Fire safety requirements for built spaces

1. FIRE SAFETY
PRINCIPLES
4.0

2. The Fire Triangle:
Three elements - fuel,
oxygen and heat - are
required to start a fire.
The oxidation process
will not be possible
without any one of these
elements.
Fuel (Fire
Load)
Oxygen
(Ventilation)
Heat
(Ignition)
Fire is a rapid oxidation process
accompanied by the evolution
of heat, light, flame and the
emission of sound.
Definition and Causes of Fire
2
Intro

3. Ordinary combustible
materials such as wood,
cloth, paper, rubber and
plastics, etc.
Class A:
Flammable or combustible
liquids, flammable gases.
Class B:
Energized electrical
equipment
Class C:
Fire involving:
Combustible metals such
as potassium, sodium,
magnesium and other
reactive metals
Class D:
How to Suppress:
Use Water
Exclude air from
burning materials
No Water; Use electrically
non-conductive
extinguishing agents such
as gaseous systems
Heat-absorbing
medium which is not
reactive with
burning metals
Intro Classes of Fire
3

4. Intro Fire Growth
2
Pre-flashover or
growth phase
Stage 1:
Flashover
Stage 2:
Fully developed fire
(Stable phase)
Stage 3:
Decay (Cooling
Period)
Stage 4:
Involves flaming combustion of an
item and may lead to a spread of
fire; or a smoldering, poorly-
ventilated fire with substantial
smoke.
Rapid change from a local fire to
one involving all combustible
materials in a room.
All materials in compartment are
alight; maximum rate of heat
release is dependent on either
available ventilation or quantity of
fuel.
Gradual consumption of fuel in the
compartment.
Stages

5. Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
Active Fire Protection
Detection, activation and suppression
Passive Fire Protection
Resistance to heat and flames of fire rated constructions
Temperatu
re
Tim
e
Slow rate of
burning
Development of heat
and flames
Load bearing capacity of materials is maintained.
Prevention of fire spread to other compartments.
This graph shows where active and passive
fire protection will play an important part
during the development of fire.
Intro Fire Growth
2
Architectural Intervention
during Fire Growth

6. Behavior of Fire and Smoke
1
Vertical Shaft or
Duct
(Stack Effect)
Suspended
Ceiling
Ceiling
Void
Smoke and
Flame likely to
re-enter
Enclosed
Area
Vertical Shaft or
Duct
Outlet to
adjoining
space
Enclose
d Area
Outlet to
open air
1.00
m
Intro

7. Internal Fire Spread due to:
Internal Fire Spread
between Rooms and Floors
Through
Vertical
Shafts
Through Air Ducts
Through Ceiling
and Collapsed
Partitions
Through Non-
Fire Rated
Doors
Origin of
Fire
Fire Spread
2
Intro

8. Fire Spread
Congested High Fire Load Areas
External Fire Spread due to:
Intro

9. Fire Spread
External Fire Spread due to:
Intro
Loss of Integrity of Fire Wall

10. Fire Spread
2
Ignition of Materials
Ignition of Materials
Ignition of Materials
Ignition of Materials
Convecti
on
Currents
Origin of
Fire
Proximity of Buildings
Intro
External Fire Spread due to:

11. Aims in
Fire Safety Design
A To prevent fire
B To safeguard the lives of
occupants and firefighters
C To reduce damage on the
building, its contents, and on
surrounding buildings

12. Basic
Principles
1 Fire Avoidance
2 Fire Detection
3 Fire Growth Restriction
4 Fire Containment
5 Fire Control
6 Smoke Control
7 Escape Provisions

13. Definition & Implication
Principles
Fire Avoidance1
1
Reducing the possibility of accidental
ignition of construction materials, as well
as fittings and fixtures.
This implies:
a. keeping separate heat
sources and materials
which might ignite
readily through proper
planning and zoning
b. need to specify
materials to reduce the
risk of fire starting
c. reducing fire load
Basic

14. Principles
Fire Avoidance1
1
For
Hospitals
(eg. Hospitals)
Fire Zoning
Basic
For
Most
Buildings
1. Life Risk Areas – areas in which all occupants are
ambulant and able to move unaided away from a fire
- eg. Outpatient department; Service Zone
2. High Fire Risk Areas – areas which, due to their
function, are more usually susceptible to an outbreak of
fire, or to a rapid spread of fire or smoke.
- eg. Kitchen or Boiler Room
3. High Fire Load Areas – areas which, because of their
construction or contents, contain large amounts of
combustible materials, thereby constituting a fire load in
excess of that normally found
- eg. Gas Storage, Linen Closets
4. High Life Risk Areas – areas in which persons may
reside and are not able to move unaided away from a
fire.
- eg. Intensive Care Unit, Operating Department

