Fuel is a combustible substance that generates heat when burned in the presence of oxygen. Carbon and hydrogen are the main constituents of fuel. Solid fuels include wood, peat, lignite, bituminous coal, anthracite coal, and artificial solid fuels like coke and pulverized coal. Liquid fuels come from crude petroleum and include gasoline, diesel, and kerosene. Gaseous fuels include natural gas, blast furnace gas, producer gas, and water gas. The calorific value is a measure of the heat generated during combustion and is higher for liquid and gaseous fuels compared to solid fuels. Bomb calorimetry and Junker's gas calorimetry are common experimental
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which...drmanojkarar
Energy resources: While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the fuel selected must possess the following characteristic properties.
1) It should possess high calorific value.
2) It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low nor too high.
3) It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution o combustion.
4) It should have moderate rate of combustion.
5) Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when required.
6) It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7) It should be easily available in plenty.
8) It should have low moisture content.
9) It should be cheap.
10) It should be easy to handle and transport.
Calorific value: It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen.
Units of heat:
a) Calorie: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water through one degree centigrade.
b) Kilocalorie: It is equal to 1000 calories. The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K.cal = 1000 cals
c) British thermal unit (B.Th.U.): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 pound of water through one degree Farenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cals = 0.252 K.cal
d) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K. cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
For solids or liquid fuel: Calorie/gm (cal/gm) (or) Kilocalorie/Kg (K.cal/Kg) (or) B.Th.U/lb
For gaseous fuels: Kilocalorie/cubic meter (K.cal/m3) (or) B.Th.U/ft3
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which...drmanojkarar
Energy resources: While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the fuel selected must possess the following characteristic properties.
1) It should possess high calorific value.
2) It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low nor too high.
3) It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution o combustion.
4) It should have moderate rate of combustion.
5) Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when required.
6) It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7) It should be easily available in plenty.
8) It should have low moisture content.
9) It should be cheap.
10) It should be easy to handle and transport.
Calorific value: It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen.
Units of heat:
a) Calorie: The amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gm of water through one degree centigrade.
b) Kilocalorie: It is equal to 1000 calories. The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K.cal = 1000 cals
c) British thermal unit (B.Th.U.): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of 1 pound of water through one degree Farenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cals = 0.252 K.cal
d) Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): The quantity of heat required to rise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 K. cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
For solids or liquid fuel: Calorie/gm (cal/gm) (or) Kilocalorie/Kg (K.cal/Kg) (or) B.Th.U/lb
For gaseous fuels: Kilocalorie/cubic meter (K.cal/m3) (or) B.Th.U/ft3
Classification of Fuel, Characteristics of good fuel, Calorific value and types of calorific value, bomb calorimeter, Boys calorimeter ,numerical s on bomb calorimeter, Boys calorimeter
Production of Syngas from biomass and its purificationAwais Chaudhary
This project includes production of syngas from biomass and its purification. Firstly we discuss feasibility and availability of raw material. Then we have literature survey. A lot of techniques are there to produce syngas, we have discuss process selection. Environmental considerations are also have been discussed. Piping and instrumentation (P&ID) diagrams also have been attached. At the end we've our conclusion and our recommendations.
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Classification of Fuel, Characteristics of good fuel, Calorific value and types of calorific value, bomb calorimeter, Boys calorimeter ,numerical s on bomb calorimeter, Boys calorimeter
Production of Syngas from biomass and its purificationAwais Chaudhary
This project includes production of syngas from biomass and its purification. Firstly we discuss feasibility and availability of raw material. Then we have literature survey. A lot of techniques are there to produce syngas, we have discuss process selection. Environmental considerations are also have been discussed. Piping and instrumentation (P&ID) diagrams also have been attached. At the end we've our conclusion and our recommendations.
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
2. Fuel- Introduction
• A fuel is a combustible substance that generates heat when burnt in
presence of oxygen.
• Carbon and Hydrogen are main constituents of a fuel.
• Fuel also contains sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen. A solid fuel contains, 2
to 30% ash.
• In a fuel carbon, hydrogen and sulphur are combustible elements
whereas nitrogen and ash are incombustible elements.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS
Solid fuels- Natural solid fuels
1. Wood- It is used as domestic fuel.
- It has calorific value of about 10500 KJ/Kg
-It consists of about 48.5% carbon, 6% H2, 1.5 %ash ,43.5% O2 and 0.5% N2.
