First Nation Entrepreneurship New Venture Creation, Motivationa

First Nation Entrepreneurship: New Venture Creation,
Motivation
and Business Model Canvas
Presented to the Faculty of Paris School of Business in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Executive Doctorate in
Business Administration
Brent Ramsay
Paris, France 2019
Defended October 21, 2019
DBA Supervisor: Thierry Burger-Helmchen
Committee Member: Emmanuel Muller
Committee Member: Octavio Escobar
COPYRIGHT PAGE

L’école n’entend donner ni approbation ni improbation aux
opinions émises dans les thèses. Ces écrits doivent être
considérés comme propres à leurs auteurs.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Brent Ramsay was born in Delisle, Saskatchewan, Canada. He
attended the University of Saskatchewan and graduated with a
B.A. Honors. He attended Simon Fraser University and
graduated with an MBA in Business Administration in 2016.
Brent is an Advanced Practitioner of the Association for

Conflict Resolution, a certified practitioner with the Academy
of Family Mediators, and an Approved Instructor with the
International Critical Incident Stress Foundation. He has
worked and consulted in numerous Indigenous communities. He
is presently a researcher and sessional lecturer with Simon
Fraser University. He began his doctoral studies at the Paris
School of Business in December 2016.
2
31
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to begin by acknowledging that the land on which
the majority of the information provided by Indigenous peoples

was in the unceded territory of the Coast Salish peoples,
including the territories of the xʷməθkwəy̓ əm (Musqueam),
Skwxwú7mesh (Squamish), and Səl̓ ílwətaʔ/Selilwitulh (Tsleil-
Waututh) Nations.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Biographical Sketch
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Diagrams

List of Abbreviations
Abstract
SECTION I:INTRODUCTION, DEFINITIONS &
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
Chapter One1
Introduction
Preface
Who are First Nations people?
Where should entrepreneurship research start?
Primary Dissertation Inquiry
Dissertation Roadmap
Chapter Overviews
Postface
Thesis Flowchart
Flowchart Annotations
Chapter Two13
Definitions and Conceptual Frameworks:
Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurs, New Venture Creation and
Motivation
Preface
Definitions
a. Entrepreneurship
b. Entrepreneurs
c. New Venture Creation
d. Motivation
Conceptual Frameworks
a. Four-Variable Framework for Describing New Venture
Creation
b. Organizational Emergence Model
c. Goal Setting Theory of Motivation
d. Other Frameworks
Conclusions

Postface
SECTION II: LITERATURE REVIEWS
Chapter Three28
Literature Review 1:
First Nation Entrepreneurship: Organization, Process,
Environment and Individual Motivation
Preface
Variable One and Two: Organization and Process
Inferred Entrepreneurship?
a. Membertou First Nation
b. Meadow Lake Tribal Council
c. Tahltan Nation
d. Essipit Innu First Nation
e. Westbank First Nation
Reality of First Nation On-reserve Entrepreneurship
Variable Three: Environment
a. Challenges to First Nation Entrepreneurship
b. Benefits of First Nation Entrepreneurship
Variable Four: Individual Motivations
Conclusions
Postface
Chapter Four81
Literature Review 2:
Entrepreneurial Motivation in Challenged Environments
Preface
Subset 1: Entrepreneurship and Poverty Alleviation Models
a. Community-Based Enterprise
b. Public Entrepreneurship
c. Opportunity type
d. Social Network Approach

e. Embedded Entrepreneurship
f. Three Social Entrepreneurship Models
g. Social-Founder Identity
h. Micros-enterprise Development
Outcomes
Subset 2. Indigenous Entrepreneurship Approaches (Outside of
Canada)
a. Indigenous Australian Entrepreneurs Examining Success
b. Social Capital and Networking
c. Indigenous Entrepreneurship, Culture & Micro-experience
d. Social Capital, Networking and Indigenous Entrepreneurs
e. Australian Indigenous Entrepreneurs: Motivations and
Commitment
Outcomes
Conclusions
Findings
Collateral Information: Filling the Previous Knowledge Gap
Postface
Thesis Progress
Research Questions and Next Steps
SECTION III: RESEARCH
Chapter Five108
Research 1:
New Venture Creation, Motivation, and First Nation
Entrepreneurs
Preface
Research Development and Design
a. Foundation, Theoretical Propositions, and Research Variables
b. Research Methodology
Data Analysis
a. Primary Motivators
b. Ranking of Motivators

c. Motivation and New Venture Creation
d. First Nation Business Models
e. First Nation Perception of Mainstream Entrepreneur
Motivations
Discussion
a. Primary Motivators
b. Ranking of Motivators
c. Motivation and New Venture Creation
d. First Nation Business Models
e. First Nation Perception of Mainstream Entrepreneur
Motivations
Conclusions
Postface
Limitations
Future Research
Next Steps
Chapter Six162
Research 2:
Business Model Canvas and First Nation Entrepreneurs
Preface
Research Methodology
Data Analysis
a. Business Model Canvas: Element Changes
b. Business Model Canvas: Pillar Changes
c. Business Model Canvas: Themes
Discussion
a. Business Model Canvas: Element and Pillar Changes
b. Business Model Canvas: Themes
c. A New Model for First Nation Entrepreneurs: Business Model
Circle
Conclusions
Postface
Limitations

Future Research
SECTION IV: CONCLUSIONS
Chapter Seven209
Thesis Conclusions
Preface
Research Inquiries
Key Findings
Postface
Limitations
Future Research
References
Appendix
Map of Canada with First Nations
Indian Act
Qualitative Instrument: Chapter 5 Focus Groups
Quantitative Survey Instrument: Chapter 5
Interview Records (A – L): Chapter 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Average Income Score, First Nations & Non-
Aboriginal Communities,
1981-2011 56
Table 2. CWB Component Scores, First Nations and Non-
Aboriginal Communities,
2011 57
Table 3. Condition of Environmental Characteristics of First
Nation Entrepreneurship 62

Table 4. Westbank First Nation Environmental Characteristics
and Conditions 63
Table 5. Aspects Important to On-Reserve First Nation
Entrepreneurship 71
Table 6. Aspects by Category of Importance to On-Reserve First
Nation
Entrepreneurship 73
Table 7. Community Poverty Alleviation Model and
Entrepreneurship
Goals/Processes 91
Table 8. Motivations of Indigenous Entrepreneurs 99
Table 9. Independent and Dependent Variables112
Table 10. First Nation Entrepreneur Motivator Importance by
Business Stage128
Table 11. Hypotheses: Change in motivation
(static/increase/decrease)146
Table 12. Business Model Changes per BMC Element and
Business Stage182
Table 13. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Key Resource Primary
Contributor (Knowledge)184
Table 14. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Busy with Growth
Combined Postlaunch186
Table 15. Quotations: Entrepreneurs with Businesses Closed189
Table 16. Quotations: Entrepreneurs with Businesses Open190
Table 17. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Prelaunch “help my
community” 193
Table 18. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Postlaunch < 2 Years “help
my community”194
Table 19. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Postlaunch > 2 Years “help
my community”195
Table 20. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Bringing Knowledge
Prelaunch198
Table 21. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Increasing Knowledge
Postlaunch < 2 Years199
Table 22. Quotations: Entrepreneurs Using Knowledge
Postlaunch > 2 Years199

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1Importance value comparison: Combined scores of
goal-setting
motivations of Indigenous community entrepreneurial initiatives
94
Figure 2 Importance value comparison: Combined scores of
goal-setting
motivations of Indigenous community entrepreneurial
initiatives102
Figure 3New venture creation motivators: interviews121
Figure 4Questionnaire percentages of primary motivators versus
other
Motivators121
Figure 5Questionnaire totals per motivator122
Figure 6Interview percentages of primary motivators versus
other motivators123
Figure 7Questionnaire ranking of First Nation entrepreneur
motivations125
Figure 8Interview rankings of First Nation entrepreneur
motivations125
Figure 9Motivators of First Nation entrepreneurs by business
stage127
Figure 10Importance-value of social good through business
stages129
Figure 11Importance-value of financial gain through business
stages129
Figure 12Importance-value of cultural support through business
stages130
Figure 13Importance-value of Nation Building through business

stages130
Figure 14Importance-value of joining business collective
through business stages131
Figure 15Importance-value of social networking through
business stages131
Figure 16Start-up business types of First Nation on-reserve
entrepreneurs133
Figure 17Business model intent of First Nation entrepreneurs
who know of sole
proprietorship 134
who know of
business collective135
who know of
social entrepreneurship136
Figure 20Intent to open social entrepreneurship136
Figure 21Intent to open sole proprietorship137
Figure 22Intent to open in business collective137
Figure 23Ranking of mainstream business motivators by First
Nation
Entrepreneurs139
Figure 24Comparison of primary motivators: First Nation and
mainstream
Entrepreneurs139
Figure 25Social gain: actual versus hypothesized importance-
value changes
Figure 26Financial gain: actual versus hypothesized importance-
value changes
Figure 27Nation Building: actual versus hypothesized
importance-value changes
Figure 28Cultural support: actual versus hypothesized

Figure 29Social networking: actual versus hypothesized
Figure 30Joining business collective: actual versus
hypothesized importance-value
changes through new venture creation stages151
Figure 31Social good - financial gain: comparative importance-
value changes
Figure 32Nation Building - cultural support: comparative
Figure 33Social networking - joining business collective:
comparative
importance-value changes through business stages153
Figure 34Total BMC changes per First Nation entrepreneur168
Figure 35Total BMC changes per Postlaunch stage by First
Nation entrepreneurs168
Figure 36Mean BMC changes in each business stage by First
Figure 37BMC element changes Postlaunch < 2 Years + > 2
Years by First Nation entrepreneurs170
Figure 38BMC element changes Postlaunch < 2 Years of First
Figure 39BMC element changes Postlaunch > 2 Years of First
Figure 40Comparison of BMC element changes per Postlaunch
stage (bar graph)171
Figure 41Comparison of BMC element changes per Postlaunch
stage (line graph)172
Figure 42Closed vs open businesses: combined mean postlaunch
stages BMC
element changes173
Figure 43Closed vs open businesses: separated postlaunch
stages mean BMC

element changes173
Figure 44Sector experience: Business closures > 4 years First
Figure 45Percentages of First Nation entrepreneurs with
backgrounds in their
new venture sectors175
Figure 46Combined postlaunch BMC changes per pillar
(totals)176
Figure 47BMC total changes per pillar Postlaunch stages
combined176
Figure 48BMC element changes per pillar: Postlaunch < 2
Years versus
> 2 Years177
Figure 49Open First Nation businesses: Changes per pillar
Postlaunch < 2 Years177
Figure 50Open First Nation businesses: Changes per pillar
Postlaunch > 2 Years178
Figure 51Total references per BMC theme179
Figure 52Number of BMC references during Prelaunch stage179
Figure 53Number of BMC references during Postlaunch < 2
Years stage181
Figure 54Number of BMC references during Postlaunch > 2
Years stage182
Figure 55“Help my community” theme: References per business
stage182
Figure 56“Financial concerns/action” theme: References per
business stage183
Figure 57 Mean entrepreneur BMC pillar changes per element
188
Figure 58“Help my community” theme: References and
comments per business
Stage196

