used to specifically measure the calorific value of gases. The document also provides the formula to calculate higher calorific value from experimental measurements of mass, temperatures, and heat capacities in a bomb calorimeter test.
Hydrogen can be produced through various methods such as steam reforming of natural gas, gasification of biomass/coal, and electrolysis of water. Steam reforming involves a reaction of methane and steam over a nickel catalyst to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Gasification converts carbon sources through partial oxidation to produce syngas. Electrolysis uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen through redox reactions. Hydrogen has the highest energy density by mass of common fuels and can help enable a green energy economy when produced from renewable resources.
Calorimeter to measure the calorific value of fuelsatechnicalboard
Calorimetry is the field of science that deals with the measurement of the state of a body with respect to the thermal aspects in order to examine its physical and chemical changes. The changes could be physical such as melting, evaporation or could also be chemical such as burning, acid-base neutralisation etc.
A calorimeter is what is used to measure the thermal changes of a body.
Calorimetry is applied extensively in the fields of thermochemistry in calculating the enthalpy, stability, heat capacity etc.
What Is a Calorimeter?
A calorimeter is a device used for heat measurements necessary for calorimetry. It mainly consists of a metallic vessel made of materials which are good conductors of electricity such as copper and aluminium etc. There is also a facility for stirring the contents of the vessel. This metallic vessel with a stirrer is kept in an insulating jacket to prevent heat loss to the environment. There is just one opening through which a thermometer can be inserted to measure the change in thermal properties inside. Let us discuss how exactly heat measurements are made. In the previous article, we discussed the specific heat capacity of substances.
Such measurements can be made easily with this. Say in a calorimeter a fixed amount of fuel is burned. The vessel is filled with water, and the fuel is burned, leading to the heating of the water. Heat loss by the fuel is equal to the heat gained by the water. This is why it is important to insulate the calorimeter from the environment; to improve the accuracy of the experiment. This change in heat can be measured through the thermometer. Through such a measurement, we can find out both the heat capacity of water and also the energy stored inside a fuel.
Uses of Calorimetry
It is well known now that matter always obeys the principle of lowest energy i.e. given the option, the matter will exist in the lowest energy state possible. Despite this, matter can have a variety of energetic states. Uranium atoms, for example, are a powerhouse.
The energy of matter has a profound effect on its natural occurrence and its reactivity etc. If we can unravel the relationship between them, then we can predict the natural occurrence, reactivity and physical properties based on the energy measurements we make through calorimetry. Understanding the thermodynamic properties of a substance will inevitably yield answers to structure and other properties.
This document discusses fuels and their analysis. It begins by defining fuels and providing examples of primary and secondary fuels. It then discusses the characteristics of a good fuel and explains calorific value. It describes how to determine calorific value using a bomb calorimeter and provides the calculation. The document also explains proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of coal, including how each analysis is performed and its significance. In summary, it provides an overview of different fuel types, characteristics of good fuels, methods of determining calorific value, and approaches to analyzing coal composition.
The document provides a self-study report submitted by Government First Grade College, Sandur to the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) for accreditation. It includes details about the college such as its establishment, location, programs offered, student enrollment data, committees, and facilities. The report also summarizes the college's performance in key areas like curricular aspects, teaching-learning and evaluation, research activities, and infrastructure and learning resources to aid the accreditation process.
Prevention of Food Adulteration - Full Act.pdfKiranMayiAudina
This document provides an arrangement of sections for The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954. It outlines 21 sections covering preliminary matters like short title, definitions, prohibition of import/manufacture/sale of certain food articles, analysis of food, penalties, offences by companies, and powers of the central/state governments. Key aspects include establishing a Central Committee for Food Standards and Central Food Laboratory to advise on the act's administration and set food standards. It aims to prevent adulteration of food and ensure food safety.
The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954.pdfKiranMayiAudina
The document provides an overview of the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 in India. It discusses the key objectives and provisions of the act, which are to curb food adulteration, prohibit adulteration and misbranding of food, and ensure sanitary conditions for food preparation and storage. The act defines important terms like "adulteration" and "food" and establishes bodies like the Central Committee for Food Standards and Central Food Laboratory. It outlines offenses and penalties related to adulterated and misbranded food. The overall aim is to protect public health by regulating and enforcing standards for food quality and purity in India.
