This study explored the factors that hinder females from accessing senior leadership roles in selected public secondary schools in Solwezi district. To achieve the research purpose, a qualitative approach was employed in order to undertake a direct exploration, analysis and interpretation anchored on a narrative research design.
Dr. Kritsonis, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study surveyed 83 female elementary school principals across 20 Texas school districts to identify the top gender-specific challenges they face. The principals selected from a list of 12 potential issues and the top 5 issues were identified. The most commonly faced issues were a male-dominated leadership culture (35%), cultural stereotypes of professional roles (25%), lack of support from higher administration (25%), lack of support from parents during student discipline (20%), and sexual innuendo from male subordinates (15%). The study aims to help leadership programs and professional development better prepare and support women administrators.
Barriers to Women Leadership
1Ugwu Jovita Nnenna, 2Tom Mulegi, 3Asiati Mbabazi, and 4Eze Chidinma Esther
1Department of Publication and Extension Kampala International University, Uganda.
2Department of Public Administration and Management Faculty of Business and Management Kampala International University Uganda.
3Faculty of Education Kampala International University Uganda.
4Department of Educational Foundation, Kampala International University, Uganda.
________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Women have made significant strides over the past half a century in terms of advancements into the workforce. However, it is well-documented that women occupy top executive positions in politics and industry much less frequently than men. Bias and discrimination against professional females could take place when members of a society hold certain stereotypes that are in contrast with the actual characteristics of these women. These stereotypes can prevent females from achieving their goals as a result of the expected social roles they have to uphold. This paper critically examined social role theory and gender stereotypes to explain a deeper motive as to why women to some extent are being underrepresented in leadership positions. Moreover, these literature review provided a comprehensive overview of gender discrimination barriers to leadership.
Keywords: Women, Leadership, Society, Discrimination and Barriers.
1) The document discusses barriers faced by Latina women in achieving leadership positions in education, including lack of professional networks and mentoring, systemic discrimination, and navigating both professional and cultural expectations.
2) It highlights the stories of five Latina school leaders who overcame these barriers through finding support systems, identifying mentors, and using their cultural skills and experiences to benefit the students and communities they served.
3) While they faced discrimination and feelings of isolation, the women indicated that the very aspects of their identity that caused challenges, such as language skills, also enabled their success in representing and supporting Latino students and families.
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national and international refereed, blind-reviewed academic journals. NFJ publishes articles academic intellectual diversity, multicultural issues, management, business, administration, issues focusing on colleges, universities, and schools, all aspects of schooling, special education, counseling and addiction, international issues of education, organizational behavior, theory and development, and much more. DR. WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
This summary provides an overview of the key points in the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses how gendered communication patterns developed due to different historical leadership roles influence perceptions of women's leadership. It analyzes research showing teachers interact with and praise male students more in elementary school, influencing the development of communication styles. The thesis will examine how power-based language used in college classrooms impacts perceptions of leadership for men and women and how addressing this issue requires both structural and individual changes.
This document discusses a case study analyzing perceptions of gender and women in leadership positions in the Australian primary education sector. It provides context on the shift from traditional "heroic" models of masculine leadership to more collaborative "postheroic" models embracing feminine traits. The case study aims to investigate the theoretical role gender plays in perceptions of female leaders in Australian primary schools, using Fletcher's concepts of "doing gender" and the resilience of heroic leadership. It notes that while women represent the majority of teachers, they are underrepresented in school principal roles. The case study will examine rhetoric around female political leaders, literature on traditional vs transformative leadership, and language in job descriptions.
This document discusses gender and leadership. It begins by providing an overview and historical context, noting that research on gender and leadership largely ignored women until the 1970s. It then discusses the "glass ceiling" that limits women's advancement and representation in elite leadership roles. Several factors are proposed to explain the gender gap in leadership positions, including human capital differences, gender stereotypes, and prejudice. The document examines differences in leadership styles and effectiveness between men and women. It explores how gender stereotypes can affect women leaders and provides strategies for navigating barriers to help increase female representation in leadership.
Dr. Kritsonis, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
This study surveyed 83 female elementary school principals across 20 Texas school districts to identify the top gender-specific challenges they face. The principals selected from a list of 12 potential issues and the top 5 issues were identified. The most commonly faced issues were a male-dominated leadership culture (35%), cultural stereotypes of professional roles (25%), lack of support from higher administration (25%), lack of support from parents during student discipline (20%), and sexual innuendo from male subordinates (15%). The study aims to help leadership programs and professional development better prepare and support women administrators.
