This document discusses several non-neoplastic and neoplastic conditions of the female genital tract, including:
1. Bartholin's cyst and abscess, which are inflammatory conditions of the Bartholin's glands in the vulva.
2. Non-neoplastic epithelial disorders like lichen sclerosus and squamous hyperplasia that cause lesions on the vulval skin.
3. Various benign and malignant tumours of the vulva, vagina and female genital tract, including condyloma acuminatum, vulval intraepithelial neoplasia, invasive carcinoma, and embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma.
This is a presentation on the topic of cytology of the breast, prepared by Dr Ashish Jawarkar, he is MD in pathology and a teacher at Parul institute of Medical sciences and research Vadodara.
This is a presentation on the topic of cytology of the breast, prepared by Dr Ashish Jawarkar, he is MD in pathology and a teacher at Parul institute of Medical sciences and research Vadodara.
An UPDATE solid knowledge in Vulval cancer, consisting of 12 years experience form lecture notes of
Professor Basel Obaidat~ FRCOG. Gyne/Onco.
24\3\2016
This ppt is intended for teaching cervical pathology to medical graduates. It covers anatomy, basic inflammatory conditions, dysplasia and malignancy and its pathogenesis and diagnosis
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
3. BARTHOLIN’S CYST & ABSCESS
• Inflammation of Bartholin’s vulvovaginal glands (Bartholin’s adenitis)
may occur due to bacterial infection, notably gonorrhoeal infection.
• Infection may be acute or chronic.
• Acute Bartholin’s adenitis occurs from obstruction and dilatation of the
duct by infection resulting in formation of a Bartholin’s abscess.
• Chronic Bartholin’s adenitis results from a less virulent infec tion so that
the process is slow and prolonged.
5. • non-neoplastic epithelial disorders of the skin of vulva includes following
2 lesions:
• 1. Lichen sclerosus (older term: atrophic dystrophy).
• 2. Squamous hyperplasia or keratosis (older term: hyperplastic
dystrophy, or lichen simplex chronicus).
• The two types of lesions may coexist in the same patient called mixed
vulvar dystrophy.
6. Lichen Sclerosus
• more common and more extensive in the vulva in postmenopausal
women.
• Th e lesions appear as multiple, small, coalescent, yellowish-blue
macules or papules which produce thin and shiny parchment-like skin.
• The lesions may extend from vulva onto the perianal and perineal area.
• Clinically, the patient, usually a post-menopausal woman, complains of
intense pruritus which may produce excoriation of the affected skin.
• Eventually, there is progressive shrinkage and atrophy resulting in
narrowing of the introitus, clinically referred to as kraurosis vulvae
7. Lichen Sclerosus MORPHOLOGIC
FEATURES
• Microscopically, the follow - ing characteristics are seen (Fig. 22.1,A):
• 1. Hyperkeratosis of the surface layer.
• 2. Thinning of the epidermis with disappearance of rete ridges.
• 3. Amorphous homogeneous degenerative change in the dermal
collagen.
• 4. Chronic inflammatory infiltrate in the mid-dermis
9. Squamous Hyperplasia
• Squamous hyperplasia, or simply called keratosis, is characterised by
white, thickened vulvar lesions which are usually itchy.
• The cause is unknown
• symptomatic relief results from use of topical corticosteroids.
12. VULVAL TUMOUR
STROMAL POLYPS
• Stromal (fibroepithelial) polyps or acrochordons may form in the vulva or
vagina.
• There may be single or multiple polypoid masses.
• Histologically, they are covered by an orderly stratified squamous
epithelium. The stroma consists of loose fibrous and myxomatous
connective tissue with some adipose tissue and blood vessels.
13. PAPILLARY HIDRADENOMA
(HIDRADENOMA PAPILLIFERUM)
• This is a benign tumour arising from apocrine sweat glands of the vulva.
• Most commonly, it is located in the labia
Histologically
• the tumour lies in the dermis under a normal epidermis.
• The tumour consists of papillary structures
• covered by double layer of epithelial
14. CONDYLOMA ACUMINATUM
• Condyloma acuminata or anogenital warts are benign papillary lesions of
squamous epithelium
• transmitted venereally to male sex partner.
• They may be solitary but more frequently are multiple forming soft
warty masses.
• The common locations are the anus, perineum, vaginal wall, vulva and
vagina.
• They are induced by HPV, particularly types 6 and 11.
15. CONDYLOMA ACUMINATUM
Histologically
• they are identical to their counterparts on male external genitalia.
• The features consist of a tree-like proliferation of stratified
squamous epithelium, showing marked acanthosis,
hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, papillomatosis & perinuclear
vacuolisation of epithelium called koilocytosis, indicative of HPV
infection.