This document outlines the Food Safety and Standards Act of 2006 in India. It establishes the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) as the central regulatory body for food safety in India. The Act defines key terms related to food safety and standards. It outlines the composition and functions of FSSAI. It also establishes committees to advise FSSAI on scientific matters. The Act lays out general principles for food safety administration and provisions for food articles, packaging, labeling, imports and special responsibilities of food businesses. It describes enforcement authorities and their powers. The Act also covers offenses, penalties, adjudication processes and establishment of the Food Safety Appellate Tribunal.
Payment of Wages Act, 1936 Course material.pdfKiranMayiAudina
This document provides an arrangement of sections for The Payment of Wages Act, 1936 in India. Some key points:
- It regulates the payment of wages to certain classes of employed persons.
- Key definitions are provided for terms like "wages", "employer", and "industrial establishment".
- Responsibility for payment of wages lies with the employer.
- Wage periods cannot exceed one month and wages must generally be paid within a week of the wage period.
- Various permissible deductions from wages are outlined.
- Provisions for claims, penalties, and delegating powers are included.
Industrial Disputes Full Act 1947 study material notes.pdfKiranMayiAudina
This document provides the arrangement of sections of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 of India. It outlines 41 sections organized across 7 chapters dealing with preliminary matters, authorities under the act, procedures for disputes, penalties, and miscellaneous provisions. Key aspects covered include definitions of terms, procedures for disputes resolution through conciliation officers, boards of conciliation, labour courts and tribunals, regulations around strikes and lock-outs, lay-offs, retrenchment, and unfair labour practices.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
ACEP Magazine edition 4th launched on 05.06.2024Rahul
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A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
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TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUE FOR COMMUNICATION SYSTEMHODECEDSIET
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
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Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Comparative analysis between traditional aquaponics and reconstructed aquapon...bijceesjournal
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1. Unit: III Maintenance
3.1 Fuel/Gas
• 3.1.1 Types of fuels
• 3.1.2 Calculation of heat and fuel requirements
3.2 Water
• 3.2.1 Sources of water
• 3.2.2 Method of removal of hardness
• 3.2.3 Calculation of water requirements
Electricity
• Meaning & usage
• Calculation of power requirements
2. What is a fuel?
• A fuel is a substance that reacts chemically with another substance
to produce heat. Any source of heat energy is called fuel.
• Fuel makes substances burn readily in air emitting large amount of
heat.
• SI UNITS - For soild fuels – J/kg or kcal/kg, liquid fuels – J/litre/ kcal/
litre
• Gaseous fuels – J/ cubic metre or kcal/cubic metre
• When a fuel is burnt, it combines with oxygen in the air to form
carbon dioxide and water vapor. Lots of energy is produced during
this process known as calorific value.
• Energy thus produced can be used for various applications.
3. Various terms and definitions associated with Heat
Temperature – defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It
is commonly measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit (10 C = 33.8 0 F).
Heat – It is a form of energy which can be converted to other forms. It is
measured in terms of calorie or BTU (British Thermal Unit = 0.252 kcal).
Explain units of heat – cal/Kcal/BTU
Sensible heat – Heat which causes a change in temperature in a
substance is called sensible heat.
Latent heat - is the energy absorbed by or released from a substance
during a phase change from a gas to a liquid or a solid or vice versa.
Ignition Point - the lowest temperature at which a combustible substance
in air will ignite and continue to burn. Flame / spark needed to supply
the activation energy needed for combustion.
6. Specific Heat Capacity - Is the amount of heat energy required to increase
/decrease the temperature of a substance per unit of mass. Varies from
substance to substance. Denoted by, C.
Water ( at 25C ) has a heat capacity of 4184 J (1 kcal) per kg per Celsius degree
Air @ typical room conditions and constant normal atmospheric pressure has a
heat capacity of 1012 J (0.242 kcal per kg per Celsius degree.
Mathematical equation
The heat needed to raise the temperature of a substance of mass, m, and
specific heat, C, from T1 to T2 is given by
H = m X C X (T2-T1)
So if we know the material of the substance, we know its property of specific
heat as available in standard tables shown here which helps us calculate the
heat requirement for changing the temperature of some mass of the
substance.
7.
