Introduction to CMOS VLSI Design:
This Presentations is design in way to provide basic summary of CMOS Vlsi design
This Presentation is Made at Eutectics.blogspot.in
the following is the structure of presentation :
2: Outline
3: Introduction
4: MOS capacitor
5: Terminal Voltage
6: nMOS Cutoff
7: nMOS Linear
8: nMOS Saturation
9: I-V Characteristics
10 : Channel Charge
11: Carrier velocity
12: nMOS Linear I-V
13: nMOS Saturation
14: nMOS I-V Summary
15: Example
16: pMOS I-V
17: Capacitance
18: Gate Capacitance
19: Diffusion Capacitane
20: Pass Transistor
21: Pass transistor ckts
22: Effective Resistance
23: RC Delay Model
24: RC values
25: Inverter Delay Estimate
Introduction to CMOS VLSI Design:
This Presentations is design in way to provide basic summary of CMOS Vlsi design
This Presentation is Made at Eutectics.blogspot.in
the following is the structure of presentation :
2: Outline
3: Introduction
4: MOS capacitor
5: Terminal Voltage
6: nMOS Cutoff
7: nMOS Linear
8: nMOS Saturation
9: I-V Characteristics
10 : Channel Charge
11: Carrier velocity
12: nMOS Linear I-V
13: nMOS Saturation
14: nMOS I-V Summary
15: Example
16: pMOS I-V
17: Capacitance
18: Gate Capacitance
19: Diffusion Capacitane
20: Pass Transistor
21: Pass transistor ckts
22: Effective Resistance
23: RC Delay Model
24: RC values
25: Inverter Delay Estimate
lect1-circuits and layout
VLSI
A Brief History
CMOS Gate Design
Pass Transistors
CMOS Latches & Flip-Flops
Standard Cell Layouts
Stick Diagrams
Bipolar transistors
npn or pnp silicon structure
Small current into very thin base layer controls large currents between emitter and collector
Base currents limit integration density
VLSI affords IC designers the ability to design utilizing less space. Typically, electronic circuits incorporate a CPU, RAM, ROM, and other peripherals on a single PCBA. However, very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology affords an IC designer the ability to add all of these into one chip.
lect1-circuits and layout
VLSI
A Brief History
CMOS Gate Design
Pass Transistors
CMOS Latches & Flip-Flops
Standard Cell Layouts
Stick Diagrams
Bipolar transistors
npn or pnp silicon structure
Small current into very thin base layer controls large currents between emitter and collector
Base currents limit integration density
VLSI affords IC designers the ability to design utilizing less space. Typically, electronic circuits incorporate a CPU, RAM, ROM, and other peripherals on a single PCBA. However, very large-scale integration (VLSI) technology affords an IC designer the ability to add all of these into one chip.
Similar to FALLSEM2023-24_BECE303L_TH_VL2023240100242_2023-04-24_Reference-Material-I.ppt (20)
Levelwise PageRank with Loop-Based Dead End Handling Strategy : SHORT REPORT ...Subhajit Sahu
Abstract — Levelwise PageRank is an alternative method of PageRank computation which decomposes the input graph into a directed acyclic block-graph of strongly connected components, and processes them in topological order, one level at a time. This enables calculation for ranks in a distributed fashion without per-iteration communication, unlike the standard method where all vertices are processed in each iteration. It however comes with a precondition of the absence of dead ends in the input graph. Here, the native non-distributed performance of Levelwise PageRank was compared against Monolithic PageRank on a CPU as well as a GPU. To ensure a fair comparison, Monolithic PageRank was also performed on a graph where vertices were split by components. Results indicate that Levelwise PageRank is about as fast as Monolithic PageRank on the CPU, but quite a bit slower on the GPU. Slowdown on the GPU is likely caused by a large submission of small workloads, and expected to be non-issue when the computation is performed on massive graphs.