LIST OF DIAGRAMS
Diagram 1. Thesis Flowchart10
Diagram 2. Framework for Describing New Venture Creation 19
Diagram 3. Variables in New Venture Creation 20
Diagram 4. Native Nations Model of Action21
Diagram 5. Organization Emergence and Creation Process 23
Diagram 6. Cycles of Entrepreneurial Activity 23
Diagram 7. Goal-setting Theory of Motivation24
Diagram 8. Mean Tendency Framework for Methodological Fit
113
Diagram 9. Indigenous Research Paradigm 117
Diagram 10. Business Model Canvas (BMC) 163
Diagram 11. Business Model Circle (BMCI) 205

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BMCBusiness Model Canvas
BMCIBusiness Model Circle
CBECommunity-Based Enterprise
CCABCanadian Council for Aboriginal Business
CWBCommunity Well-Being Index
EIFNEssipit Innu First Nation
EMESEmergence of Social Enterprises in Europe
FNFirst Nation
HDIHuman Development Index
IBAImpact Benefit Agreement
MBAMaster of Business Administration
MFNMembertou First Nation
MLTCMeadow Lake Tribal Council
NGONon-government Organization
PREPPYProfessional Readiness Employee Preparation Program
for Youth
RCAPRoyal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples
SWOTStrength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat Analysis
TN Tahltan Nation
WFNWestbank First Nation
ABSTRACT
Poverty and economic disadvantage issues are prevalent in First
Nation communities. Indigenous entrepreneurship is an
underdeveloped but potential resource to expand and enhance
economic development, self-reliance and quality of life for First
Nation citizens. This thesis aims to fill gaps of knowledge that
exist in the field of Indigenous entrepreneurial goals, drivers

and motivations, and thereby contribute beneficially towards
citizen member needs, community prosperity, and Nation
building aspirations of Indigenous peoples.
The thesis contains two separate literature reviews. Literature
Review 1 establishes that while an especially difficult business
environment exists in First Nation communities, there is a
paucity of research regarding First Nation entrepreneurship.
Literature Review 2 provides collateral information from two
different entrepreneurial population segments that identify
potential motivators for First Nation entrepreneurship research.
The thesis consists of two research undertakings, both using
terms and conceptual frameworks found suitable for First
Nation entrepreneurial research. Utilizing a mixed sequenti al
research methodology with seventy-six FN entrepreneurs
Research 1 determines the primary motivators of FN
entrepreneurs and their importance rankings, as well as how the
motivators change through business phases. Research 2, in
response to a recommendation from Research 1, examines
further aspects of FN entrepreneurship through a qualitative
research approach framed by Business Model Canvas with
twelve FN entrepreneurs. Rationales for changes in goal -setting
motivations and business decisions in new venture creation are
determined, and a new, adaptive model, Business Model Circle
(BMCI), is developed for potential use by First Nation
entrepreneurs and researchers. The thesis ends with statements
on the research limitations and future research
recommendations.
SECTION I:INTRODUCTION, DEFINITIONS &
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
Preface. Economic disadvantages and issues of poverty exist in
many First Nation communities. To help overcome these oft
cited realities (Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, 2011,

2012, 2015; Joseph, 2019; Miller, 2012; Champagne, 2015;
Thrush, 2017; Cornell, 2007) First Nation (FN) small business
entrepreneurship is one opportune, but still underdeveloped,
resource towards economic development, poverty alleviati on
and quality of life improvement by First Nation citizens. More
recently, despite what had previously been identified as a
woeful shortage of these businesses (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record
& Timeche, 2007), First Nation entrepreneurship is now surging
(Curran, 2018), and has even begun to outpace non-Indigenous
mainstream Canada entrepreneurial growth (Callihoo & Bruno,
2016). More and more Indigenous peoples are pursuing
entrepreneurial opportunities and ventures (Clarkson, 2017).
With the increasing numbers and successes of First Nation
entrepreneurs planning businesses, creating and developing new
ventures, and expanding their enterprises, the time is propitious
to learn more about their business methods, motivations,
processes, environments, and strategies. Research may provide
new information, understanding and models contributing to
future First Nation small business development (and other
Indigenous peoples and minorities) in their quest to strengthen
communities and overcome existing economic disadvantages.
The overarching purpose of this dissertation is adding new
knowledge towards these purposes.
But who are First Nations people, and where should
entrepreneurship research start?
Who are First Nations people? First Nations people are the
predominant Aboriginal people of the three Aboriginal groups
in Canada (First Nation, Inuit, and Metis). Aboriginals are one
of the fastest growing demographic groups in Canada, having
risen from 740,500 in 2010 to 911,700 in 2016. They are also a
young population: Aboriginal children 14 years of age and
lower make up 28.0% of the total Aboriginal population
whereas this age group is only 7.0% of all children for the rest
of Canada. (Statistics Canada Data Census, 2016). Aboriginal
people own, as well as control, 20% of the Canada land mass,
and that percentage is expected to increase to 30% by 2031

(Cooper, 2016).
Throughout the world there are many Aboriginal or Indigenous
people (the terms Aboriginal and Indigenous are used
interchangeably), of which First Nations in Canada are one
people. An example of another North American Indigenous
group, native Americans, refers to the Indigenous people of the
United States. Examples from outside North American include
the Māori, Indigenous people of New Zealand, and the
Australian Aborigine, Indigenous people of Australia. There are
also typically numerous subcategories of Indigenous people
within each of the larger worldwide groups.
Across Canada, there are 634 First Nations bands or
governments (see Appendix: Map of Canada with First Nations),
with a membership population of 977,235 citizens out of
Canada’s total population of 34,060,465, representing 2.9 % of
the country’s overall population (Statistics Canada Data Census,
2016). In 2011 45.3% of the First Nation population lived “on-
reserve”, and the remaining 54.7% lived “off-reserve”
(Statistics Canada, 2011); The 2016 Canadian census did not
provide a comparative statistic for this variable as it was
significantly affected by incomplete enumerations of certain
settlements and reserves (Statistics Canada Data Census, 2016),
but estimates remain at 46% living on-reserve and 54% off-
reserve A “reserve” is the term used for each of the more than
3,100 tracts of land identified under the Indian Act and treaty
agreements for the exclusive use of a First Nation band or
government. First Nation entrepreneurs are those citizen
members who establish and operate their independently owned
businesses, usually small or micro-enterprises, typically on
First Nation reserves and/or territories[footnoteRef:1]. First
Nation businesses that are located off reserve land are
sometimes referred to as “off-reserve businesses and
enterprises”. The primary focus of this thesis is First Nation
communities and First Nation entrepreneurs who self-identify as
having businesses “on-reserve” or “on-territory”. These small
business operations are also distinct from First Nation band-

owned enterprises, businesses and economic initiatives that are
often, but not necessarily, of a larger scale. The terms “citizen
entrepreneurs”, “on-reserve entrepreneurs”, and “First Nation
small business entrepreneurs” are regarded as synonymous with
First Nation members who independently own and operate
private business enterprises. [1: “Territory in this dissertation
refers to both Treaty territory (land defined by negotiations and
usually designated cartographically), and Traditional territory
(land used and occupied by First Nations but not defined by
Treaty).]
Where should entrepreneurship research start? Entrepreneurship
and new venture creation are very broad subjects: how do we
define and conceptualize these topics for the purpose of our
research? There are many related terms and aspects: economic
development, small and medium businesses, opportunity,
embeddedness, partnerships, client segments, crowdsourcing,
startup costs, nascent and experienced entrepreneurs, social
entrepreneurship, risk management, cost structures, key
resources and activities, revenue streams, profit margins, and
much, much more. And furthermore, what do we already know
about First Nation entrepreneurship? What specifically are any
challenges and advantages facing these entrepreneurs? What
constitutes success in new venture creation? What are the most
likely causes of their business failures and business successes?
What motivates and drives these entrepreneurs to be successful
in overcoming challenges? What can we learn that adds to
existing knowledge of First Nation entrepreneurship: business
planning, processes, decisions, and development? How are
business plans developed, followed and pivoted from? The
possible questions around entrepreneurship, and First Nation
entrepreneurs, are many and numerous.
Given the increasing development, and subsequent interest in
First Nation business development including specifically
entrepreneurship, this focus of this dissertation is on
determining what knowledge presently exists on First Nation

entrepreneurs, what drives and motivates them, and what models
and frameworks are conducive to the research and development
of First Nation new venture creation.
Primary Dissertation Inquiry. This dissertation is impelled by
four key questions:
1. In this research, what do we mean by entrepreneurship,
entrepreneurs, new venture creation and motivation?
2. What knowledge exists regarding First Nation
entrepreneurship: the entrepreneurs and their organizations,
processes, environments and motivations? (Chapter Three)
3. Specifically, what are the goal-setting motivators driving
First Nation entrepreneurs in new venture creation, and how do
these drivers change through business stages? (Chapter Four and
Five)
4. What can we learn about, and add to the knowledge of, First
Nation entrepreneurship through Business Model Canvas?
(Chapter Six)
Dissertation Roadmap. To answer these questions, the roadmap
and journey followed through the four sections of this study and
dissertation on First Nation entrepreneurship will be:
(a) framed by the definitions and conceptual schemas of Chapter
Two;
(b) impacted in Chapter Three by limitations of information and
research on First Nation entrepreneurs’ new venture creation
motivations and goals. This leads to a deeper and wider scan for
analogous, transferable information achieved in the following
chapter;
(c) extended into collateral literature reviews in Chapter Four: i.
International poverty alleviation models ii. Indigenous
community entrepreneurship approaches, which determine goals
and motivators applicable to First Nation entrepreneurs for
research in Chapter Five;
(d) researched via a mixed method sequential design in Chapter
Five to determine First Nation entrepreneurs’: (a) primary
motivators and their rankings; (b) changes in motivators
occurring through three new venture creation business stages