8. Calculation of Heat requirements
Prep up for steak .
5 KG of lamb steak at room temperature of 30° C is to be heated to 80° C for the
preparation of Kebab. Let us calculate the heat needed to be given to the steak.
We assume that the kebab is heated uniformly so that all parts of the kebab have
the same temperature. The specific heat of lamb is 3.49 kcal/kg C.
H = m X C X (T2-T1)
5 X 3.49 X (80-30) = 872.5 kcal.
9. Making Tea
2 KG of water is heated in an electric kettle for making tea. Water is kept at
30° C and is to be heated to 90° C. Mass of the kettle is 250 g. The material
that makes up the kettle is stainless steel, whose specific heat is 500 J/ kg.
Calculate the heat required to make tea.
Heat needed to raise the temperature of kettle + heat needed to raise the
temperature of water
H = m X C X (T2-T1)
= 0.250 X 500 X (90-30) + 2 X 4184 X (90-30) = 7500 + 502080 = 509580 J
= 509580 J / 1000 = 509.50 kJ
10. Cooling of apples
Let 10 KG of apples at a room temperature of 30° C be kept in a refrigerator
whose temperature is maintained at 3° C. The specific heat of Apple may be
taken as 3800 J/kg. Determine the heat to be extracted from it by the
refrigerator to cool it down. Take freezing point of Apple as -1.1° C.
H = m X C X (T2-T1)
10 X 3800 X (30-3) = 1,026, 000J / 1026 kJ
13. Types of Fuels
Solid Fuels: The common solid fuels, in order of heat potential, are coal, coke,
wood, sugarcane and peat. Combustion of these causes decomposition of the
fuel and evolution of the volatile matter as a gas that may burn with a sooty
flame.
Calorific value – kcal/kg
14. Types of Fuels
Liquid Fuels: Common liquid fuels are oils, gasoline‘s, and naphtha‘s derived
from petroleum, and to a lesser extent, coal tar, alcohol and benzol obtained
from coke manufacturer.
15. Types of Fuels
Gaseous Fuel: Fuel, any combustible gaseous mixture used as fuel to provide
energy for domestic or industrial use. Fuel gases consist principally of
hydrocarbons, that is, of molecular compounds of carbon and hydrogen. The
properties of the various gases depend on the number and arrangement of the
carbon and hydrogen atoms within their molecules. All these gases are
odorless in the pure state, and carbon monoxide is toxic. It is therefore
common practice to add sulfur compounds to manufactured gas; such sulfur
compounds, which are sometimes normally present in the gas, have an
unpleasant smell and serve to give warning of a leak in the supply lines or gas
appliance. In addition to their combustible components most gases have
varying amounts of noncombustible nitrogen and water as their end products.
16. Types of Fuels
Fossil Fuels Energy: Rich substances that have formed from long-buried plants
and microorganisms. Fossil fuels, which include petroleum, coal, and natural
gas, provide most of the energy that powers modern industrial society. The
gasoline that fuels our cars, the coal that powers many electrical plants, and
the natural gas that heats our homes are all fossil fuels.
Chemically, fossil fuels consist largely of hydrocarbons, which are compounds
composed of hydrogen and carbon. Some fossil fuels also contain smaller
amounts of other compounds. Hydrocarbons form from ancient living organisms
that were buried under layers of sediment millions of years ago. As accumulating
sediment layers exerted increasing heat and pressure, the remains of the
organisms gradually transformed into hydrocarbons. The most commonly used
fossil fuels are petroleum, coal, and natural gas. These substances are extracted
from the earth‘s crust and, if necessary, refined into suitable fuel products, such
as gasoline, heating oil, and kerosene. Some of these hydrocarbons may also be
processed into plastics, chemicals, lubricants, and other non-fuel products.
Geologists have identified other types of hydrocarbon-rich deposits that can
serve as fuels. Such deposits, which include oil shale, tar sands, and gas
hydrates, are not widely used because they are too costly to extract and refine.