06-04-2024 - NYC Tech Week - Discussion on Vector Databases, Unstructured Data and AI
Discussion on Vector Databases, Unstructured Data and AI
https://www.meetup.com/unstructured-data-meetup-new-york/
This meetup is for people working in unstructured data. Speakers will come present about related topics such as vector databases, LLMs, and managing data at scale. The intended audience of this group includes roles like machine learning engineers, data scientists, data engineers, software engineers, and PMs.This meetup was formerly Milvus Meetup, and is sponsored by Zilliz maintainers of Milvus.
Adjusting OpenMP PageRank : SHORT REPORT / NOTESSubhajit Sahu
For massive graphs that fit in RAM, but not in GPU memory, it is possible to take
advantage of a shared memory system with multiple CPUs, each with multiple cores, to
accelerate pagerank computation. If the NUMA architecture of the system is properly taken
into account with good vertex partitioning, the speedup can be significant. To take steps in
this direction, experiments are conducted to implement pagerank in OpenMP using two
different approaches, uniform and hybrid. The uniform approach runs all primitives required
for pagerank in OpenMP mode (with multiple threads). On the other hand, the hybrid
approach runs certain primitives in sequential mode (i.e., sumAt, multiply).
The Building Blocks of QuestDB, a Time Series Databasejavier ramirez
Talk Delivered at Valencia Codes Meetup 2024-06.
Traditionally, databases have treated timestamps just as another data type. However, when performing real-time analytics, timestamps should be first class citizens and we need rich time semantics to get the most out of our data. We also need to deal with ever growing datasets while keeping performant, which is as fun as it sounds.
It is no wonder time-series databases are now more popular than ever before. Join me in this session to learn about the internal architecture and building blocks of QuestDB, an open source time-series database designed for speed. We will also review a history of some of the changes we have gone over the past two years to deal with late and unordered data, non-blocking writes, read-replicas, or faster batch ingestion.
06-04-2024 - NYC Tech Week - Discussion on Vector Databases, Unstructured Data and AI
Round table discussion of vector databases, unstructured data, ai, big data, real-time, robots and Milvus.
A lively discussion with NJ Gen AI Meetup Lead, Prasad and Procure.FYI's Co-Found
Techniques to optimize the pagerank algorithm usually fall in two categories. One is to try reducing the work per iteration, and the other is to try reducing the number of iterations. These goals are often at odds with one another. Skipping computation on vertices which have already converged has the potential to save iteration time. Skipping in-identical vertices, with the same in-links, helps reduce duplicate computations and thus could help reduce iteration time. Road networks often have chains which can be short-circuited before pagerank computation to improve performance. Final ranks of chain nodes can be easily calculated. This could reduce both the iteration time, and the number of iterations. If a graph has no dangling nodes, pagerank of each strongly connected component can be computed in topological order. This could help reduce the iteration time, no. of iterations, and also enable multi-iteration concurrency in pagerank computation. The combination of all of the above methods is the STICD algorithm. [sticd] For dynamic graphs, unchanged components whose ranks are unaffected can be skipped altogether.
9. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
2: MIPS Processor Example 9
Structured Design
Hierarchy: Divide and Conquer
– Recursively system into modules
Regularity
– Decomposition of a large system in simple and
similar blocks as much as possible.
– Reuse modules wherever possible
– Ex: Standard cell library
10. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Modularity: well-formed interfaces
– Modularity in design means that the various
functional blocks which make up the larger
system must have well-defined functions and
interfaces.
– Modularity allows that each block or module can
be designed relatively independently from each
other.
– All of the blocks can be combined with ease at
the end of the design process, to form the large
system.
10
11. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
– The concept of modularity enables the
parallelisation of the design process.
– Allows modules to be treated as black boxes
Locality
– The concept of locality also ensures that
connections are mostly between neighboring
modules, avoiding long-distance connections as
much as possible.