(Prelaunch; Postlaunch < 2 Years; Postlaunch > 2 Years);
(e) i. investigated further in Chapter Six research by utilizing
the Business Model Canvas framework in a qualitative study
towards deeper understandings of First Nation entrepreneurs’
processes, change decisions and dynamics during new venture
creation business stages;
ii. enhanced in Chapter Six with the emergence of an adapted
business development model more aligned with First Nation
entrepreneurial goals, motivations and values.
(f) concluded in Chapter Seven with the presentation of key
findings, dissertation conclusions, recommendations, and
limitations.
Chapter Overviews. This chapter is devoted to introducing the
topic areas, and the population group. It briefly summarizes the
upcoming chapters and adumbrates the dissertation path which
commences with Chapter Two.
Chapter Two explores and provides definitions and conceptual
frameworks used throughout the dissertation for four terms that
will be utilized in this study: “entrepreneurship”,
“entrepreneurs”, “new venture creation”, and “motivation”.
Numerous definitions for these aspects exist, and to establish
consistency in research it becomes important for entrepreneurial
based studies to express as clearly and specifically as possible
the ascriptions and usages of key terms in studies
(Gartner,1988; 1990; 2016). Motivation is seen as especially
important given that entrepreneurship theory development
requires consideration regarding entrepreneurs’ motivations and
drivers as they make organizational decisions about their
processes and strategies (Shane, Locke and Collins, 2012).
Finally, since entrepreneurship does not remain static, but is
active and dynamic, Chapter Two also presents conceptual
frameworks relevant for discussing and understanding
entrepreneurial processes (motivatio ns and actions) across time
and through business stages; It also establishes the structure for
the literature review of Chapter Three.
Chapter Three undertakes a preliminary literature review by

examining First Nation entrepreneurship within the definitions
and frameworks set out in Chapter Two. The literature review is
delineated into key entrepreneurial elements of “organization”,
“process”, “environment and context”, and “individual
motivations” in accordance with W.B. Gartner’s “Four Variable
Framework for Describing new Venture Creation” (Gartner,
1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner,
1988). A scarcity of information on First Nation citizen
entrepreneurs is found, especially vis-à-vis organization and
process. While overall, a large portion of the literature review
information found is deficit based, focusing on the significant
challenges of poverty, infrastructure and lack of capital as
environment contexts experienced by First Nation businesses in
their communities, five examples of First Nation communities
with entrepreneurship activities are presented. It is also
determined that there is a dearth of research available on the
motivations driving First Nation entrepreneurial new venture
creation. Having identified gaps through the preliminary
literature review, Chapter Three recommends additional
literature reviews in a hunt for collateral information on
entrepreneurial motivations with population segments that have
business environment and background similarities with First
Nation entrepreneurs. An extended search, undertaken in
Chapter Four, may provide transferable information towards
understanding First Nation goal-setting motivations.
Chapter Four, as a follow-up to Chapter Three is comprised of
the two final literature reviews and fills gaps in knowledge on
First Nation entrepreneurial motivations. Both reviews target
the drivers of international entrepreneurs with backgrounds or
environments similar with First Nations. It is hoped this
collateral information will be transferable to a better
understanding of First Nation entrepreneurs, not only help to
fill the gaps found in the preliminary literature review of
Chapter Three, but to assist in the development of theoretical
propositions and research questions. In Chapter Four, the first
literature review is based on economically disadvantaged

communities- something common to many First Nation
communities. It investigates the entrepreneurial goal-setting
motivators of ten different international poverty alleviation
models. The second literature review, based on international
Indigenous communities, examines the motivations of five
different entrepreneurship based economic development models
from Indigenous peoples of Alaska, Hawaii, New Zealand,
Samoa and Australia. A comparison of the two literature review
groups determines motivational similarities, differences and
gaps. The findings then are used as the basis for the First
Nation entrepreneurship study conducted in Chapter Five.
Chapter Five, in response to collateral information that has
filled in gaps of knowledge found in the two literature reviews
of Chapter Four, produces the theoretical propositions, research
questions and variables for a study on the motivations and
dynamics of First Nation entrepreneurs. A mixed method
sequential research is strategized to: (a) confirm the primary
motivators of First Nation entrepreneurs; (b) establish the
motivators’ importance rankings; (c) assess and understand the
changes in motivation that occur through business stages (d)
determine the categories of entrepreneurship ventures started or
intended to start by First Nation entrepreneurs; (e); increase
knowledge about social entrepreneurship in relation to First
Nations; (e) compare perceptions First Nation entrepreneurs
have between their own entrepreneurial motivations and of their
mainstream society entrepreneurial counterparts. In the study,
twelve experienced First Nation entrepreneurs are interviewed,
and sixty-four First Nation entrepreneurs in differing phases of
new venture creation respond to a questionnaire. While the
research in Chapter Five provides additional knowledge to the
research inquiries, it also produces an important unanswered
question as to why the motivations change through business
stages. Chapter Five recommends a follow-up study, completed
in Chapter Six, to learn more about First Nation entrepreneurial
dynamics and changes through business startup and
development stages.

Chapter Six follows up on the outcomes and questions generated
in Chapter Five by conducting a further study on First Nation
entrepreneurship: Business Model Canvas (BMC) is used as a
framework and visual template for gathering information. This
qualitative research is based on interviews with twelve separate
First Nation entrepreneurs who have created new ventures into
at least a fourth year. The interviews are coded, and emerging
themes determined in order to explore and better understand
changes undertaken by the First Nation entrepreneurs during the
business phases of Prelaunch, Postlaunch < 2 Years, and
Postlaunch > 2 Years. As well, the elements and structure of
Business Model Canvas are explored in relation to the dynamics
found in First Nation entrepreneurial processes with an eye
towards creating an adapted business development model more
suitable for First Nation entrepreneurs.
Chapter Seven, as the final chapter, summates the learning and
conclusions of the dissertation, explains the limitations of the
study, and offers recommendations for future First Nation
entrepreneurial research.
Postface.
Thesis Flowchart.
A visual overview of the thesis chapters, process and stages is
presented in a thesis flowchart (Diagram 1). Also note the
flowchart annotations following the thesis flowchart.
Diagram 1. Thesis Flowchart.
SECTION IV
CONCLUSIONS
CHAPTER SEVEN: Dissertation Conclusions
SECTION III
RESEARCH
CHAPTER FIVE: Research 1 (New Venture Creation,
Motivation, and First Nation Entrepreneurs)

CHAPTER SIX: Research 2 (Business Model Canvas and First
Nation Entrepreneurs)
CHAPTER SIX
SECTION II
LITERATURE REVIEWS
CHAPTER THREE: Literature Review 1 (First Nation
Entrepreneurship: Organization, Process,
Environment and Individual Motivation)
CHAPTER FOUR: Literature Review 2 (Entrepreneurial
Motivation in Challenged Environments)
CHAPTER FOUR: Literature Review 2 (
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION, DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORKS
CHAPTER ONE: Introduction
CHAPTER TWO: Definitions and Conceptual
Frameworks:Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurs, New
Venture Creation and Motivation

Flowchart Annotations
Section I
Why are the definitions and conceptual frameworks important to
the thesis?
Given the numerous and varying definitions that exist in
entrepreneurship research, studies in the field need to clearly
articulate one’s understanding of the terms and paradigms
utilized in conducting research processes (Gartner 1989, 1990).
Section I sets functional definitions and conceptual schemas for
use in the thesis that are broad yet distinct enough to
characterize and describe the population group of research: First
Nation entrepreneurs. Section I prepares and delineates the
language and schemas that frame Section II.
Section II
Why are two literature reviews completed?
Literature Review 1 (Chapter Three) and Literature Review 2
(Chapter Four) are closely linked. Literature Review 1
determined a lack of information and research on First Nation
entrepreneurs, especially regarding their motivations and
drivers, a key aspect of the thesis. To help fill this knowledge
gap, Literature Review 2 sought collateral information on
motivational drivers through the examination of similar
entrepreneurial population groups to First Nation entrepreneurs.
As a result of the two literature reviews, potential motivators in
First Nation entrepreneurship were ultimately identified.
Section II shapes and formulates the foundation for the
theoretical propositions and inquiries of research undertaken in

Section III.
Section III
Why are two researches undertaken?
Research 1 (Chapter Five) and Research 2 (Chapter Six) are
allied investigations into First Nation entrepreneurial
motivations, processes and decisions. Research 2 is a follow -up
to recommendations that emerged from Research 1 for further
examination on changes in goal-setting motivations through new
venture creation stages effected by First Nation entrepreneurs.
Section IV
What are principal outcomes and conclusions of the thesis?
(a) Definitions and conceptual frameworks suitable for
Indigenous entrepreneurial new venture creation, development
and study are established;
(b) The primary goal-setting motivations of First Nation
entrepreneurs are determined;
(c) An understanding of how and why First Nation
entrepreneurial motivations change through new venture
creation business phases is developed;
(d) A new business design and model, Business Model Circle
(BMCI), is created that is more adapted and suited to First
Nation entrepreneurs and their organizations, processes and
environments;
(e) Recommendations for future research are provided.
CHAPTER TWO
Definitions and Conceptual Framework

Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurs, New Venture Creation and
Motivation:
Preface.This chapter presents the working definitions and
conceptual frameworks employed in the thesis. The terms and
models will help bounder, delineate and describe the process
and motivations of First Nation entrepreneurs referred to in the
previous chapter. Well-defined, pragmatic definitions are
important in this work given the numerous and varying terms
and meanings at play in the field.
The ultimate purpose of ascertaining frameworks and clarity of
terms is to provide focus and circumscription for the upcoming
literature reviews of Chapter Three and Four, as well as the
First Nation entrepreneurship research of Chapters Five and Six.
In the present chapter, the terms “entrepreneurship”,
“entrepreneurs”, “new venture creation” and “motivation” are
defined, and then are coupled to dynamic conceptual
frameworks incorporating aspects of business phases, time,
interaction and motivational drivers: (a) “Four-Variable
Framework for Describing New Venture Creation” (Gartner,
1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner,
1988) ; (b) “Organizational Emergence Model” (Gartner, Bird,
& Starr, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush, 2007); (c)
“Goal Setting Theory of Motivation” (Locke & Latham, 1984,
1990, 1991).
Definitions.
What makes these four terms so relevant to this study:
entrepreneurship, entrepreneurs, new venture creation and
motivation? The answer can be summarized in the following
two sentences (terms highlighted). Just as economic
development is critical towards meeting the poverty alleviation
needs of First Nation people experiencing economic
disadvantages, so is entrepreneurship critical to economic
development. For entrepreneurship to occur, it must be initiated
and piloted by entrepreneurs engaged in the entrepreneurial
processes and stages of new venture creation, all the while

being driven by goals and motivations towards success.
(a) Entrepreneurship. There a numerous variations and contexts
for defining and describing “entrepreneurship” in the literature.
Howard Stevenson (1983) explained entrepreneurship as the
process by which individuals pursue opportunities beyond
resources they currently control. This definition was supported
by Eisenman (2013) who underlined the importance of:
“pursuit” (singular, relentless focus); “opportunity” (in
innovation, new business models, cheaper and better products,
and targeting new customers); “beyond resources controlled”
(constraints on resources whereby founders control only their
own human, social, and financial capital). Shane and
Venkataraman (2010) defined entrepreneurship as a scholarly
examination of how, what and whom effects discovery,
evaluation and exploitation opportunities for creating future
goods and services. Zimmerer and Scarborough (1998) defined
entrepreneurship as “a new business in the face of risk and
uncertainty for the purpose of achieving profit and growth by
identifying opportunities and assembling the necessary
resources to capitalize on them”. Gartner saw entrepreneurship
through the lens of the creation of new organizations (Gartner,
1988), and noted a research tendency among studies on
entrepreneurship to consider two viewpoints, focusing on either
the characteristics or the outcomes of entrepreneurship. Smilor
(1997) provided a definition focusing on disruption, whereby
entrepreneurship is regarded as a subversive activity, upsetting
the status quo, unpredictable, chaotic, and disrupting the usual
way of doing things. It is an undermining process on current
market conditions through the introduction of something new in
response to perceived needs. It is dynamic and can be thought
of as creative destruction creating new market opportunities and
initiating changes and creating new values. Hindle (2011)
viewed entrepreneurship as processes of evaluating, committing
to and achieving the creation of new value from new knowledge
for the benefit of defined stakeholder. Wenneker and Thurik
(1999) defined entrepreneurship as the ability to identify and

create new opportunities, products, production, and
organizational schemes in the face of obstacles and
uncertainties by making decisions on resource usage. One
explanation for the variety of definitions may be the number of
different disciplines studying entrepreneurship, such as
psychology, sociology, economics, and management, and
varying disciplines being prone to differing descriptions and
definitions relative to their specific perspectives or contexts
(Nielsen & Lassen, 2012). There is no simple answer, and no
one answer to defining entrepreneurship. Rather, there are many
facets to the broad phenomenon called entrepreneurship, just as
there are many entrepreneurships in terms of scope, focus,
definition and paradigm (Steyart and Hjorth, 2003). Bird and
Schjoedt (2009) pointed out that entrepreneurship is not an
event nor an outcome, but rather a process occurring over time.
Steyart (2007) suggested the term “entrepreneuring” as a more
effective description of the process phenomenon.
Gartner stresses that while there is no agreed upon definition of
entrepreneurship, it is important for researchers to “say what
they mean” and articulate their understanding of what
entrepreneurship is (Gartner, 1988; 1990; 2016). For the
purpose of this thesis, entrepreneurship is understood as “the
broad field, endeavor and journey of entrepreneuring process,
which includes the intent, motivation, volition and action to
create, launch and operate a business organization as a new
venture offering services or products in order to achieve some
goal(s) within a given context or environment”.
(b) Entrepreneur. How do we define “entrepreneur”?
Schumpeter (1965) defined entrepreneurs economically as
“individuals who exploit market opportunity through technical
and/or organizational innovation”. Hisrich (1990) characterized
entrepreneurs as individuals demonstrating both initiative and
creative thinking and being able “to organize social and
economic mechanisms to turn resources and situations to
practical account and accepts risk and failure”. Bolton and
Thompson (2000) saw entrepreneurs as people who created and

innovated “in order to build something of recognized value
around perceived opportunities”. Carter, Gartner and Reynolds
(1996) defined “nascent” entrepreneurs as “individuals who
were identified as taking steps to fund a new business but who
had not yet succeeded in making the transition new business
ownership”. Determining a common definition of entrepreneur
is not only elusive, but can also be controversial (Gartner,
1989).
This work utilizes an adapted definition of “entrepreneur”,
developed by the thesis researcher from existing definitions.
The definition is explicated in tandem with his earlier definition
of entrepreneurship: “an individual engaged in the broad field,
endeavor, and journey of entrepreneuring process, which
includes the intent, motivation, volition and action to create,
launch and operate a business organization as a new venture
offering services or products in order to achieve some goal(s)
within a given context or environment”.
(c) New Venture Creation. What is meant by “new venture
creation”? And how is new venture creation distinguished from
entrepreneurship? There are varying perspectives in the
literature for this important distinction. Entrepreneurship is
seen by a number of researchers as a broader concept
(Klyver,2011; Kim & Aldrich, 2011; Fayolle, 2011), describing
a dynamic process of vision, change, creation, topics and
meanings, whereas for other researchers new venture creation
represents the establishment of a new organization (Terjersen,
Elam, & Bush, 2011; Legge, 2011). Still other researchers
consider new venture creation and entrepreneurship as
synonymous phenomena, particularly in the frame of classic
economic theory (Sundbo, 2011). Mulej and Rebernik (2011)
regard the search for differences between the concepts as being
not particularly meaningful unless research achieves a better
consensus for productive paradigms and models in the field.
Gartner supported this reasoning and advised that it is
paramount for researchers to say what they mean regarding
entrepreneurship, and to explain the paradigms and frameworks

to be used (Gartner, 1989, 1990).
So, what will be the working definition for “new venture
creation”? New venture creation, for the purposes of this study,
is defined as both the “result” and the “process” of an
entrepreneur’s effort to create a new entrepreneurship. This
inclusive definition ensure that our discussion omits neither the
business itself that is created, nor the creation activities
undertaken by the entrepreneur.
(d) Motivation.What do we mean by “motivation”? The
development of entrepreneurship theory requires consideration
of the motivations of individuals who make decisions about
entrepreneurial processes and activities (Shane, Locke and
Collins, 2012). Examples of entrepreneurial motivations are
many and varied: commercial, social, self, and other (Ruskin,
Seymour and Webster, 2016); contextual and situational
(Chedli, 2016); desire for money, desire for recognition,
accomplishment, power, affiliation (Hornaday and Bunket,
1970); independence, egoistic passion, need for achievement,
risk-taking, locus of control (Shane, Locke, & Collins 2012).
This thesis is not an in-depth exploration of psychological,
behavioral or emotional motivation, nor does it seek to compile
and evaluate multiple nuances and contexts in meaning. The
word is thought to have been modelled after the French motiver
or German motivieren, “to stimulate to action” (Online
Etymology Dictionary, 2017). In this sense, as a response to a
stimulus, for this work motivation is understood and defined as
“an individual’s inner-driven or external-driven goal stimulus
for an action”. Using this definition, we see that motivation
meets entrepreneurship in the study as follows: the “individual”
would refer to the First Nation entrepreneur, the “inner-driven
or external-driven stimulus” refers to the entrepreneur’s
motivational goals, purposes, needs, and personal drivers
(internal) in a given environment (external), while the “actions”
are the entrepreneurial processes and business organization
activities throughout the prelaunch and postlaunch stages
involved in new venture creation.

But definitions tend to be static. Entrepreneurship, when
activated in the real world, comes into life, engages the
environment, and is prone to adapt, change and pivot. In this
study, in order to better understand the inherent dynamism
exhibited by the key elements of entrepreneurship, the terms are
contextualized into conceptual frameworks to become more
“operable” or “workable” in future chapters.
Conceptual Frameworks
The key conceptual frameworks used in this research are: “Four
Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Emergence”
(Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper, 1989; Katz
& Gartner, 1988); “Organizational Emergence Model (Gartner,
Bird, & Starr, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush, 2007);
“Goal Setting Theory of Motivation” (Locke and Latham, 1990,
1991). We will examine them one at a time.
a. Gartner’s Four Variable Framework.Gartner’s model of “Four
Variable Framework for Describing New Venture Emergence”
(see Diagram 2) is a useful and straight forward paradigm with
four primary elements encompassing the creation of a new
venture: the individual
Diagram 2. Gartner’s framework for describing new venture
emergence
Individuals
Emergence of new venture
Environ
ment
Organiza
tions
Process

entrepreneur, the organization, the entrepreneurial process, and
the environment the entrepreneur starts up and operates in. For
Gartner, entrepreneurship “involves diversity among kinds of
individuals, firms, environments, and processes. There is no one
type of entrepreneur, no one type of startup, no one type of
entrepreneurial environment, and no way that organizations
come into existence” (Gartner, 2016). Specifically, he
maintained that new venture emergence: (a) emphasized
individuals (and their expertise) as a key element; (b)
recognized new ventures as organization entities; (c) stressed
that the new venture was a process evolving through time and
phases; (d) exists within the context of its environment (see
Diagram 2 and Diagram 3) The elements of Gartner’s
framework are supported by the native nations “model of
action” (Cornell, Jorgensen, Kalt & Contreras, 2007) that
hypothesizes economic enterprise, and other
Diagram 3. Gartner’s Variables in New Venture Emergence
interpretations of external (environment) and internal
(individuals and organizations) situations (see Diagram 4). In
fact, Gartner, in a later study, also researched cognitive factors
in enterprise start-up actions, including internal and external
reasons for getting into business, plus their effect on persistence
of entrepreneurial behavior (Gartner, Gatewood & Shaver,
1995).
Diagram 4. Native Nations Model of Action
External Situation
(political, legal, economic)
Action
or