2. Peat- It is partially carbonised and decomposed material formed mainly due to
transformation of buried vegetation.
- It is spongy substance with high moisture(80%).
-calorific value= 14650 KJ/kg.
-C=58%, H2=6.3%, O2= 30.8%, N2= 0.9% and ash= 4%
3. Lignite(brown coal)-It is low grade coal used domestic use.
-It is intermidiate stage between bituminous and peat.
- Calorific Value=12 500KJ/Kg
-C=66%, H =5%, O =20%, N =1, S=1% and ash=3.5
4. CONTINUED
4. Bituminous Coal- It is commonly used form of coal. It is
available in caking and non-caking form.
-Calorific Value=32000KJ/Kg.
-C=81%, H2=5%, O2=8%, N2=1.5%, S=1%, Ash=3.5%
5. Anthracite Coal= Highest quality of fuel
-Calorific Value=35000 KJ/Kg.
-C=91%, H2%=3, O2=2.5%, N2=0.5% , S=0.5%, Ash= 2.5%
.
5. Artificial solid fuels
1.Coke-
• It is prepared by heating bituminous coal at 5000-70000C for 15-18 hours in a
closed chamber in absence of air.
•During this process, volatile matter is removed.
•Coke is hard, porous and smokelesss.
•It is used in producing gas producing plants and blast furnaces. It contains 85-
95% carbon.
2. Pulverised Coal-Dry coal is pulverised in pulverised in pulverizing mill.
•It burns most efficiently when mixed with air and hence it is used in most of
thermal power generating plants.
3. Wood charcoal-It is prepared by strong heating of wood in a limited supply of
air below 2800oC. It is used for domestic purpose.
6. ADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUEL-
•They can be easily transported.
•They have low ignition temperature.
•They involve low production cost.
DISADVANTAGES OF SOLID FUEL-
•They have large percentage of ash content.
•They produce large amount of smoke.
•The necessity of various fuel handling equipments (conveyor, crushers, hoppers,
bunkers), increases cost of fuel handling.
•They have lower calorific value when compared to liquid fuels.
7. Liquid Fuels
• Liquid fuels are availabe in
the form of crude petroleum.
• Petroleum is mixture of
hydrocarbons that can be
grouped into the following 4
categories.
- paraffins(CnH2n+2)
-oleffins(CnH2n)
-Naphthalenes(CnH3n)
-Aromatics(CnH4n-2)
• The impurities present in the
crude oil are eliminated by the
process of distillation.
1. Gasoline-It is lightest liquid petroleum fraction.
•It is highly volatile in nature.
•Specific gravity=0.7.-0.78
•It is obtained between 65 and 2000C
•It is light yellow in colour.
•It is used as fuel in automobiles and aeroplanes.
•calorific value=47000
2. Diesel-It is obtained between 200 and 3700C.
•Calorific value=45500
•specific gravity=0.86-0.95
•It is used as fuel in automobiles and diesel
engines.
8. 3. Kerosene-It is obtained between 150 to 3000C.
•Specific gravity=0.78-0.85
•It is used in lamps,stoves, jet fuel and aviation gas
turbines.
Adavantages of liquid fuels
•They have high calorific value as compared to solid
fuels.
•higher combustion efficiency due to uniform mixing
of fuel and air.
•they burn without forming ash, smoke thud
eliminating ash disposal problem.
•They can be stored and handled easily.
Disadvantages of liquid fuels-
•Leakage loss during transportation and handling.
•highly volatile and easily vapourised.
Gaseous fuels-
1. Natural Gas-It mainly contains 85% metane(CH4) and
hydrogen (H2) along with small amounts of ethane and
ethylene.
•LPG(Liquified petroleum gas) is a mixture of propane and
butane.
2. Blast Furnace gas- It is obtained as by-product during
blast furnace operation.
•calorific value=3800-4200KJ/Kg
3.Producer gas- it is obtained by partial combustion coke and
coal in the presence of air and steam mixture..
•calorific value=5000-6800KJ/Kg.
•it is used in power generation.
4. Water gas-it is obtained by passing steam over candescent
coke.
•Calorific value=10500-2300KJ/Kg.
•It is used in welding and furnaces.