– Physical and temporal
11
12. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 12
nMOS Transistor
Four terminals: gate, source, drain, body
Gate – oxide – body stack looks like a capacitor
– Gate and body are conductors
– SiO2 (oxide) is a very good insulator
– Called metal – oxide – semiconductor (MOS)
capacitor
– Even though gate is
no longer made of metal
n+
p
Gate
Source Drain
bulk Si
SiO2
Polysilicon
n+
Body
13. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 13
nMOS Operation
Body is usually tied to ground (0 V)
When the gate is at a low voltage:
– P-type body is at low voltage
– Source-body and drain-body diodes are OFF
– No current flows, transistor is OFF
n+
p
Gate
Source Drain
bulk Si
SiO2
Polysilicon
n+
D
0
S
14. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 14
polysilicon gate
(a)
silicon dioxide insulator
p-type body
+
-
Vg < 0
MOS Capacitor
Gate and body form MOS
capacitor
Operating modes
– Accumulation
– Depletion
– Inversion
(b)
+
-
0 < Vg < Vt
depletion region
(c)
+
-
Vg > Vt
depletion region
inversion region
15. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 15
Terminal Voltages
Mode of operation depends on Vg, Vd, Vs
– Vgs = Vg – Vs
– Vgd = Vg – Vd
– Vds = Vd – Vs = Vgs - Vgd
Source and drain are symmetric diffusion terminals
– By convention, source is terminal at lower voltage
– Hence Vds 0
nMOS body is grounded. First assume source is 0 too.
Three regions of operation
– Cutoff
– Linear
– Saturation
Vg
Vs
Vd
Vgd
Vgs
Vds
+
-
+
-
+
-
16. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 16
nMOS Cutoff
No channel
Ids ≈ 0
+
-
Vgs
= 0
n+ n+
+
-
Vgd
p-type body
b
g
s d
17. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 17
nMOS Linear
Channel forms
Current flows from d to s
– e- from s to d
Ids increases with Vds
Similar to linear resistor
+
-
Vgs
> Vt
n+ n+
+
-
Vgd
= Vgs
+
-
Vgs
> Vt
n+ n+
+
-
Vgs
> Vgd
> Vt
Vds
= 0
0 < Vds
< Vgs
-Vt
p-type body
p-type body
b
g
s d
b
g
s d
Ids
18. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 18
nMOS Saturation
Channel pinches off
Ids independent of Vds
We say current saturates
Similar to current source
+
-
Vgs
> Vt
n+ n+
+
-
Vgd
< Vt
Vds
> Vgs
-Vt
p-type body
b
g
s d Ids
19. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 19
Ideal I-V Characteristics
In Linear region, Ids depends on
– How much charge is in the channel?
– How fast is the charge moving?
20. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 20
Channel Charge
MOS structure looks like parallel plate capacitor
while operating in inversions
– Gate – oxide – channel
Qchannel = CV
C = Cg = eoxWL/tox = CoxWL
V = Vgc – Vt = (Vgs – Vds/2) – Vt
n+ n+
p-type body
+
Vgd
gate
+ +
source
-
Vgs
-
drain
Vds
channel
-
Vg
Vs
Vd
Cg
n+ n+
p-type body
W
L
tox
SiO2
gate oxide
(good insulator, eox
= 3.9)
polysilicon
gate
Cox = eox / tox
21. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Vgc- vt = amount of voltage attracting charge to the
channel beyond the minimum required to invert from
P to n.