15. LEGEND:
HIGH LIFE RISK
HIGH FIRE LOAD
HIGH FIRE RISK
Basic
Principles
(eg. Hospitals)
Fire Zoning
Fire Avoidance1
LIFE RISK

16. Choice of Materials and Knowledge
on Material Performance
1
Steel
- does not burn
- may buckle in fire
- high conductivity spreads
heat
- loses half its strength in
550°C
Timber
- combustible
- little loss of strength
as charcoal formed
insulates wood core
- spreads flames
Masonry
- high fire resistance
- cracks at 575°C
- are subject to high
temperatures during
manufacture
Calcium Silicate
- excellent thermal shock
resistance
- up to 1000°C
- suitable for cladding
structural members
Glass
- standard float, toughened
and laminated glass panes do
not provide any fire resistance
- monolithic fire-rated glass is
available
Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance2
1
Concrete
-high fire resistance
- disintegrates at 400-500°C
- holes in concrete will
expose steel structural
members

17. “the amount of material which is able to
burn and release heat and smoke”
In a compartment, limiting fuel will
help reduce the dangers of heat and
smoke.
Building contents make up the
majority of the fire load, since most
fires start from the ignition of these
contents.
The total amount of fuel in a building, its accessibility to fire
engines, the availability of water, etc. will determine the level
of fire resistance and the maximum size of a building
compartment.
Basic
Principles
Fire Avoidance2
1
Knowledge on Fire Load
1

18. Visual Fire Detection
To visually expose FIRE RISK and FIRE
LOAD areas to building occupants.
Basic
Principles
Patient Room
Nurse Station
Patient Room
Sto
2
Fire Detection
Lounge

19. fire-prone
areas should
be visually
accessible
provide
peepholes on
doors
Basic
Principles
Visual Fire Detection
2
Fire Detection

20. Makes use of manual and automatic
(electric/ electronic) methods of informing
the occupants in charge that a fire has
occurred in a given location.
Heat and smoke alarm
systems inside Fire Risk
and Fire Load areas.
Basic
Principles
Mechanical Fire Detection
2
Fire Detection
Fire alarm systems must be
accessible in all zones
especially in fire-prone
areas.

21. Aimed at ensuring that the growing fire is
extinguished immediately and at providing adequate
time for firemen to arrive, control the fire and
evacuate the occupants.
Basic
Principles
Actively extinguishing or slowing
down the development of a fire
before the full involvement of the
room. This is done by the
room’s local occupants.
Means:
1. Fire Extinguisher
2. Water Supply
3. Fire Blanket
4. Bucket of Sand
3
Fire Growth Restriction
Manual Means of Restricting
Fire Growth
5

22. Basic
Principles 3
Fire Growth Restriction
Rating of Fire Extinguishers
4
:
Class A Extinguishers will put out fires in ordinary
combustibles, such as wood and paper. The numerical rating
for this class of fire extinguisher refers to the amount of water
the fire extinguisher holds and the amount of fire it will
extinguish
Class B Extinguishers should be used on fires involving
flammable liquids, such as grease, gasoline, oil, etc. The
numerical rating for this class of fire extinguisher states the
approximate number of square feet of a flammable liquid fire
that a non-expert person can expect to extinguish
Class C Extinguishers are suitable for use on electrically
energized fires. This class of fire extinguishers does not have
a numerical rating. The presence of the letter “C” indicates that
the extinguishing agent is non-conductive
Class D Extinguishers are designed for use on flammable
metals and are often specific for the type of metal in question.
There is no picture designator for Class D extinguishers.
These extinguishers generally have no rating nor are they
given a multi-purpose rating for use on other types of fires

23. Basic
Principles 3
Fire Growth Restriction
Types of Fire Extinguishers
4
:
Dry Chemical extinguishers are usually rated for multiple purpose use. They
contain an extinguishing agent and use a compressed, non-flammable gas as a
propellant
Halon extinguishers contain a gas that interrupts the chemical reaction that takes
place when fuels burn. These types of extinguishers are often used to protect
valuable electrical equipment since them leave no residue to clean up. Halon
extinguishers have a limited range, usually 1.2 to 1.8 meters. The initial application
of Halon should be made at the base of the fire, even after the flames have been
extinguished
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) extinguishers are most effective on Class B and C (liquids
and electrical) fires. Since the gas disperses quickly, these extinguishers are only
effective from 1.0 to 2.4 feet. The carbon dioxide is stored as a compressed liquid in
the extinguisher; as it expands, it cools the surrounding air. The cooling will often
cause ice to form around the “horn” where the gas is expelled from the extinguisher.
Since the fire could re-ignite, continue to apply the agent even after the fire appears
to be out

24. Basic
Principles
-Categories: General Use,
Institutional, Residential, Attics,
Special Hazards, Storage
-3 heads: upright, pendent and
sidewall
-Rated to 175 psi
3
Fire Growth Restriction
Mechanical Means of
Restricting Fire Growth
6
Sprinkler Specifications:
Sprinklers can be
spaced from 3.6 to 6.0
meters apart.