9. CALORIFIC VALUE
• The calorific value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat
(expressed in calories or kilo calories) liberated by the complete
combustion of unit weight (1gm or 1kg) of the fuel in air or oxygen,
with subsequent cooling of the products of combustion to the initial
temperature of the fuel.
10. CALORIFIC VALUES OF FUEL
1. Higher Calorific Value(HCV)
• It is the quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of unit weight of the fuel with subsequent
cooling of the products of combustion to the initial temperature of the fuel.
• As all fuel contains hydrogen, they produce water vapour during combustion.
• when products of combustion containing water vapours are cooled back to initial
(room) temperature, then all water vapours formed condenses and evolve latent heat.
this adds up to heat liberated by burning the fuel.
• HCV is calculated using Dulong's formula
HCV=1/100[33800C+144000(H-O/8)+9270S]KJ/Kg
11. Lower Calorific Value(LCV)-
• It is defined as the gross calorific value minus the latent heat of
condensation of water (at the initial temperature of the fuel), formed
by the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel.
• Lower heating value (LHV) of fuel refers to the enthalpy of combustion when all
the water (H2O) formed during combustion is in vapour form.
• In most combustion processes, the products of combustion(gas coming out od boiler chimney)
can not be cooled to its initial temperature. Thus water vapours do not condensesand latent
heat of water vapours is lost to the atmosphere The resultant heat liberated by the fuel
excludes latent heat of evaporation of water vapours is known as lower calorific value of
fuel.The heat lost to the atmosphere depends on evaporation pressure and amount of water
vapours formed.Due to difficulty in measuring evaporation pressure, it is assumed that
evaporation takes place at a saturation temperatire of 150C. The latent heat corresponding to
this saturation temperature is 2466KJ/Kg.
LCV= HCV- m* 2466 = HCV- 9H* 2466
• As one part of hydrogen by mass produces nine parts of water vapours by mass, the mass of
water vapours produced is 9H Where H is percentage of hydrogen by weight.
14. Bomb Calorimeter for determination of Calorific
Value of solid and liquid fuel
• It is used to measure the calorific value (CV) of solid as well
as liquid fuel. But to determine the CV of gas, one need to choose
Junker's calorimeter.
• Calorimeter contain thick walled cylindrical vessel and it consists of lid
which supports two electrodes which are in contact with fuse and fuel
sample of known weight.
• Lid also contain oxygen inlet valve through which high pressure oxygen
gas (at about 25 to 30 atm) is supplied.
• Entire lid with fuel sample is now held in a copper calorimeter containing
known weight of water. Mechanical stirrer is provided to stirred well for
uniform heating of water.
• A thermometer is also provided to measure the change in temperature of
water due to combustion of fuel in Lid
15. Bomb Calorimeter cont
• Procedure of bomb calorimeter experiment
A known quantity of fuel sample is added in crucible.
• Start the stirrer and not the initial temperature of water.
• Start current through crucible and let fuel sample to burn in
presence of oxygen.
• Heat release during combustion of fuel is taken by water and
temperature of it rises.
• Note final steady state temperature of water.
f
W
C
m
C
T
T
T
m
m
2
1
2
1
17. Combustion-
During combustion the energy is released by oxidation of fuel
elements such as carbon C, hydrogen H2 and sulphur S, i.e.
high temperature chemical reaction of these elements with
oxygen O2 (generally from air) releases energy to produce
high temperature gases.
These high temperature gases act as heat source.