Barriers to Women Leadership
1Ugwu Jovita Nnenna, 2Tom Mulegi, 3Asiati Mbabazi, and 4Eze Chidinma Esther
1Department of Publication and Extension Kampala International University, Uganda.
2Department of Public Administration and Management Faculty of Business and Management Kampala International University Uganda.
3Faculty of Education Kampala International University Uganda.
4Department of Educational Foundation, Kampala International University, Uganda.
________________________________________
ABSTRACT
Women have made significant strides over the past half a century in terms of advancements into the workforce. However, it is well-documented that women occupy top executive positions in politics and industry much less frequently than men. Bias and discrimination against professional females could take place when members of a society hold certain stereotypes that are in contrast with the actual characteristics of these women. These stereotypes can prevent females from achieving their goals as a result of the expected social roles they have to uphold. This paper critically examined social role theory and gender stereotypes to explain a deeper motive as to why women to some extent are being underrepresented in leadership positions. Moreover, these literature review provided a comprehensive overview of gender discrimination barriers to leadership.
Keywords: Women, Leadership, Society, Discrimination and Barriers.
1) The document discusses barriers faced by Latina women in achieving leadership positions in education, including lack of professional networks and mentoring, systemic discrimination, and navigating both professional and cultural expectations.
2) It highlights the stories of five Latina school leaders who overcame these barriers through finding support systems, identifying mentors, and using their cultural skills and experiences to benefit the students and communities they served.
3) While they faced discrimination and feelings of isolation, the women indicated that the very aspects of their identity that caused challenges, such as language skills, also enabled their success in representing and supporting Latino students and families.
Inequalities of women trahan & growe (focus) doneWilliam Kritsonis
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS are a group of national and international refereed, blind-reviewed academic journals. NFJ publishes articles academic intellectual diversity, multicultural issues, management, business, administration, issues focusing on colleges, universities, and schools, all aspects of schooling, special education, counseling and addiction, international issues of education, organizational behavior, theory and development, and much more. DR. WILLIAM ALLAN KRITSONIS is Editor-in-Chief (Since 1982). See: www.nationalforum.com
NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982 (www.nationalforum.com) is a group of national and international refereed journals. NFJ publishes articles on colleges, universities and schools; management, business and administration; academic scholarship, multicultural issues; schooling; special education; teaching and learning; counseling and addiction; alcohol and drugs; crime and criminology; disparities in health; risk behaviors; international issues; education; organizational theory and behavior; educational leadership and supervision; action and applied research; teacher education; race, gender, society; public school law; philosophy and history; psychology, sociology, and much more. Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief.
This summary provides an overview of the key points in the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses how gendered communication patterns developed due to different historical leadership roles influence perceptions of women's leadership. It analyzes research showing teachers interact with and praise male students more in elementary school, influencing the development of communication styles. The thesis will examine how power-based language used in college classrooms impacts perceptions of leadership for men and women and how addressing this issue requires both structural and individual changes.
This document discusses a case study analyzing perceptions of gender and women in leadership positions in the Australian primary education sector. It provides context on the shift from traditional "heroic" models of masculine leadership to more collaborative "postheroic" models embracing feminine traits. The case study aims to investigate the theoretical role gender plays in perceptions of female leaders in Australian primary schools, using Fletcher's concepts of "doing gender" and the resilience of heroic leadership. It notes that while women represent the majority of teachers, they are underrepresented in school principal roles. The case study will examine rhetoric around female political leaders, literature on traditional vs transformative leadership, and language in job descriptions.
This document discusses gender and leadership. It begins by providing an overview and historical context, noting that research on gender and leadership largely ignored women until the 1970s. It then discusses the "glass ceiling" that limits women's advancement and representation in elite leadership roles. Several factors are proposed to explain the gender gap in leadership positions, including human capital differences, gender stereotypes, and prejudice. The document examines differences in leadership styles and effectiveness between men and women. It explores how gender stereotypes can affect women leaders and provides strategies for navigating barriers to help increase female representation in leadership.
This document discusses the need for leadership development programs designed specifically for women in higher education. It summarizes that while women now earn over half of college degrees, they hold significantly fewer top administrative positions than men. Gender-specific leadership programs can help advance more women by addressing barriers like unconscious biases, lack of mentors and networks, and challenges balancing career and family responsibilities. The document examines differences in typical leadership styles between men and women, and argues leadership training should consider reinforcing women's tendency toward transformational leadership styles.