25. Assumes that measures to control a
growing fire may not be successful,
hence its maximum size needs to be
restricted both to reduce the risk and to
allow effective firefighting.
Extend
CHB walls
up to slab
Provide 1 m.
ledge to
prevent spread
of fire
- providing a 1-meter ledge to prevent fire from
creeping up exterior walls into the floor above
through windows.
This implies:
1. Fire cladding of structural components to
ensure stability of structural frames.
2. The use of fire-rated walls and slabs to contain
fire in rooms, sub-compartments and
compartments so as to segregate areas where
fire may occur.
3. Others:
- plugging all holes; extending CHB walls up to
the slab;
Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Definition and Implication

26. Fire-Rated
Surface
Compartmen
t
Compartment
Sizes
The more combustible the contents of a building, the
smaller the compartment should be.
Joints must be filled with non-combustible materials
to prevent the spread of smoke or flame.
Objectives
-To limit fire and smoke spread
-To allow longer escape time
-To reduce the maximum potential size of
the fire
Containing
fire-prone
areas by
means of
fire-resistive
enclosures
Definition
Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Sub-
Compartment
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
2
Room

27. Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Concepts of Fire Compartmentation
LEGEND:
Rooms
Department

28. Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
3
Gypsum Walls
-Two layers 16mm type X gypsum
wallboard or veneer base applied
to each side of 62mm metal studs
400mm O.C.
-Two layers 16mm type X gypsum
wallboard or veneer base applied
to each side of 50mmx100mm
wood studs 600mm O.C.
-One layer 16mm type X
gypsum wallboard or veneer
base applied to each side of
40mm metal studs 600mm
O.C.
-One layer 12mm type X
veneer base nailed to each
side of 50mmX100mm wood
studs 400mm O.C.
Steel
Wood
Steel
Wood
2 Hour
1 Hour
Concrete Masonry Wall Units
4 Hour
2 Hour
4” 6”

29. Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
3
Ceiling Systems
12mm gypsum wallboard
applied to drywall furring
channels. Furring channels
600mm O.C., attached with 18
gauge wire ties open web
steel joists 600mm O.C.
supporting rib metal lath on 28
gauge corrugated steel and
62mm concrete slab.
12mm gypsum wallboard
applied to drywall resilient
furring channels 600mm O.C.
and nailed to wood joists
400mm O.C. Wood joists
supporting 25mm T&G finish
floor.
3 Hour
2 Hour
1 Hour
12mm
25mm
STEEL
RUNNERS
3-16mm FIRE
RATED
PANELS
35mm x 22mm
ANGLE
RUNNER
CORNER
REINFORCEMENT
WIRE MESH

30. Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Fire Rating of Construction Systems
3
-Flush Metal Door
-No Glass Permitted
-3mm clearance at jambs
-10mm clearance at non-combustinle floor
-For openings in fire walls or walls that
divide a single building into fire areas
-Maximum glass area 0.063 sq.m
-6mm thk Wire glass in a steel frame
-For openings in enclosures of vertical
communications through buildings and in
2-hour rated partitions providing horizontal
fire separations
-Maximum glass area: 0.83 sq.m
-For openings in walls or partitions
between rooms and corridors having a fire
resistance rating of 1 hour or less
3 Hour
2 Hour
1 Hour
Door Openings For 1.2m X 3.0m single hollow metal doors (ga.20 steel
face), with labeled single-point or 3-point latching hardware,
steel hinges or pivots
1.370m
max
0.83m
max
125mm
min
125mm
min

31. *Insulated building elements will
not ignite in fire and will ensure
passage of human beings without
damage on the other side of the
separating element.
Ability to prevent heat transfer
from one face to the other face.
Insulation
Temperatur
e increase
Load Bearing Capacity
Collapse
or
excessive
deflection
Structural Performance:
Building still stands
during an emergency
Ability to carry load
without collapsing
Integrity
Passage
of flame
Ability to resist the
development of crack or
perforations so as not
to allow passage of
smoke and flame
Basic
Principles 4
Fire Containment
Load Bearing Capacity, Integrity
and Insulation
2

32. Covers those devices and systems which
aid firefighters in actively extinguishing
the fire and bringing it to an end earlier
than a free-burning fire.
ensure that all areas
inside and outside the
building are covered
by reach of the
firehose
Basic
Principles 5
Fire Control
Definition and Implication
access road for
firetrucks
Access
Road