• The papillary projections consist of fibro vascular stoma.
16. VULVAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA
& INVASIVE CARCINOMA
• Vulval intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) and invasive squamous cell
carcinoma are morphologically similar to those in the cervix and vagina.
• viruses in carcinogenesis, particularly high-risk HPV types 16 and 18
• VIN is often multifocal within vulva and may be multicentric as well
• Vulval carcinoma constitutes 3% of all female genital tract cancers.
• VIN occurs in reproductive age
17. VULVAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA
& INVASIVE CARCINOMA
• Grossly, VIN and vulval carcinoma in early stage is a ‘white’ lesion (leukoplakia)
while later the area develops an exophytic or endophytic (ulcerative) growth
pattern.
• The traditional VIN lesion, described as Bowen’s disease of the vulva, is
generally a slightly elevated, velvety, plaque lesion.
18. VULVAL INTRAEPITHELIAL NEOPLASIA &
INVASIVE CARCINOMA
Microscopically,
• VIN may also range from VIN I to VIN III, higher grade being also called
Bowen’s disease (in situ carcinoma).
• Vulvar cancer is squamous cell type with varying degree of anaplasia
and depth of invasion depending upon the stage (Fig.).
• HPV-positive tumours are more often poorly-differentiated squamous cell
carcinoma
• while HPV-negative are well-differentiated kerati nising type.
• Verrucous carcinoma is a rare variant which is a fungating tumour but is
locally malignant.
19. Vulval intraepithelial neoplasia (VIN) (Bowen’s disease)
There is hyperkeratosis, parakeratosis, acanthosis, koilocytosis and presence
of atypical anaplastic cells throughout the entire thickness of the epithelium.
Photomicrograph on right under higher magnification shows mitotic figures in
the layers of squamous epithelium.
20. • Clinical staging for vulval carcinoma based on tumour
size (< or > 2 cm) and extent of spread has been
described by International Federation of Gynaecology
and Obstetrics (FIGO staging)
23. VAGINITIS &
VULVOVAGINITIS
• Since vulva and vagina are anatomically close to each other, often
inflammation of one affects the other location.
• i) Bacterial e.g. streptococci, staphylococci, Escherichia coli,
Haemophilus vaginalis.
• ii) Fungal e.g. Candida albicans.
• iii) Protozoal e.g. Trichomonas vaginalis.
• iv) Viral e.g. Herpes simplex.
24. VAGINITIS &
VULVOVAGINITIS
• The most common causes of vaginitis are Candida (moniliasis) and
Trichomonas (trichomoniasis).
• The hyphae of Candida can be seen in the vaginal smears.
• Similarly, the protozoa, Trichomonas, can be identified in smears.
• These infections are particularly common in pregnant and diabetic
women and may involve both vulva and vagina.
• (adult vaginal mucosa is relatively resistant to gonococcal
infection because of its histology)
26. • Vaginal cysts such as Gartner’s duct (Wolffian) cyst lined by glandular
epithelium and vaginal inclusion cyst arising from inclusion of vaginal
epithelium are more common benign vaginal tumours
• Other uncommon benign tumours are papillomas, fi bromas, lipomas,
angiomas and leiomyomas
• Primary malignancies of the vagina are rare
• and include carcinoma (squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma)
• and embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (sarcoma botryoides).
27. CARCINOMA OF VAGINA
• Primary carcinoma of the vagina is an uncommon tumour.
• Squamous cell dysplasia or vaginal intra epithelial neoplasia occur less
frequently as compared to the cervix or vulva and can be detected by
Pap smears.
• Invasive carcinoma of the vagina includes two main types:
• 1. Squamous cell carcinoma of vagina constitutes less than 2% of all
gynaecologic malignancies. The role of HPV types 16 and 18 in its
etiology
• 2. Adenocarcinoma of the vagina is much less frequent than squamous
cell carcinoma of the vagina. It may be endometrioid or mucinous type.
29. EMBRYONAL RHABDOMYOSARCOMA
(SARCOMA BOTRYOIDES)
• This is an unusual and rare malignant tumour occurring in
infants and children
• under 5 years of age.
• The common location is anterior vaginal wall.
30. EMBRYONAL RHABDOMYOSARCOMA
(SARCOMA BOTRYOIDES)
MORPHOLOGIC FEATURES
Grossly
• The tumour is charac terised by bulky and polypoid grape-like mass
(botryoides = grape) that fills and projects out of the vagina.
Histologically:
• 1. Groups of round to fusiform tumour cells are characteristically lying
underneath the vaginal epithelium, called cambium layer of tumour cells.
• 2. The central core of polypoid masses is composed of loose and myxoid
stroma with many infl ammatory cells.