This document discusses the lack of gender diversity in leadership positions in Malaysia. It finds that while women make up approximately 60% of university graduates, they hold only 27% of management roles and 5% of CEO positions in Malaysian companies. Similarly, in government, women hold only 34% of decision-making roles in the public service and 11% of parliamentary seats. The document argues that greater gender diversity in leadership leads to better organizational performance and governance. However, women face barriers such as masculine organizational cultures, social and cultural norms, and a lack of role models. To address this, organizations, women, and men must work together to remove these barriers through recognition of the issues, setting numerical diversity targets, and holding leaders accountable.
Women have faced significant barriers in securing formal employment and advancing to leadership positions, known as the "glass ceiling". Factors such as gender stereotypes that associate leadership with masculinity, and the perceived incompatibility of women's family responsibilities with demanding careers, have contributed to the glass ceiling. Organizational practices such as limited recruitment and training of women have also perpetuated barriers to women's advancement.
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...Jeff Nelson
This document summarizes research on women's empowerment and participation in leadership positions in public institutions in the Benishangul Gumuz region of Ethiopia. It finds that while women make up about half the population, they have less emphasis placed on their empowerment and face cultural and organizational barriers to leadership roles. Even though some women are confident in becoming leaders, organizations do not provide mentoring, coaching or training support. The study recommends that concerned organizations give more attention to empowering women.
There are several reasons why women are underrepresented in elite leadership roles. First, women's family responsibilities often force them to leave their careers voluntarily, and it can be difficult to return or regain their previous status. Additionally, women are less likely than men to promote themselves for leadership positions due to gender biases and social pressures. Finally, prevalent gender stereotypes associate women with communal rather than agentic leadership traits, resulting in prejudice that views women as less qualified than men for elite roles.
Gender Stratification Essay
Gender Stratification in the Workplace
Gender Stratification In Late Adulthood
Gender Stratification
Evolutionary View Of Gender Stratification
The Breadwinner/Caregiver Model
Life Chances And Equality Between Men And Women
Gender Stratification In The United States
Why Does Gender Stratification Exist? Essay
Gender Stratification And Its Impact On Society
Gender Stratification in the U.S. Today Essay
The Gender Division Between Men And Women Essay
Why Does Gender Stratification Exist?
This document summarizes a study that explored factors that contributed to women reaching senior policymaking positions in Israel. The study used in-depth interviews and questionnaires with 20 high-ranking women in Israel and a comparison group of 60 other women.
The findings identified diverse factors at multiple levels - including organizational properties that supported work-life balance, familial features like support at home, and personal attributes such as androgynous personality traits - that contributed to the advancement of women leaders. The researchers aimed to understand the obstacles women faced and how some overcame barriers to provide recommendations for promoting more women to positions of influence.
Qiang 6Gender NormsIntroductionAs human beings, we have a.docxmakdul
Qiang 6
Gender Norms
Introduction
As human beings, we have assigned ourselves roles in society that typify our different genders. Women have been assigned specific roles within society while the men have been assigned different set of roles as well. + Examples? Whereas this separation of roles between genders may be beneficial and accepted in some instances, it has worked to alienate a particular gender from various spheres of life in general. This paper argues that women have been disadvantaged by these accepted gender norms and as a result, stereotypes that are detrimental to women have been developed, women have been stifled when it comes to certain work industries such as the media and the portrayal of women in different media has as well worked to enhance these detrimental stereotypes (O’Brien, 14). It is important that these negative aspects of norms are considered (addressed and tackled) so that gender equality as envisaged by a majority of the world’s governments is achieved.
Gender norms refer to what society views as the correct male or female behavior. These expected norms of behavior are what would normally lead to the development of different gender roles for the males and females. The gender norms differ from one culture to another. The Middle East for instance is known for having their women solely dedicated to household and family duties, with minimal say in the affairs of government or anything beyond the family life. Women in these parts would as well have limited access to an education. Men in these areas, such as Pakistan for instance, have a greater say in the affairs of the country and in development as opposed to women.
Thesis Statement
Gender norms that have been accepted by society have had a detrimental effect on the females, with women being stereotyped in negative ways, their portrayal in society being negative and their progress in various job industries stifled as a result of these assigned norms.
Gender norms pose gender stereotypes on females, leading the public to view them with biased opinions and preventing them to make progress in their careers.
Discussion
Gender norms lead to the development of gender roles which normally develop in human beings from as early as childhood. This is normally as a result of the interactions we have with our parents, peers and teachers as well. + Evidence. These adults will normally reinforce the gender norms through education or the clothes they buy for their children, the colors they decorate rooms with or the different toys they provide to their children. It is these different roles that will normally lead to the development of stereotypes associated with either gender.