Inaction
Internal Situation
(people, skills, organization, money, etc. that the Nation can
use)
Interpretations
(how people interpret their situations)
Individuals, Organization, Environment, and Process. The
multidimensional aspects of new venture creation interact
across the four elements or dimensions: the individual who is
starting the new business organization; the environment or
context and situation that surrounds and
influences the new venture; the process, or actions undertaken
by the individual; the organization itself, including
characteristics, focus, and type. The intention of the individual
entrepreneur- for example their purpose and goals, is the
motivating genesis of the organizing and entrepreneurial
process for new venture creation (Katz & Gartner, 1988;
Gartner, 2016).
Gartner likened the framework to a kaleidoscope, an instrument
for observing the complex phenomenon of new venture
creation’s changing and varying patterns (Gartner, 1985). Since
there are many different types of entrepreneurs, and many
different entrepreneuring processes and actions, so the business
organizations would be expected to vary tremendously, as well
as the environments in which their creation and operation
occurs. Variations and examples for each of the four variables
are pointed out by Gartner (See Diagram 3) and are not meant to

be all-inclusive. The value of the framework is the provision of
a systematic means for conceptualizing, describing and
contrasting business ventures. It outlines a framework for
research and is the schema and conceptual framework guiding
the thesis.
Gartner’s Organizational Emergence Model: Gartner explained
organizational emergence (Gartner, Bird, & Starr, 1992; Gartner
& Brush, 2007) as a preliminary phase of organization creation
activities unfolding over time (see Diagram 5). Emergence
activities begin before the organization itself exists (i.e. has
entered the newness phase) which includes activities of
initiation, start-up and take off. Other terms typically used in
the literature for this period of time include preorganization,
gestation, organization in vitro, and inception. An organization
is founded once there is an appearance of a start-up, for
example an incorporation, business license, commencing of
sales, or other indicators. If the transition from idea to existence
takes place, the organization has now entered the newness
phase, also
Diagram 5. Organization Emergence and Creation Process
EMERGENCE
NEWNESS
ENACTMENT
RETENTION
SELECTION
TRANSFORMATION
sometimes referred to as survival and success, founding,
expansion, survival and stability, or growth and direction. Both

the emergence and newness phases are dynamic cycles of
activity. Following founding, organizational transformation
phases begin to take place. These are profound and potentially
revitalizing changes or new directions which may or may not be
realized.
Prelaunch and Postlaunch. Embedded in the developmental
process model of emergence-Diagram 6. Cycles of
Entrepreneurial Activity
Organization emergence
Sales
Time
Postlaunch
Prelaunch
Takeoff
Startup
Initiation
newness-transformation categorizations are the stages of
prelaunch and postlaunch (Gartner, 1993).In keeping with
Gartner’s static four variable model of describing new venture
creation, the individual (entrepreneur) engages in the
emergence-newness-transformation process of prelaunch and
postlaunch stages (see Diagram 6), towards establishing the
business organization within a given environment, situation or
context.
Goal Setting Theory of Motivation. Latham and Locke’s
seminal work on goal setting theory maintained an emphasis on
organizational settings (Latham & Locke, 1984, 1990, 1991).
The theory is predicated on the basis that conscious human
behavior is purposeful, and that goals motivate action and

impact performance, assuming the individual has the requisite
ability and self-confidence (see Diagram 7). Their research
found that specific or challenging goals led to higher
performance levels than vaguer goals, or the setting of no goals.
Goals, (a) motivate and direct activities toward relevant actions
versus non-relevant action; (b) regulate the effort or
Diagram 7. Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation
Ability
Self-Efficacy
Performance
Assigned goals
Personnal goals
intensity towards the level of task difficulty; (c) affect
persistence, tenacity and refusal to quit by inducing individuals
to work longer when there are no set time limits, and faster or
harder when time limits do exist. Goals help provide clarity in
what tasks need to be accomplished
(Gladstone, 2017). As well, a relationship was found between
affect and goals: since goals are desired or valued outcomes, the
greater or more often success is experienced, the greater the
amount of the individual’s satisfaction. Self-efficacy, or
expression of confidence, was shown to be higher among
individuals with challenging goals versus those with low goals.
The more individuals feel devoted to the actual goals, the more
successful they are at achieving those goals (Locke and Latham
2002, 2004).
Goal-setting is identified as an important motivational concept
in entrepreneurship, and has a significant role and effect
(Shane, Locke, & Collins, 2012). Other studies have

demonstrated the relationship between goals and business
results: (a) entrepreneur’s quantitative goals were found
significantly related to entrepreneurship outcomes (Tracy,
Locke, and Renard, 1998); (b) entrepreneur’s growth goals were
shown to be significantly related to subsequent firm growth
(Baum, Locke, and Smith, 2001).
Conclusion.
Given the numerous and varying definitions that exist in the
field, research on entrepreneurship needs to clearly articulate
one’s understanding of the terms and paradigms utilized in
conducting such studies (Gartner 1989, 1990). This chapter: (a)
sets functional definitions and conceptual schemas that are
broad yet distinct enough to characterize and describe First
Nation new venture organizations as well as express the
dynamic business processes, individual motivations and
decisions effected by these entrepreneurs operating within their
specific Indigenous environments; (b) provides a practical and
compelling framework of terms and models to more effectively
assemble, organize and consider the literature on First Nation
entrepreneurship.
Postface. The terms and frameworks from this chapter will be
utilized to provide focus and circumscription for the literature
reviews in Chapter Three (First Nation entrepreneurship) and
Chapter Four (other Indigenous entrepreneurship paradigms;
poverty alleviation models). Specifically, the definitions and
paradigms used shall be:
Definitions:
1. Entrepreneurship: Entrepreneurship is defined as the broad
field, endeavor and journey of entrepreneuring process, which
includes the intent, motivation, volition and action to create,
launch and operate a business organization as a new venture
offering services or products in order to achieve some goal(s)
within a given context or environment. Important aspects of
entrepreneurship include: the entrepreneur; the new venture
creation process; the role of motivation.
2. Entrepreneur: An entrepreneur is defined as an individual

engaged in the broad field, endeavor, and journey of
entrepreneuring process, which includes the intent, motivation,
volition and action to create, launch and operate a business
organization as a new venture offering services or products in
order to achieve some goal(s) within a given context or
environment. The term entrepreneur is positioned and operates
within the model “Four Variable Framework for Describing
New Venture Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell,
& Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988).
3. New Venture Creation: New venture creation is defined as
both the “result” and the “process” of an entrepreneur’s effort
to create a new entrepreneurship. The process is framed within
the conceptual design “Organizational Emergence Model”
(Gartner, Bird, & Starr, 1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush,
2007).
4. Motivation.Motivation is an individual’s inner-driven or
external-driven goal stimulus for an action; it is understood
within the framework of “Goal-setting Theory” (Latham and
Locke, 1984, 1990, 1991).
Conceptual Frameworks.
5. “Four Variable Framework for Describing new Venture
Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell, & Vesper,
1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988)
6. “Organizational Emergence Model” (Gartner, Bird, & Starr,
1992; Gartner, 1993; Gartner & Brush, 2007)
7. “Goal Setting Theory of Motivation” (Locke and Latham,
1990, 1991).
SECTION II: LITERATURE REVIEWS
CHAPTER THREE

Literature Review 1.
First Nation Entrepreneurship: Organization, Process,
Environment and Individual Motivation
Preface.Chapter Three reviews the literature regarding First
Nation entrepreneurship with a focus on First Nation small
business entrepreneurs and their goal-setting motivations to
engage in entrepreneurial processes of new venture creation in
First Nation communities. Framed by definitions and conceptual
models confirmed in Chapter Two, existing First Nation
literature is examined to determine what information exists and
where there may be gaps in knowledge. The literature review in
Chapter Three is presented and guided through the lens of
entrepreneurship terms and elements (organization; process;
environment; individual entrepreneur) constituent to the key
conceptual model “Four-Variable Framework for Describing
New Venture Creation” (Gartner, 1985, 2016; Gartner, Mitchell,
& Vesper, 1989; Katz & Gartner, 1988). A paucity of research
literature in the field is found (Roness, 2016), gaps in
knowledge determined, and a recommendation for collateral
information from two new literature review topics is
recommended to be undertaken in the subsequent chapter.
Variables One and Two: Organization and Process.
We begin with the question of “what is First Nation on-reserve
entrepreneurship, and what can we learn from the literature
about First Nation small business organizations, and the process
of their creation and development in First Nation communities?”
While there is relatively limited research available towards
answering these questions, there continues to be a small but
growing and developing literature concerned directly with First
Nation entrepreneurship (Corfield, 2019; Canadian Council on
Aboriginal Business, 2016b; Lashley and Olfert, 2013; Missens,
Dana, & Yule, 2010) as the number of First Nation
entrepreneurs increases (Calihoo & Bruno, 2016).
Any comprehension of First Nation entrepreneurship needs to
ensure: (a) an acknowledgement of the social and economic
conditions experienced throughout the First Nations, whi ch

typically includes distressing socio-economic circumstances,
including poverty and shortages of employment opportunities
(Foley, 2003); (b) a recognition of history, including the legacy
of poverty, dependence and bitter feelings resulting from
colonialism, loss of resources, paternalism, racism, residential
school, and cultural suppression (Cornell, 2007) experienced by
First Nation peoples; (c) knowledge of the continuing, extensive
present day political and social debate, unrest and controversy
over not only health and social issues but Indigenous land
claims across the country of Canada to have their rights and
Aboriginal titles respected, recognized and affirmed by
Canadian authorities. These serious matters have deep
significant implications; this researcher acknowledges,
recognizes and affirms knowledge of these issues in the
commencement and process of First Nation entrepreneurship
study.
An appropriate starting point for this research is an awareness
of entrepreneurial activities historically undertaken by First
Nations. Indigenous peoples across North America have a long
history of productive trade, entrepreneurship and commerce
stretching back well before the arrival of Europeans to the
continent (Harrington, 2017). Individual enterprise, along with
a wide variety of other private economic activities, has been
commonplace in Indigenous nations of North America for
thousands of years (Miller, 2012). Distinct from hunter-gatherer
processes, the commercial endeavors included manufacturing,
trade, plus a range of organized individual, family and group
specialized labour. These activities offered numerous benefits:
improved the quality of life; helped in survival; contributed to
the development and growth of existing property rights systems;
ensured the continuation of communities. The commercial
pursuits were planned and purposeful, were driven partially by
economic incentives, and have been at work on the North
American continent since it was populated (Barrington, 1999).
The concepts of marketing and profits were inherent in business
practices, as were the practices of loans and credit (Miller,