18. Why Perform Combustion Analysis?
Combustion analysis to Improve Fuel Efficiency ,Reduce Emissions, Improve
Safety. It involves the measurement of gas concentrations, temperatures and
pressure for boiler tune-ups, emissions checks and safety improvements. Parameters
that are commonly examined
include:
• Oxygen (O2)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Exhaust gas temperature
• Supplied combustion air temperature
• Draft
• Nitric Oxide (NO)
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)
• Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
19. COMBUSTION OF FUEL
1. C + 02 → CO2
12kg C + 32kg 02 → 44 kg CO2
1kg C + 8/3 kg 02 → 11/3 kg CO2
2. 2H2 + 02 → 2H20
4 kg H2 + 32 kg 02 → 36 kg H20
1 Kg H2 + 8 kg 02 → 9 kg H20
3. S + 02 → SO2
32 kg S + 32 kg 02 → 64 kg SO2
1 kg S + 1 kg 02 → 2 kg SO2
20. 4. 2 C + 02 → 2 CO
24 kg C + 32 kg O2 → 56 kg CO
1 kg C + 4/3 KG 02 → 7/3 kg CO
5. 2 CO + 02 → 2 CO2
56 kg CO + 32 kg O2 → 88 CO2
1 kg CO + 4/7 kg O2 → 11/7 kg CO2
21. Atmospheric Air
•For the purposes of combustion calculations the composition of
air is approximated as a simple mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
by volume
•Oxygen 21% by volume
•Oxygen /23.3 by mass
• Nitrogen 79% by volume
• Nitrogen /76.7 by mass
21
22. Minimum air required to burn unit Kg of Fuel
• Minimum Oxygen required = [8/3 C +8 H2 + S -O2]=11.63kg/kg of fuel
•Minimum air required= 100/23[8/3 C +8 H2 + S -
O2]=11.63kg/kg of fuel
23. Theoretical air and Excess air
• Theoretical air : The minimum amount of air that supply sufficient
oxygen for the complete combustion of all the carbon ,hydrogen and
any other elements in the fuel that may be oxidize is called the
theoretical air
• Excess air : The excess air is the amount of air supplied over and above
the theoretical air .
• In practice it is found that complete combustion is not likely to achieve
unless the amount of air is some what greater than the theoretical
amount For example 150% theoretical air means that air actually
supplied is 1.5 times the theoretical air . Thus 150 percent theoretical
air is equivalent to 50% excess air.
24. Equivalence Ratio
• It is sometimes convenient to use term excess air ratio,
defined as:
/
/
actual A F ratio
stoichiometric A F ratio
24
25. Excess Air
• In practice it is impossible to obtain complete combustion under stoichiometric conditions.
Incomplete combustion is a waste of energy and it leads to the formation of carbon monoxide,
an extremely toxic gas, in the products.
• Excess air is expressed as a percentage increase over the stoichiometric
requirement and is defined by:
Excess air will always reduce the efficiency of a combustion system
25
/ /
100%
/
actual A F ratio stoichiometric A F ratio
stoichiometric A F ratio
26. Ultimate Analysis
It gives information about
• Chemical elements of coal
• Ash
• Moisture.
•We know that C + H + O + N + S + M + A = 100% by mass
For Example-
1. Bituminous Coal
C=81%, H2=5%, O2=8%, N2=1.5%, S=1%, Ash=3.5%
2. Anthracite Coal
C=91%, H2%=3, O2=2.5%, N2=0.5% , S=0.5%, Ash= 2.5%
27. Proximate Analysis
• It gives behavior of coal when heated.
• It indicates- percentage by weight of fixed carbon, volatile matter, ash and
moisture in coal.
• FC+VM+M+A = 100 % by mass
• Measurement of Moisture- When 1 gm of coal sample is heated for period of
1 hour at temperature of 1050C .Then loss of weight =Moisture content
• Volatile matter- When 1 gm sample of coal is heated for 7 minutes at
temperature of 9500C then loss of weight = volatime matter
• Measurement of Ash = when 1 gm of sample of coal is completely burnt then
remaining is ash.
• Measurement of fixed carbon-
FC = 100- (% of moisture + Volatile + Ash)
28. Adiabatic flame temperature:
•Temperature that could be attained by the products of
combustion when the combustion reaction is carried
out in limit of adiabatic operation of combustion
chamber.
•This is the maximum temperature which can be
attained in a combustion chamber .
29. •Enthalpy of Formation:
Enthalpy of formation of a compound is the energy
released or absorbed when compound is formed from its
elements at standard reference state.
•Enthalpy of Combustion:
Enthalpy of combustion of fuel is defined as the
difference between the enthalpy of the products and
enthalpy of reactants
30.
31. Standard Reference State
• It refers to thermodynamic state at which the enthalpy datum can be set
for study of reacting systems.
• At standard reference state, zero value is assigned arbitrarily to the
enthalpy of stable elements. Generally, standard reference state is taken
as 25°C and 1 atm.
Tref = 25°C = 298.15 K, Pref = 1 atm
32.