33. Basic
Principles 5
Fire Control
Fire apparatus should
have unobstructed access
to buildings.
R
L
W
Bollards and fences used
for traffic control must allow
for sufficient open road
width for fire truck
Site Access for Fire
Control8:
30m> DEAD END
CUL-DE-SAC
T-TURN
Prevent time-consuming,
hazardous back-ups at dead-
ends by using T-turns and cul-
de-sacs
MAX. 90 METERS
FIRE HYDRANT
Place hydrants at max. 3
meters from curb.
Siamese connection to
standpipes must be visible
SIAMESE
CONNECTION
Utility poles, kiosks,
sculpture, fountains, plant
boxes can impede fire
rescue operations
0.3m
Hydrant must be
unobstructed; Fire
hose connection
should be at least

34. Basic
Principles 5
Fire Control
Firetrucks
75 ° (safe
angle)
30
m.
Approx. 10
storeys
8.5 m.
75 °
25
m.
Approx. 8-9
storeys
6.7 m.
75 °
20
m.
Approx. 6-7
storeys
5.6 m.
Aerial
Apparatus
Specifications
:

35. Provides access to a building,
especially in high rise buildings, for fire
brigades.
Is fully-equipped with firefighting
equipment, service elevator, stair and
lobby.
Provides a sufficiently secure operating
base and a rest area in between
firefighting operations.
Wet and Dry
Risers
Elevat
or
shaft
Fire-rated
doors
Basic
Principles 5
Fire Control
Concept of the Firefighting Shaft

36. Measures which can assist to some
extent occupants in the fire zone but are
particularly needed for others in adjacent
areas or compartments.
Techniques of
Smoke Control
a. SMOKE CONTAINMENT/
BARRIER – technique of
restricting the movement
of smoke by the provision
of fire resisting elements.
b. SMOKE DISPERSAL –
technique of clearing
smoke locally by
provision of natural cross-
ventilation or mechanical
venting.
Make Up Air
Smoke Barrier
Smoke Plume
Shop
Mall
Basic
Principles 6
Smoke Control
Definition and Techniques
2
Venting
Extraction of Smoke
Ceiling Reservoir

37. Low
Pressur
e
High
Pressur
e
Uses barriers
including walls,
floors and doors,
to contain
pressurized air
generated by
mechanical
means to keep
smoke away from
protected areas
such as escape
staircases and
corridors.
c. PRESSURIZATION – technique whereby air is
blown into spaces which are designed to be kept
clear of smoke.
Basic
Principles 6
Smoke Control
Definition and Techniques
2

38. Cover a range of passive or active systems
which permit the occupants to move or be
moved to a place of safety within or to the
outside of a building.
FIRE ESCAPE:
fire escape stairs designed to be used daily for
familiarity of escape route
well-maintained (not used as storage of junk)
CORRIDOR SYSTEM:
direct, not tortuous
simple lay-out
no barriers, cul-de-sacs, bottlenecks
doors open out, not in
easily detectible, not hidden from view
Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Definition

39. Escape Route Leading to:
Place of Safety
Place of Safety
Stairway
Enclosure
c. Protected Stairway Enclosure
Place of Safety Place of Safety
Protected Escape
Route
a. Protected Escape Route
Place of Safety
Place of Safety
Protected Lobby
b. Protected Lobby
To provide
safety, the
routes must be
properly
protected from
the effects of
fire and smoke
for an
acceptable
time period,
usually a
minimum of 60
minutes.
This can be
achieved by:
-
Compartmentatio
n
- Fire resistance
of escape route
structure
- Use of smoke
control systems
to keep smoke
out of escape
routes
Protected escape routes are designed
in such a way that they lead to a place
of safety, and once inside the occupants
are safe from the immediate danger
from fire and smoke.
Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Protected Escape Routes
1

40. Access through
Courtyards
exi
t
courtyar
d
Alternative
Means of Escape
-Doors should be as
far as possible from
each other;
preferably on
opposite walls
-Both doors should
not open into the
same compartment
compart
-ment
courtyar
d
subcom
p-
artment
subcom
p-
artment
subcom
p-
artment
subcom
p-
artment
Place of
Safety
Place of
Safety
Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Alternative Means of Escape
1

41. Reqd.
width of
escape
route
Additional width to
allow for door
swing
Design
width
Design
width
90° min 90° min
Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Design of Fire Resisting Doors
1

42. 1. The presence of patients with various degrees
of dependency and immobility on one hand
and the constant presence of staff on the
other.
2. It is assumed that there should be no reliance
on external; rescue or such manipulative types
of escape appliances as chutes or fire ladders.
3. The staff would be fully responsible in
assisting patients within their area of control
to a place of safety in an emergency.
Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Primary Considerations in the
Design for FIRE Safety
of Hospitals1

43. Basic
Principles 7
Escape Provisions
Progressive Horizontal Evacuation
1

45. END
FIRE SAFETY
PRINCIPLES