2012). There is nothing foreign about business practices,
business ownership and entrepreneurship to First Nations
through the annals of both oral and written history through to
and including modern times. Although there is evidence of
mercantile attitudes and commercial processes through the
millennia, present day Aboriginal entrepreneurship is now
underutilized on-reserve. If more small business ventures were
created, they would be a vital and essential element for the
economic development and the establishment of functioning
reservation economies (Miller, 2012).
From an Indigenous standpoint the experience of new business
venture creation is a dramatic change process for many
Indigenous individuals (Knight, 1997). Cornell, Jorgensen,
Record and Timeche (2007) explain the Indigenous term citizen
entrepreneurship as business organizations started and owned by
the community citizens rather than owned by First Nation or
native nation governments. Calihoo and Bruno (2016) refer to
Indigenous entrepreneurship as a process requiring initiative,
tenacity, and risk-willingness to innovate and create solutions
to problems that develop into viable businesses. Hindle and
Landsdowne (2005) characterize Indigenous entrepreneurship
through four variables: (a) behaviors and actions including
creating, developing and operating new ventures; (b) benefits
for Indigenous people by Indigenous people; (c) sector type
encompassing private public and/or non-profit; (d) range of
advantage and economic profit from a sole individual to
multiple people, groups or community. Indigenous
entrepreneurship is seen as more holistic than non-Indigenous
entrepreneurship, as it focuses on both non-economic and
economic goals, including the desire for self-determination,
entrepreneurial strategies, the understanding of environmental
dynamics, and the preservation of heritage (Lindsay, 2005).
Gallagher and Selman (2015) used the term “warrior
entrepreneurship” to describe a portion of Indigenous
entrepreneurship that seeks to (a) emphasize culture and
tradition to combat colonial institutions, precepts, and attitudes;

(b) increase community self-sufficiency; (c) revitalize economic
activity that was in place prior to European contact. Newhouse
(2000, 2001) emphasized traditional Aboriginal values as a
critical element for altering capitalism and entrepreneurship, an
outcome and process he termed “capitalism with a red face”, the
opposite of what he described as the “Borg of capitalism” where
capitalism is absorbed by Aboriginal cultures. Atleo (2015) felt
that for Indigenous people to make capitalism work for them,
that it would not be without compromise and consequences.
Weir (2007) indicated that First Nation entrepreneurship and
small business was essential for the survival and growth of
Aboriginal communities and their culture. He linked and
described First Nation small business and entrepreneurship as
having much in common and being often used interchangeably.
Regardless of the form taken, entrepreneurial enterprise is seen
as remaining at the heart of economic development for
Indigenous people (Peredo, Anderson, Galbraith, Honig, &
Dana, 2004).
The Government of Canada (Innovation, Science and Economic
Development Canada, 2011) has categorized small and medium
businesses (SMEs) as: (a) micro (1 to 4 employees); (b) small (5
to 99 employees); (c) medium (100 to 499). In Canada, small
businesses have also been delineated through the following
terms: (a) one to one hundred personnel; (b) being
independently owned and operated; (c) not dominating their
particular sector or field; (d) meeting a specified set of
standards by either employee numbers or annual revenue
(Nickels, McHugh, McHugh, Berman, & Cossa, 2005).
First Nation entrepreneurship is nevertheless a challenging
concept to specifically define. Weir (2007) suggests that a
better and more inclusive definition of First Nation
entrepreneurship would be “a human, creative act that builds
something of value from practically nothing. It is the pursuit of
opportunity regardless of the resources, or lack of resources, at
hand. It requires a vision and the passion and commitment to
lead others in the pursuit of that vision. It also requires a

willingness to take calculated risks.”
To some extent, the variations around defining entrepreneurship
can be attributed to the specific contexts, frameworks, and
purposes utilized throughout the literature. This thesis takes a
wider, holistic approach to the definition whereby there are
many aspects of First Nation entrepreneurship that could have
or result in different meaning or emphases dependent upon the
specific community, particular business organization, and the
type of entrepreneur operating it. There is no one perfect
definition. Many local differences among First Nation on-
reserve businesses are expected to exist. For example, in some
communities it may or may not be common for family members
to work together in small businesses throughout the entire year,
or to set up their operations seasonally, or to close and reopen
dependent on the availability or arrival of other family
members, community activities, or at the request of past or
returning clients. Some small business organizations may be
very formal, and others very informal, operating by trade, cash,
credit or service exchange. Some may have a defined hierarchy,
some less, or some may have non-hierarchical working
arrangements. As there are many differences in community
governance, traditions, cultures, history, community size,
location and business process practices, it would be a challenge
to create a generic definition encompassing the many types of
small business organizations created in First Nations. It may be
equally challenging to determine an appropriate taxonomy of
entrepreneurial processes that can capture the breadth,
differences and richness across the hundreds of First Nations.
Examples of First Nation entrepreneurship and businesses will
be many and varied: large and small sizes, seasonal and year-
round operations, micro-enterprises in crafts and artistry,
marketing and sales by convenience stores, offering service as
mechanics or small engine repair, shuttle, taxiing and hauling
services, bed and breakfast offerings, petrol stations and body
shops, games and entertainment outlets, tow-truck and
construction services, guiding and tourism initiatives,

renovation and equipment repair services, janitorial and smoke
shops, part-time or full-time consulting and health care services
and sales, marketing, web design, technology and research,
environmental assessment, resource industry support, and much
more (James, 2017). Although it is not the goal of this work to
gather and classify the vast assortment of First Nation
entrepreneurial business organizations types or their many
differing aspects, the great variety is noted.
For the remainder of the thesis, a broader more compatible
definition of First Nation on-reserve entrepreneurship is
proposed. The definition combines Gartner’s new venture
emergence model and terminologies with First Nation
entrepreneurial aspects: First Nation citizen member individuals
engaged in new venture creation of small business organizations
or entities of a variety of types, often with one to four
employees, operating independent from government ownership,
active in commercial processes while in the pursuit of specific
goals, purposes and motivations, existing within a context or set
of environment conditions including whatever formalized or not
formalized community, institutional, governance, traditional or
cultural oversight forms, norms or practices may be locally in
effect.
Research specific to First Nation on-reserve small business
entrepreneurial processes is lacking. The Canadian Council for
Aboriginal Business (CCAB) calculated the percentage of
Aboriginal businesses in three process stages: (a) “start-up”
being in the process of starting up a new venture: 11% on-
reserve; (b) “established with the goal of growth & expansion”-
22% on-reserve); (c) “established with the goal of stability and
profitability” (representing 66% on-reserve) (Canadian Council
for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). Altman (2001) stressed the
importance of a differentiated framework of Indigenous
enterprises by way of: (a) scale (micro, small and medium); (b)
target objectives (commercial, socio-cultural, or public good);
(c) ownership (individuals or family, native title parties, or
communities and regions). Beyond this, it is challenging to

locate research specific to First Nation on-reserve small
business entrepreneurship development processes. But have we
been looking in all the right places? Calihoo and Bruno (2016)
speculate that there are thousands of Aboriginal-owned ventures
spread out across Canada spanning every industry across the
spectrum of traditional enterprises to new and modern ventures.
Inferred Entrepreneurship? First Nation on-reserve
entrepreneurship appears far from forgotten in broader
community initiative processes and strategies addressing
economic development, but it is possible, in those larger scale
initiatives, entrepreneurship may sometimes be inferred, or even
perhaps understated compared to larger corporate or First
Nation administration initiatives. First Nation small business
entrepreneurship may in fact be well embedded in broader
community economic initiatives and processes. From the
literature, First Nation entrepreneurial small business creation
appears in varying degrees throughout the overall economic
development planning, strategies and activities of First Nation
communities. They may or may not always be readily separable
from the larger economic development ambitions and strategies
of communities. If on-reserve entrepreneurship exists in the
broader community economic development initiatives, but has
less, little or virtually no space in much of this literature,
perhaps it can be inferred, and can be found to appear in
emergent, implied, assumed, or subsumed forms, as opposed to
explicitly indicated in some cases. Five examples in the
literature, drawn from different regions of Canada, are reviewed
for this possibility: Membertou First Nation (MFN); Meadow
Lake Tribal Council (MLTC); Tahltan Nation (TN); Essipit Innu
First Nation (EIFN); Westbank First Nation (WFN).
Membertou First Nation (MFN): Emergent On-Reserve
Entrepreneurship. Membertou First Nation is an urban reserve
in Nova Scotia, Canada, a “First Nations progression model”
based on business approaches to government, management, and
economic development for the purpose of achieving social
objectives was created. MFN foundational principles included

establishment of operational processes, policies, corporate
branding, partnership and joint ventures, infrastructure
development, training and human capital development, and
grounding in community culture. The overall model has proved
successful with MFN ultimately eliminating a $1 million deficit,
generating significant corporate asset bases, increasing
employment, generating 75% of their own revenue, and
garnering awards such as Cando Economic Developer of the
Year. Along the journey, a growing need for entrepreneurship
education was identified, and an “Entrepreneur Centre” opened
to permit MFN members to train aspiring entrepreneurs and aid
in developing small businesses as one aspect of overall
community economic development. Although specific business
types, developmental processes, and motivational data is not
available regarding these small businesses, there has been a
“growing number” of emergent new Aboriginal businesses
operating out of their Business Centre (Brown, Finney,
Doucette, Tulk, Bernard, & Yuan, 2012), and their contribution
to MFN’s economic development, while not an initial pillar of
the Progression Model, has become a part of community
economic development.
Meadow Lake Tribal Council (MLTC): Implied On-Reserve
Entrepreneurship. MLTC, a political, service and corporate
organization consisting of nine First Nations located in
Saskatchewan, Canada, began operation in 1986. A twenty year
plan was undertaken to “stimulate economic growth for First
Nations and to encourage an entrepreneurial spirit among our
people” (MLTC, 1991). The specific objectives included greater
control over their traditional lands, economic self-sufficiency,
strengthen traditional values and their application in business
development, and to improve socio-economic circumstances for
community members. MLTC defined entrepreneurship to
include all business, corporate and venture developments,
including the non-profit and government MLTC sectors, to go
along with small business. The outcomes of the initiative have
been striking: employment increased 70%, average family