The majority of fossil fuels are used in the transportation, manufacturing,
17. Calorific Value of Fuels
Approximate higher heating values
of common fuels are:
Solid fuels (Btu per lb):
Coal 12,000 to 15,000
Lignite 6000 to 7400
Coke 12,400
Dry wood 8500
Liquid fuels (Btu per lb):
Alcohol 11,000
Fuel oil 19,000
Gasoline 20,750
Kerosene 19,800
Gaseous fuels (Btu per cu ft):
Acetylene 1480
Blast-furnace gas 93
Carbon monoxide 317
Coke-oven gas or coal gas about
600; hydrogen 319
Natural gas 1050 to 2220
Oil gas 516
Producer gas 136.
18. Comparative Fuel Cost: Fuel cost can be calculated by using the following formulae,
inserting current prices of all four fuels and arriving at the cost of a useful ―therm
/in each case.
1 Therm= 1,00,000 Btu (Btu is a measure of heat)
Coke
If coke cost Rs.12000 per ton
Therefore 1 lb costs Rs.4.00
Coke produces 12 000 Btu per lb
Therefore 1 therm costs – cost per lb x 1 00 000 / 12000
4X100000/12000=Rs.33.33
A useful therm is the amount of heat output to good use. Coke is calculated to be 60%
efficient.
Therefore a useful therm costs= cost per therm x 100/ 60
33.33 x 100 / 60 = Rs. 55.55
19. Gas: To change cubic feet into therms you must know the heating power or calorific
value ( CV ) of the gas. This will be shown on the gas cylinder and the simple
calculation for working out the amount of heat supplied is:
** 1 Therm= 1,00,000 Btu (Btu is a measure of heat)
Therms = Calorific value x hundreds of cubic feet / 1000
A useful therm is the amount of heat output to good use. Gas is calculated to
be 80% efficient.
Therefore a useful therm costs= cost per therm x 100/ 80 = Rs. X
Electricity:
1 unit of electricity produces 3412 Btu
Electricity is calculated to be 100* efficient
Therefore 1 therm costs = cost per unit x 100 000/ 3412 = Rs x
Oil:
1 gallon produces 165000 Btu
Oil is calculated to be 75% efficient
Therefore 1 therm costs= Cost per gallon x100000 / 165000
1 useful therm = cost per therm x100 / 75 = Rs. X
20. Water Treatment
Treatment of water - to make it fit for human consumption and to improve its quality
Main processes of the water treatment are
• Removal of suspensions: to make the water clear.
• Removal of dissolved harmful and coloring salts.
• To control/ remove the quantity of minerals.
• To destroy pathogens and bacteria present in water.
• To make water soft.
Filtration is the process of removing the suspended impurities. The methods depend
on the size of the impurity. Some common methods are:
o Sieving
o Sedimentation and decantation
o Gravel filter tanks: clars the next stage of coarse suspensions.
o Sand filter
o Coagulation and filtering
The micron suspensions group together as ‗Flocks‘, become heavier, settles down, and
drained. This process makes water sparkling clear. Commonly used coagulant materials
are Aluminum sulfate Al2SO4, [8H2O](alum), ferric chloride and ferric sulfate.
21. Water Treatment
Disinfecting is the process carried out with the object to destroy the
bacteria and pathogens. Two methods are common
Boiling - kills a wide spectrum of bacteria. The effect of the process is not
long lasting. The process is time consuming, costly and not very practical
for large-scale treatment.
Boiling removes the bicarbonate of Ca and Mg as their insoluble
carbonates, and filtered
Chemical Treatment to destroy bacteria. Caution must be exercised to the
choice and the quantity of the chemical. The effect of the process is long
lasting due to residual presence of the chemical in water. This process is
easy to apply and cheaper. Some common chemicals: Lime, Chlorine,
Bromine, Iodine and Ozone
Lime treatment: The temporary hardness of water is measured and then
treated with calculated amount of lime.
X (HCO3) 2 + Ca (OH) 2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Where X = Ca or Mg atom.
22. Hard Water
In simple terms, hard water does not produce good lather‘ with
soap due to the presence of certain salts and as a result of this,
consumes more soap.
Reasons of hardness in water: During precipitation, water
dissolves a number of atmospheric gases, which include CO2,
Cl2, NO2 and SO2. These gases being acidic inorganic oxides
produce Carbonic acid, Hydrochloric acid, Nitric acid and sulfuric
acid respectively in the precipitated water.