21
22. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 22
Carrier velocity
Charge is carried by e-
Electrons are propelled by the lateral electric field
between source and drain
– E = Vds/L
Carrier velocity v proportional to lateral E-field
– v = mE m called mobility
Time for carrier to cross channel:
– t = L / v
23. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 23
nMOS Linear I-V
Now we know
– How much charge Qchannel is in the channel
– How much time t each carrier takes to cross
channel
ox 2
2
ds
ds
gs t ds
ds
gs t ds
Q
I
t
W V
C V V V
L
V
V V V
m
ox
=
W
C
L
m
24. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 24
nMOS Saturation I-V
If Vgd < Vt, channel pinches off near drain
– When Vds > Vdsat = Vgs – Vt
Now drain voltage no longer increases current
2
2
2
dsat
ds gs t dsat
gs t
V
I V V V
V V
25. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 25
nMOS I-V Summary
2
cutoff
linear
saturatio
0
2
2
n
gs t
ds
ds gs t ds ds dsat
gs t ds dsat
V V
V
I V V V V V
V V V V
Shockley 1st order transistor models
26. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 26
pMOS Transistor
Similar, but doping and voltages reversed
– Body tied to high voltage (VDD)
– Gate low: transistor ON
– Gate high: transistor OFF
– Bubble indicates inverted behavior
SiO2
n
Gate
Source Drain
bulk Si
Polysilicon
p+ p+
27. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed. 27
Transistors as Switches
We can view MOS transistors as electrically
controlled switches
Voltage at gate controls path from source to drain
g
s
d
g = 0
s
d
g = 1
s
d
g
s
d
s
d
s
d
nMOS
pMOS
OFF
ON
ON
OFF
28. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 28
Capacitance
Any two conductors separated by an insulator have
capacitance
Gate to channel capacitor is very important
– Creates channel charge necessary for operation
Source and drain have capacitance to body
– Across reverse-biased diodes
– Called diffusion capacitance because it is
associated with source/drain diffusion
29. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 29
Gate Capacitance
Approximate channel as connected to source
Cgs = eoxWL/tox = CoxWL = CpermicronW
Cpermicron is typically about 2 fF/mm
n+ n+
p-type body
W
L
tox
SiO2
gate oxide
(good insulator, eox
= 3.9e0
)
polysilicon
gate
30. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
C-V characteristics
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 30
The total value of this capacitance is called the
gate capacitance Cg and can be decomposed into
two elements, each with a different behavior.
• Obviously, one part of Cg contributes to the
channel charge.
• Another part is solely due to the topological
structure of the transistor.
31. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Dynamic Behavior of MOS Transistor
D
S
G
B
CGD
CGS
CSB CDB
CGB
32. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Overlap capacitance
tox
n+ n+
Cross section
L
Gate oxide
xd xd
Ld
Polysilicon gate
Top view
Gate-bulk
overlap
Source
n+
Drain
n+
W
33. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Channel Capacitance
S D
G
CGC
S D
G
CGC
S D
G
CGC
Cut-off Resistive Saturation
Most important regions in digital design: saturation and cut-off
34. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Channel Capacitance
WLCox
WLCox
2
2WLCox
3
CGC
CGCS
VDS /(VGS-VT)
CGCD
0 1
CGC
CGCS = CGCD
CGC B
WLCox
WLCox
2
VGS
Capacitance as a function of VGS
(with VDS = 0)
Capacitance as a function of the
degree of saturation
35. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
Diffusion (Junction) Capacitance
Bottom
Side wall
Side wall
Channel
Source
ND
Channel-stop implant
N
A1
SubstrateNA
W
xj
L S
36. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 36
Figure 0.3 shows NMOS and PMOS devices with drains, source, and gate
ports annotated. Determine the mode of operation (saturation, linear, or
cutoff) and drain current ID for each of the biasing configurations given
below. Use the following
transistor data: NMOS: k'n = 115μA/V2, VT0 = 0.43 V, λ = 0.06 V–1, PMOS:
k'p = 30 μA/V2, VT0 = –0.4 V, λ = -0.1 V–1. Assume (W/L) = 1.
a. NMOS: VGS = 2.5 V, VDS = 2.5 V. PMOS: VGS = –0.5 V, VDS = –1.25 V.
b. NMOS: VGS = 3.3 V, VDS = 2.2 V. PMOS: VGS = –2.5 V, VDS = –1.8 V.
37. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
3: CMOS Transistor Theory 37
Consider an NMOS transistor with the following parameters:
tox = 6 nm, L = 0.24 μm, W = 0.36 μm, LD = LS = 0.625 μm, CO
= 3 x 10–10 F/m, Cj0 = 2 x10–3 F/m2, Cjsw0 = 2.75x10–10
F/m. Determine the zero-bias value of all relevant
capacitances.
39. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 39
Non-ideal Transistor Theory
Nonideal Transistor Behavior
– High Field Effects
• Mobility Degradation
• Velocity Saturation
– Channel Length Modulation
– Threshold Voltage Effects
• Body Effect
• Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering
• Short Channel Effect
– Leakage
• Subthreshold Leakage
• Gate Leakage
• Junction Leakage
40. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 40
Channel Length Modulation
Reverse-biased p-n junctions form a depletion region
– Region between n and p with no carriers
– Width of depletion Ld region grows with reverse bias
– Leff = L – Ld
Shorter Leff gives more current
– Ids increases with Vds
– Even in saturation
n
+
p
Gate
Source Drain
bulk Si
n
+
VDD
GND VDD
GND
L
Leff
Depletion Region
Width: Ld
41. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 41
Chan Length Mod I-V
l = channel length modulation coefficient
– not feature size
– Empirically fit to I-V characteristics
2
1
2
ds gs t ds
I V V V
l
42. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 42
Ideal vs. Simulated nMOS I-V Plot
65 nm IBM process, VDD = 1.0 V
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Vds
Ids (mA)
Vgs = 1.0
Vgs = 1.0
Vgs = 0.8
Vgs = 0.6
Vgs = 0.4
Vgs = 0.8
Vgs = 0.6
Channel length modulation:
Saturation current increases
with Vds
Ion = 747 mA @
Vgs = Vds = VDD
Simulated
Ideal
Velocity saturation & Mobility degradation:
Saturation current increases less than
quadratically with Vgs
Velocity saturation & Mobility degradation:
Ion lower than ideal model predicts
43. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 43
Electric Fields Effects
Vertical electric field: Evert = Vgs / tox
– Attracts carriers into channel
– Long channel: Qchannel Evert
Lateral electric field: Elat = Vds / L
– Accelerates carriers from drain to source
– Long channel: v = mElat
44. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 44
Velocity Saturation
At high Elat, carrier velocity rolls off
– Carriers scatter off atoms in silicon lattice
– Velocity reaches vsat
• Electrons: 107 cm/s
• Holes: 8 x 106 cm/s
– Better model
45. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 45
Threshold Voltage Effects
Vt is Vgs for which the channel starts to invert
Ideal models assumed Vt is constant
Really depends (weakly) on almost everything else:
– Body voltage: Body Effect
– Drain voltage: Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering
– Channel length: Short Channel Effect
46. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 46
Body Effect
Body is a fourth transistor terminal
Vsb affects the charge required to invert the channel
– Increasing Vs or decreasing Vb increases Vt
fs = surface potential at threshold
– Depends on doping level NA
– And intrinsic carrier concentration ni
g = body effect coefficient
0
t t s sb s
V V V
g f f
2 ln A
s T
i
N
v
n
f
si
ox
si
ox ox
2q
2q A
A
N
t
N
C
e
g e
e
47. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 47
DIBL
Electric field from drain affects channel
More pronounced in small transistors where the
drain is closer to the channel
Drain-Induced Barrier Lowering
– Drain voltage also affect Vt
High drain voltage causes current to increase.
ttdsVVV
t t ds
V V V
48. CMOS VLSI Design 4th Ed.
4: Nonideal Transistor Theory 48
Temperature Sensitivity
Increasing temperature
– Reduces mobility
– Reduces Vt
ION decreases with temperature
IOFF increases with temperature
Vgs
ds
I
increasing
temperature