income grew by 49%, and logging and reforestation corporate
activities successful. The MLTC economic development
initiative and objectives were extended well into the 21st
century. The role of small business entrepreneurship in the
MLTC economic development initiative, while not at the
forefront of promotion, was nevertheless implied, and indeed
several ventures and “indirect” jobs were created, and an
overall spirit of entrepreneurship developed (Anderson, 2002).
In little more than a decade, eighteen successful small business
start-ups were generated, including tazi operations, rice
harvesting, and convenience stores (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record
and Timeche, 2007).
Tahltan Nation (TN): Assumed On-Reserve Entrepreneurship.
Tahltan Nation is a First Nations people with approximately
5,000 members located in north western British Columbia, 800
kilometers from the nearest city. TN is located geographically
at the same latitude as Juneau, Alaska. In 1985 TN set up the
Tahltan Nation Development Corporation (TNDC) with the
goals of widespread economic and social change. The
development corporation, based largely on natural resources
(mining), flourished, and what began as an idea became a
corporation worth over $50 million, with 29 joint Venture
Partnerships, 8 business divisions, $35 million of equipment,
and $23.7 million in annual revenue (Asp, Moldecky, &
Hemmat, 2016). The work and contracts were leveraged to
develop training programs, which in turn developed a skilled
workforce. Unemployment fell from 98% to 0%. TNDC
developed a “Nation Building” model for sustainable
Indigenous led economic growth, supported by a community
economic governance structure and model. Although the term
entrepreneurship is not included in referencing the models (the
governance structure does include the phrase “individual
community enterprise”), it is safe to assume small business
entrepreneurs are a relevant aspect and outcome of the overall
initiative, since in fact, available TN contracting services now
include construction, rentals, communication, drilling,

explosives, explorations, environmental services, hauling,
transport, medical, road maintenance, and more (British
Columbia Indigenous Business and Investment Council, 2016).
Essipit Innu First Nation (EIFN): Subsumed On-Reserve
Entrepreneurship. Essipit is one of nine Innu communities in the
province of Quebec, Canada, with a population of 673 of whom
204 live on the reserve. Their traditional territory covers over
8,000 square kilometers, with forestry, outfitting and tourism
being the primary industries for employment opportunities for
community members. Much of the work is seasonal, and full
employment is the norm for summer months. In the early 2000’s
EIFN changed their economic development goals from job
creation to: training and up-skilling; income source
diversification; increased access to business opportunities.
EIFN followed a community-based entrepreneurship (CBE)
where the community acted corporately to set up and run
enterprises in pursuit of the common community good. They
succeeded both socially and economically (St-Georges, 2009;
Proulx & Gathier, 2012). Today the Essipit business portfolio
consist of approximately 30 businesses operating in four
economic sectors: (a) public goods and services; (b) forest-
based development; (c) tourism; (d) fisheries. All the businesses
are either community-owned (i.e. fully owned by the Band
Council), or joint ventures with non-Aboriginal enterprises.
Revenues and profits have been used for a variety of community
purposes including improving work facilities, reinvesting
between businesses for expansion purposes, allow opportunities
for youth and elders to partake in traditional cultural land-based
activities, and generate access to new contract opportunities
(Beaudoin et al, 2015). Individual entrepreneurship (and
consequently the individual profit motive) do not appear in the
model. In effect, they are not directly named in the initiative as
they have been essentially subsumed within the corporate
community-based enterprise model of EIFN.
Westbank First Nation (WFN); Explicit On-Reserve
Entrepreneurship. Westbank First Nation, with 840 members,

two-thirds of whom live on-reserve, is a self-governing First
Nation located in the south central interior of British Columbia.
WFN implemented self-government in 2005. Membership
created and ratified a Community Economic Development Plan,
a WFN constitution, and a Comprehensive Community Plan to
provide guidance and protection for growth and development,
resource management, and community planning for reserve
lands and traditional WFN territory. The Band Council shifted
the focus from simply “job creation” to “building an economy”.
Entrepreneurship was made a key element of the economic
development plan: environmental, social, and cultural factors
supportive of small business entrepreneurship were identified
and openly promoted, including: establishment of property
rights; policy for WFN to not compete with member owned
businesses; multiple infrastructure improvements; actively
pursued relationship with banks; created leadership and
entrepreneurial training programs; improved housing;
strengthened governance and conflict resolution institutions;
improved financial access for entrepreneurs. Between 2004 and
2014 the number of WFN member business licenses tripled.
Between 2005 and 2015 nearly $450 million in building permits
was issued. Today WFN: has the largest residential and
commercial development of any reserve in Canada; has a gross
Domestic Product that has grown five-fold to $500 million; has
a dozen banks and financial institutions on WFN lands. The
decision to encourage and support entrepreneurship was
explicit, as evidenced by a statement released by the
Comprehensive Community Plan of WFN, “The success of
Westbank First Nation is a result of those individuals who have
educated themselves, either formally or traditionally, and have
returned or chosen to stay to give back to their community as
elected officials, community leaders, employees, entrepreneurs
and avid community activists. Their hard work and perseverance
has created the platform on which future generations can stand”
(Derickson & Selman, 2017).
Reality of First Nation On-reserve Entrepreneurship. Despite

successful community economic development examples such as
MFN, MLTC, TN, EIFN, and WFN, small business
entrepreneurship development, whether understated or not,
remains overall meager and limited for the vast majority of First
Nations in Canada. The situation is similar for Indigenous
populations in United States, and the experiences in American
and Canadian Indigenous communities, including the issues,
challenges and barrier to success, have been described as shared
(Satsan [Herb George], 2007). Of all ethnic and racial groups in
United States the lowest per capita rate of privately owned
businesses belongs to the Aboriginal sector (Miller, 2012). The
Aboriginal independent business sector has been described by
researchers as "small” (Cornell, Jorgensen, Record and
Timeche, 2007), and the state of individual entrepreneurship in
American tribal communities represented as “experimenting”
(Champagne, 2015). In Canada, First Nation entrepreneurships
are primarily micro-businesses made up of one to four
employees and typically servicing just small, local markets
(Weir, 2007), however they are a largely untapped and growing
resource for on-reserve economic development (Derickson &
Selman, 2017). 72% of First Nation businesses are located on-
reserve (Roness, 2016). Four Canadian Aboriginal business
surveys have been conducted between 2002 and 2016, one from
Statistics Canada, and three from the Canadian Council for
Aboriginal Business. They provide some information and
reference points towards First Nation communities, although
most of the data gathered is for the overall Aboriginal
population, and for both off-reserve and on-reserve.
2002 Aboriginal Entrepreneurs Survey. The Aboriginal
Entrepreneurs Survey (Statistics Canada, 2002) determined that
self-employed Aboriginal individuals, compiled together for
both on-reserve and off-reserve entrepreneurs (the data was not
separated into the two groups), make up 3% of their population,
significantly less when compared to Canadian mainstream
statistics of 25% of the population. Of the 3%, only one out of
every seven First Nation entrepreneurs were located on-reserve,

making on-reserve entrepreneurs more than thirty times less in
comparison to mainstream society numbers. Canada is known
for entrepreneurship, made evident by the fact entrepreneurship
levels are higher than most G7 countries, and ranked second in
the world according to the Center for Innovation Studies based
out of Calgary, Alberta (Langford, C. & Josty, P., 2015), but
this reputation and reality does not extend into First Nation
country.
Other findings included:
· 67% were sole proprietorships;
· 83% used personal savings for start-up;
· 67% had been in operation for five or more years;
· 50% of primary industries (agriculture; forestry; fishing and
hunting; mining, quarrying and oil and gas extraction),
construction, manufacturing, transportation and warehousing
businesses had been in operation for ten plus years, compared to
30% of professional and technical service businesses;
· 20% had a written business plan;
· 85% operated full-time;
· 72% reported profits in the previous one-year period;
· 37% did not expect their business to grow
2011 and 2016 Aboriginal Business Surveys. The 2016
Aboriginal Business survey is an update of the 2011 survey. The
2016 Business Survey determined:
· Aboriginal businesses are represented across a full range of
industry types including construction, manufacturing, natural
resources, retail and service sectors;
· 66% of Aboriginal businesses are home-based (unchanged
from 2011);
· 6.3% of the Aboriginal labour force were self-employed in
2016, versus 10.7 of the rest of the Canadian labour force;
· 27% of all Aboriginal business owners are under 45 years of
age, but 45% of all start-ups by owners under 45 years of age;
· 65% of business owners used personal savings for start-up, the
same as in 2011;
· While the overall total of self-employed Aboriginal peoples

had been growing at a rate of 37.6% between 2001 and 2006,
and 15.6% between 2006 and 2011, over the five year period
between 2006 and 2011 the proportion of First Nation on-
reserve businesses also experienced a decrease, from 72% of the
Aboriginal total in 2006 to 56% in 2011 (the population of self-
employed Canadians overall declined 4.4% during the same
period);
· 43,305 Aboriginal businesses existed in 2011, but in 2016 the
data was not determined for Aboriginal businesses;
· 64% of Aboriginal businesses are individual operations
without employees (63% in 2011), and 73% are unincorporated
(74% in 2011). This profile is similar to Canadian mainstream
businesses.
· 75% of Aboriginal business owners reported a net profit, up
from 61% in 2011;
· Aboriginal businesses focus primarily on local markets;
· On-reserve businesses are more likely to do business with
Aboriginal governments than off-reserve businesses;
· 70% reported it was very likely they would still be in business
in 5 years (same as 2011);
· 63% of business owners reported they introduced new
products, services or processes within the previous three years,
up from 49% in 2011;
· 30% had a written business plan, the same as in 2011;
· 46% used Facebook for business purposes and 24% had a
business website, but 40% had no internet or internet
connection issues;
The 2011 Aboriginal Business Survey also summarized
Aboriginal entrepreneurs by industry:
· Professional: 27%;
· Construction: 18%;
· Primary (agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, mining, oil
and gas): 13%;
· Arts, entertainment, accommodation and cultural: 12%;
· Manufacturing, transportation and warehousing: 10%;
· Wholesale and retail: 9%;