During run off and percolation they react with the minerals
present in earth and form various salts. These salts dissolve in
water, out of them, the following salts are mainly responsible for
water hardness:
• Both Calcium and Magnesium Bi-Carbonates.
• Both Chlorides and Sulfates of Calcium and Magnesium.
23. Measure and Unit of Hardness
The degree of hardness is defined as the calcium carbonate equivalent of calcium and
magnesium ions present in water and is expressed in mg/L
It’s a measure of how much calcium is in water
Industries measure it in grains per liter, where 1 grain/litre = 64.72mg/L
Types of Water Hardness
There are two types of water hardness:
Carbonic or Temporary hardness: due to the presence of Bi-Carbonates of Calcium
Ca(HCO3)2 and Magnesium and Mg (HCO3)2 dissolved in the water. Simple boiling of the
water removes this hardness.
Removal of temporary hardness
1. Boiling
2. Clarke’s process – addition of lime
26. Methods of Removing permanent hardness
Non-Carbonic or Permanent hardness: commonly termed as Water softening
methods
Presence of Chlorides and Sulfates of both Calcium and Magnesium. These salts have
chemical formulae of
CaCL2 – Calcium chloride
CaSO4 – Calcium sulphate
MgCL2 – Magnesium chloride
MgSO4 – Magnesium sulphate
Methods of removing permanent hardness
1. Washing soda rocess
2. Base exchange process / Zeolite process
3. Lime soda process
4. Caustic soda process
5. Ion-exchange process / Demineralization process
6. Calogen process
27. 1. Washing Soda Process
Na2CO3 + CaSO4 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
Na2CO3 + MgCl2 MgCO3 + 2NaCL
2. Zeolite or permutit or Base Exchange or Cation exchange process
28. 3. Lime soda process.
In addition to washing soda, lime is added which reacts with bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium, as already outlined.
4. Caustic soda process
Calcium and magnesium hydrogen carbonates react with Caustic soda to produce
insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide. This process is very
efficient for low alkalinity water.
29. 5. Ion exchange by resin or demineralization process for
removing hardness.
The process by which the minerals are removed is known as demineralization and
plant is known as DM plant. The water is called deionised water and is as pure as
distilled water.
The process consists of passing the water through cation exchange resins, which
produce almost similar effect as are produced in the zeolite method, except that
hydrogen (instead of sodium) is exchanged for the basic metallic ions. The cation
exchange resins in fact are phenol aldehyde condensation products. Their
chemical formula may be represented by H2R, which represents the hydrogen ion
and R represents the organic part of the substance.
Thus, we find that these cation exchange resins exchange sodium ions also, which
come out of the water forming exchanged resin, making water free from minerals.
However, absolutely pure water can be very corrosive if it comes in contact with
the air, thus absorbing oxygen from it as this water has a strong affinity for oxygen.
6. Calgon softener
Calgon is the trade name of a complex salt, sodium hexametaphosphate. It is used
for softening hard water. Calgon ionizes to give a complex anion, which
subsequently combines with calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
The addition of Calgon to hard water causes the calcium and magnesium ions of
30. Zeolite
Zeolite removes both permanent and temporary hardness. Zeolites are members of a
family of hydrated Sodium aluminosilicate mineral [Na2 (Al2Si3O10) 2H2O] that contain
alkali and alkaline-earth metals. Zeolites, are known for their ability toward ion exchange
and reversible dehydration. The sodium ions of the zeolites are exchanged with the
calcium or magnesium ions of salts responsible for water hardness:
Na2 (Z) + X (HCO3)2 X(Z) + 2Na (HCO3)
Na2 (Z) + XSO4 X (Z) + Na2SO4
[Z = complex part of zeolite]
Na2 (Z) + XCl2 X (Z) + 2NaCl
[X = Calcium Magnesium atom]
This property of zeolite makes it very beneficial in softening hard water.
31. Zeolite water softeners:
These softeners are very efficient and suitable for both the temporary and permanent
hardness.
These softeners consist of ‗Zeolite‘ or ion exchange resin in a tank connected directly
to filtered hard water supply. The sodium ions of the resins change place with the
calcium and magnesium ions of the Bicarbonate, chloride and sulfate salts dissolved in
the water and causing temporary and permanent hardness.
This exchange makes water soft, as the respective sodium, salts do not cause
hardness.