33. Dissociation:
• It refers to the combustion products getting dissociated and thus
absorbing some of energy. Such as, the case of carbon dioxide getting
formed during combustion and subsequently getting dissociated can be
explained as below
•Dissociation: Heat + CO2 → C + 02
• Combustion: C + 02 → CO2+ Heat
34. INTRODUCTION to flue gas analysis
To have proper control on combustion process, an idea about complete
or incomplete combustion of fuel is made by the analysis of flue
gas. Thus,
(i) if the gases contain considerable amount of carbon monoxide, it
indicates that incomplete combustion is occurring (i.e. considerable
wastage of fuel is taking flue).
Also indicates the short supply of oxygen for combustion
(ii) if the flue gases contain a considerable amount of oxygen, it
indicates the oxygen supply is in excess, though the combustion may
be complete.
The analysis of flue gases made with the help of ORSAT’S
APPARATUS.
39. CONSTRUCTION
The absorption bulbs have solutions for the absorption of CO2, O2 and CO respectively.
First bulb has ‘potassium hydroxide’ solution (250g KOH in 500mL of
boiled distilled water), and it absorbs only CO2.
Second bulb has a solution of ‘alkaline pyrogallic acid’ (25g pyrogallic
acid+200g KOH in 500 mL of distilled water) and it can absorb O2.
Third bulb contains ‘ammonical cuprous chloride’ (100g cuprous
chloride + 125 mL liquor ammonia+375 mL of water) and it can absorb
CO.
Hence, it is necessary that the flue gas is passed first through potassium
hydroxide bulb, where CO2 is absorbed, then through alkaline pyrogallic
acid bulb, when only O2 will be absorbed ( because CO2 has already
been removed) and finally through ammonical cuprous chloride bulb,
where only CO will be absorbed.
40. Volumetric and gravimetric analysis
•Volumetric Analysis: Combustion analysis when carried out
based upon percentage by volume of constituent reactants
and products is called volumetric analysis.
•Gravimetric analysis: Combustion analysis carried out based
upon percentage by mass of reactants and products is called
Gravimetric analysis.
41. Gravitational Analysis
Let us see how air required for complete burning of a fuel having 85.5% carbon,
12.3%hydrogen and 2.2% ash is calculated;
Mass of constituents
per kg of fuel (A)
Oxygen required per
kg of constituent (B)
Oxygen required per
kg of fuel (C) = (A) x
(B)
Mass of air required,
(theoretical, for air
having 23% oxygen,
77% nitrogen)
= ∑C x100/ 23
C = 0.855
H2 = 0.123
Ash = 0.022
8/3
8
2.28
0.984
= 3.264 x 100/23 =
14.19
∑(C) = 3.264
42. NUMERICAL 1 P.N0-72 HEGDE
1. The percentage composition of a fuel on mass basis is as
follows: C=90% , H2 = 3.5%, O2 =1% , S=0.5% and ash=5%
Calculate the
i) minimum air required for complete combustion of 1kg of fuel
ii) composition of dry flue gases on mass basis if 50 % excess
air is supplied.
solution-
minimum air required= 100/23[8/3C +8 H2 + S -
O2]=11.63kg/kg of fuel
43. Combustion Reactions
• CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
16 + 64 → 44 + 36 On mass basis
1 kg (CH4) + 4 kg (O2) → 11/ 4 kg (CO2) + 9 /4 kg (H2O) On mass basis
1 mol (CH4) + 2 mol (O2) 1 mol (CO2) + 2 mol (H2O)
On mole basis
44. Combustion Reactions
• 2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
60 + 224 → 176 + 108 On mass basis
1 kg (C2H6) + 56/15 kg (O2) → 44/15 kg (CO2) + 27/15 kg (H2O)
•2 mol (C2H6) + 7 mol (O2) → 4 mol (CO2) + 6 mol (H2O)
On mole basis
45. Volumetric Analysis
• In general, for any hydrocarbon’s complete combustion,
• a . C8H18 + b .O2 → d . CO2 + e . H2O
• Equating C, H and O on both sides of above equation,
• a x 8 = d or, d =8a
• a x 18 = e x 2 or, e =9a
• b x2 = (dx 2) + e or, 2b =2d + e,
• or 2x b = 16a + 9a
• Above yield, b = 12.5a, d = 8a, e = 9a
2 mol (C8H18) + 25 mol (O2) 16 mol (CO2) + 18 mol (H2O)