· Other: 11%.
The wide range of Aboriginal self-employment, including
within traditional hunting, fishing and trapping, the exploitation
of natural resources, tourism and other mainstream industries is
identified by numerous researchers (Calihoo & Bruno, 2016;
Roness, 2016; Caine & Krogman, 2010; Kutzner & Wright,
2010; McGregor, 2009; Whiteman & Cooper, 2000; Stabler,
1989).
However, the 2011 and 2016 Aboriginal Business Surveys
reported that an overall knowledge gap continues to exist for
Aboriginal business data. Using available profile data at their
disposal for the twenty year period from1996 to 2006, the
surveys indicated Aboriginal self-employment had increased
through that span of time by 85% and speculated it would
continue to rise. Similarly, when we look over to other
Indigenous literature, it is noted that in a the ten year period
(2006 to 2016) one of the most significant developments in
Australian Indigenous economy has been the increasing growth
and importance of Indigenous entrepreneurs (Collins, Morrison,
Krivokapic-Skoko, Butler, & Basu, 2016). The number of self-
employed Indigenous entrepreneurs had tripled in Australia
through the years 1991 – 2011 (Hunter, 2013).
2014 Ontario Aboriginal Business Survey. Highlights from the
smaller one province (Ontario) 2014 survey include:
· 65% of First Nation businesses were located on-reserve;
· 62% were in the service industry;
· 71% used personal savings for start-up
· Business objectives in order of priority included: stability,
profit, growth, community service, personal/family
employment, community employment.
Summary. Organization. There remains relatively limited
research available regarding on reserve First Nation
entrepreneurship. First Nation small business organizations
exist in smaller relative numbers compared to mainstream
Canadian entrepreneurship, nevertheless they are growing and
thriving (Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b). As

well, First Nation small business organizations exist across a
full range of industry types, just as in mainstream society,
although they are less researched and categorized. They also are
found embedded in, connected to, and derived from larger scale
economic development initiatives of specific First Nation
communities, although their presence, role and importance
appears not be widely evident in the literature.
Summary. Process. No research exists to indicate whether First
Nation small business new creation processes, or stages, are
similar or different than those of mainstream Canadian business
development. The Canadian Council on Aboriginal Business
looked at the percentages of Aboriginal business ventures in
each of three arbitrary business stages: “start-up”; “established”
with self-reported goals of stability and profitability; and
“established” with self-reported goals of growth and expansion
(Canadian Council on Aboriginal Business, 2016b). The present
work uses Gartner’s organizational emergence model processes
of emergence-newness-transformation, and prelaunch and
postlaunch stages of new venture creation as the paradigm for
First Nation entrepreneurship.
Variable Three: Environment and Context
Gartner (1985) termed the conditions, context and surrounding
factors of new venture creation as the environment, describing
it as the set of “characteristics that are relatively fixed
conditions imposed on the new venture from without”. Included
in his list of characteristics are: population attitudes towards
entrepreneurship; availability of financial resources; skilled
labour force and access to education; market accessibility,
transportation, infrastructure, and supportive services;
governance and institutional support; land and lease challenges.
The thesis now examines the literature on these characteristics,
both in terms of challenges and perceived benefits, as they
relate to First Nation communities.
(a) Challenges to First Nation Entrepreneurship. Different
attitudes and views exist on Indigenous economic activity’s
effect on traditional culture, and vice versa. There are First

Nation leaders who view the creation of reserve economies as
incapable of remedying financial and social issues, and who
recommend a return to more traditional economies and ways of
life (Raybould, 2006). Some see market-driven, capitalistic,
skill-driven, individually owned and motivated entrepreneurship
and wealth accumulation as disempowering, not unlike the
captivity of an “iron cage” (Champagne, 2015), and recommend
Indigenous communities focus and rely more on traditional
values of cultural resources, economic redistribution, and
collective stewardship. Others suggest that economic
development would, in fact, not require the stoppage of being
traditional or cultural (Cornell & Kalt, 1992a). One study
determined that entrepreneurship had no eroding effect on
Indigenous identities, but provided a platform strengthening
Indigenous identities by: (a) creating self-sufficient attitudes to
combat colonial constructs and government dependency; (b)
promoting positive social and self-identities; (c) operating
business ventures ways that give back to First Nations in
community-oriented processes (Gallagher, 2012). Another
author presented the perspective that reservation economies are
essential for the support of Aboriginal culture, and stated,
“Indian people do face diverse social and cultural issues in
making business decisions. In addition to cultural issues, the
history of economic activities on reservations and federal Indian
policies have left many tribal communities leery of the
businessperson and development schemes that are supposed to
“save” the reservation. A long history of having their lands and
assets exploited by the majority society has understandably
made many tribal governments and Indians cautious about
business and development. In fact, the very word “capitalism”
causes visceral reactions in some Indian people. In these kinds
of situations, Indian entrepreneurs do stand out” (Miller, 2012).
It may be that individual financial success and commercialism
are tolerated or accepted in varying degrees depending on the
specific tribal culture, since the fit is not always easy for
Indigenous cultures (Cornell, 2006). Hart (2010) expressed a

more cautious, moderating, ‘world-view” perspective on the
cultural-capitalist issue by stating “I recognize that worldviews
are not binary consisting of Indigenous and non-Indigenous, but
more fluid between various peoples of the world with strong
overlaps and great chasms. However, without working to reflect
Indigenous peoples’ understandings, we may be unconsciously,
perhaps consciously in some cases, leading other Indigenous
peoples down the path of internalized oppression”.
Nevertheless, while there exists an attitude and belief among
some First Nation leaders that entrepreneurs hip can only serve
to promote individualism which in turn erodes Aboriginal
culture and identity (Miller, 2012), a contention is made that
capitalistic participation by First Nations is a valid and realistic
option, particularly when adapted to fit Indigenous values, and
that it will also aid in sovereignty (Sommers, 2017).
Financial Access Challenges. To start and operate a business,
financial capital is required. Entrepreneurs typically initiate and
develop their small businesses via money from sources such as:
(a) business loans; (b) the use of home equity to secure loans;
(c) family resources; (d) personal savings or other sources of
credit accessible to them. However, First Nation members,
owing to reasons and factors such as poverty, low or reduced
employment, lack of home ownership, collateral and home
equity resources, plus less access to financial institutions and
activities that will build credit, often inevitably face limited or
unavailable financing. While there are grants, programs,
funding and support programs through
Canadian Banking institutions, non-profit societies and other
organizations, there remains a continuing pattern of significant
barriers to obtaining capital for Aboriginal businesses (Caldwell
& Hunt, 2002; Weir, 2007; Canadian Council for Aboriginal
Business, 2011; Cooper, 2016). As well, in some cases, the
funding opportunities that do exist are found to be not
sustainable (Munning, 2015). The 2011 Aboriginal Business
Survey indicated that only 29% have used any government
programs in starting up or in the maintenance of their

businesses. Reasons for not using the programs included a lack
of perceived value for their business, limited awareness about
what is available, and deterrence resulting from “red tape”
concerns. As well, the survey indicated that 43% reported
access to financing was an obstacle, and 38% reported equity
problems as an issue. Banks and financial institutions normally
require conventional business plans to approve commercial
funding, but many Aboriginal people didn’t feel capable of
creating or prepare a business plan, and often paid to have a
third party create one (Canadian Council for Aboriginal
Business, 2011). The Aboriginal Business Survey conducted
five years later found that almost half of the Aboriginal
businesses had encountered funding qualifications issues.
Financing for start-ups was cited as particularly challenging for
those ventures, and three in ten Aboriginal businesses felt
growth was hindered by access to funds. The survey also noted
greater growth of off-reserve businesses over on-reserve
businesses by 33%, which they attributed to the increased
difficulties faced by on-reserve businesses in accessing finances
(Canadian Council for Aboriginal Business, 2016b).
Human Capital, Skills and Education Challenges. Business
success for Aboriginal entrepreneurship depends upon
understanding business planning, being able to identify and
assess potential opportunities, transforming business concepts
into a financial reality, and after start-up, managing day-to-day
business aspects (Roness, 2016). Serious challenges for on-
reserve entrepreneurs include limited business skills and
entrepreneurial education (Miller, 2012). With a lack of
employment opportunities on-reserve there is also less
commercial mentorship, economic knowledge transfer, and
succession planning available. It is challenging for human
capital to gain momentum and develop a critical mass when
under-experienced and untrained entrepreneurs struggle to take
advantage of arising business opportunities without knowledge
acquisition that role-models would provide. This can lead to
skill exit, as individuals with talent, energy and ideas or

entrepreneurship simply decide to take their chances elsewhere
and move away from their communities (Cornell, 2006). There
is a dearth of small business training programs designed for
First Nation operators desiring to conduct business in their own
legal, cultural, and constitutional contexts. Even if training and
education may be available, the shortage of financing to cover
educational programs and institutional costs can further prevent
the development of entrepreneurial savvy and financial
management skills (Weir, 2007). The Canadian Council for
Aboriginal Business advised Many Aboriginal entrepreneurs
attempt to navigate or grow their businesses without outside
support or advice. It is estimated that less than four out of ten
have had an individual or an organization provide them with
business advice or guidance, and that most are not able to
envision the guidance they would most like to have (Canadian
Council for Aboriginal Business, 2011). Seven out of ten
Aboriginal businesses in Canada do not have a formal business
plan, and either did not see the value in having one or did not
have the resources to create one (Canadian Council for
Aboriginal Business, 2016b).
Remoteness and Infrastructure Challenges. The remote and rural
locations of many First Nation communities exposes numerous
entrepreneurs hoping to start-up or develop their businesses to
try to deal with infrastructure issues such as limited access via
high quality grade roads, inadequate housing and commercial
buildings, poor water quality, increased distances from business
resources they may require, plus shortages of services for
electrical and communication needs. Water conditions in
Canadian First Nations, including numerous water advisories,
have been described as often “third world” (Levasseur,
2015).Only one out of three First Nation communities have not
had a drinking water advisory in the ten year period leading up
to 2014. During this time span 400 First Nation communities
experienced some variety of problematic water issues, including
more than 90% of Saskatchewan and New Brunswick First
Nation communities. One community in the province of Ontario,

First Nation Entrepreneurship New Venture Creation, Motivationa

First Nation Entrepreneurship New Venture Creation, Motivationa

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