When calcium and magnesium ions from the water-dissolved salts, replace most of
the exchangeable sodium ions of the resin; it is exhausted. Rinsing with ‗Brine‘ (a strong
solution of common salt) regenerates the exhausted resin.
Reverse ion replacement process takes place and sodium ions from the brine now
replace the calcium and magnesium ions in the exhausted resin. After washing, the
regenerated resin becomes ready for treating hard water. Repeated use of the same
resin is possible.
These softeners are indispensable for industries, hotels, restaurants and homes.
32. Merit of ion exchange softener:
They are very efficient.
It does not produce pollution.
The resin can be used repeatedly for long times.
The treated water does not contain traces of treating chemicals or the
resulting turbidity.
The treated water is of good quality and potable.
33. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND TECHNICAL TERMS
Conductor: A substance through which electricity flows freely.
Volts: Pressure of flow of an electric current.
Resistance – that property of a substance which opposes the flow of electricity.
One volt: One volt is defined as potential difference necessary between the ends of a
conductor whose resistance is 1 ohm, to produce a current of 1 ampere. 220 volts is
introduced as the standard for domestic use and 415 volts for industrial use throughout the
country.
Ampere: it measures the rate of flow of a current, i.e. the amount of electricity that is
passing through the circuit. If an electric wire using 10 amps is plugged into a 5 -amp. Socket,
the demand will overstrain the circuit and should blow the fuse.
Ohms: it measures the resistance of a conductor to the flow of a current. All conductors offer
some resistance, but the lower the resistance the better the conductor.
Ohm’s Law: The Ohm‘s Law defines the relation between the above three parameters of the
electric circuit as follows: ―The voltage drop across the load resistance of the circuit is
directly proportional to the current flowing through it; provided the physical parameters viz.
length, cross-section, temperature and material of the load resistance remains same.‖
34. Mathematical representation:
V/I = [R] * I[where R is a constant of proportionality and known as ‗Resistance‘
responsible for energy waste]
o Unit of ‗V‘ expressed in Volts.
o Unit of ‗I‘ expressed in Ampere.
o Unit of ‗R‘ expressed in Ohm unit.
The ‗V.I.R.‘ triangle easily recalls the circuit parameters.
One Ampere = 1Coulomb /second = 1 / 1.6x10-19 electrons /second = flow of
6.25x1018 electrons /second.
Watts: it measures power- i.e., the amount of electricity used by an appliance.
1000 watts = 1 kilowatt (―kW‖) A unit is familiar term, is kilowatt- hour. This is
the amount of current consumed, for example, by one 1,000 – watt appliance in
use for one hour, or two 500 – watt appliance in use for one hour, or two 250 –
watt appliance in use for two hours.
One unit produces 3,415 British Thermal Units of heat.
35. One B.T.U.: It is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb. of
water through 1 degree Fahrenheit.
There is a simple relationship between volts, ohms, amperes and watts that can
be expressed by the following equations:
1. volts / ohms = amperes
For example: when the voltages of the main supply is 240 volts and the wire and
other connections leading to a socket outlet have a resistance of 48 ohms, the
socket outlet is able to supply 5 amps.
2. watts = amperes x volts
For example: a 5 amp. Socket using a current of 220 volt can supply an electrical
appliance rated at 1,100 watts
3. amperes = watts / volts
For example: four 100- watt lamps using 220 volts could be safely supplied by a 2
-amp plug.
The abbreviations used by electrical engineers are: E= volts, I= amperes, R =
ohms, W = watts.
36. Effects of Electric Current
The flow of charge or electric current through a conductor produced the
following effects:
Thermal effect: The flow of electric current produces heat and causes rise of
temperature of the resistive conductor.
Luminous effect: Due to the thermal effect at high temperature the resistive
conductor radiates light.
Magnetic effect: The current flow in a conductor always accompanies with
production of magnetic lines of force.
Chemical effect: Electric current flowing through electrolytes (water solution of
salts) or molten salts causes chemical change.
37. Calculation of Amount of Electrical Energy
Compute electricity bill for the month of January 2019 of ABC enterprises
having the following electric load:
b. Also calculate the capacity of fuse required.
Hints: Electricity tariff Rs. 5/- per Kilowatt-Hour, Voltage supply: 220
volts