Stereotypes are generalizations and assumptions about what ought to be male or female characteristics. In most instances, these assumptions are inaccurate and hence they tend to have a negative impact. The stereotypes that are associated with women have worked to affect their progress in various s ...
Barriers women in Senior Management face in across Public and Private sectorsVanessa C
This document summarizes a report that compares the rates of women in senior management positions across the public and private sectors in Australia. It finds that while women make up over half the public sector workforce, they only hold about 40% of senior roles. In the private sector, women represent 34% of managers but it is estimated it would take 177 years for equal representation. The summary discusses barriers like organizational culture, glass ceilings, and gendered work environments that have limited women's advancement. While equal opportunity laws have been enacted, the impact has been minimal and changes are still largely dependent on policies at the organizational level.
The document discusses gender differences in leadership effectiveness and the barriers that women face in achieving leadership positions. While men and women are equally effective leaders overall, women tend to be more effective in leadership roles that align with stereotypical feminine traits, like education and social services. However, women are underrepresented in top leadership positions due to factors like human capital differences related to domestic responsibilities, gender differences in self-promotion, and prejudice stemming from perceptions that leadership requires stereotypically masculine traits. The "glass ceiling" refers to the invisible barrier preventing women's advancement, and its persistence is related to a lack of recognition of women's business, strategic, and financial acumen.
SArmendariz Literature Review - Black Women in PoliticsSydney Armendariz
The literature review examines how the intersection of race and gender affects Black women's attainment of political leadership positions. Several key points are discussed:
1) Black women experience invisibility in society and politics due to not fitting stereotypes of traditional leaders. Studies show they are more likely to be overlooked or have their contributions confused.
2) Unique leadership styles have developed, such as "bridge leadership," where Black women informally organize people without official titles.
3) Stereotypes of Black women can influence perceptions of their leadership and increase scrutiny of any failures.
The review finds that race presents more barriers than gender for Black women in politics, and their dual minority status subjects them to double standards and criticism
This document summarizes research on the underrepresentation of women in academic and science careers. It finds that while women earn over half of degrees, their representation decreases at higher levels of the career ladder. This is due to both the structure of careers being modeled on a male norm and a lack of support/unconscious bias against women. Key factors include inflexible career timelines that disadvantage women who take time off for family caregiving responsibilities, lack of support networks and mentoring for women, gender bias in hiring and promotion, and discrimination like sexual harassment. Recent research also examines changing attitudes among younger academics but the need for institutional reforms to promote greater transparency and remove bias from decision-making processes.
This document discusses gender and educational attainment. It explores how gender norms are constructed and enacted in schools. Gender influences educational experiences through factors like subject selection, teacher expectations, and peer relationships. While girls have made gains, subject selection remains influenced by 19th century ideas. Boys still face issues like lower rates of university completion. The document examines how students "do gender" and negotiate norms through interactions. It also discusses challenges like gendered bullying and pressures of heteronormativity.
Girls are socialised to grow knowing that their role is taking care of the families. The homemaking role continues to override women career aspirations among the Kenyan women. With emerging trends in the last three decades in Kenya, more girls have continued to access higher education with most studies showing that they still fall under the social sciences. Very few women enrol and complete training in science and technology fields at higher education. This paper examines the role of career counsellors in informing career decision-making process for girls to empower them to aspire fields in science fields, a Kenyan perspective.
This document summarizes research on gender disparities in higher education. It shows that in 2005-2006, women earned more degrees than men at all levels of higher education. However, in 2015, women only represented 42.4% of full-time faculty despite earning more degrees. It also discusses how masculinist culture and gender stereotypes in universities can disadvantage women in obtaining faculty and executive positions. Common barriers for women include fewer obtaining full professor roles, lower salaries, and less representation in university leadership positions like presidents and provosts. The document provides tips for how women can advance, such as finding mentors, building reputation, and seizing collaborative opportunities.
This document summarizes research on factors that contribute to women's underrepresentation in STEM fields. It discusses how a lack of sense of belonging and lower self-efficacy among women in STEM can influence their persistence. Stereotypes and a lack of mentors also impact women's experiences. The document proposes that interstitial communities that provide support, networking, and training in assertiveness can help buffer these issues and improve retention of women in STEM.
This document discusses women, management, and globalization in the Middle East. It provides insights into how globalization has both positively and negatively impacted women's social status and economic opportunities in the region. While globalization has created some jobs for women, gender inequalities persist in the labor market and women face barriers to advancement. Cultural and institutional factors like patriarchal social norms and lack of policies against domestic violence also limit women's empowerment. The document presents a framework to evaluate progress on women's leadership that considers governmental, organizational, and individual strategies, and calls for more research integrating gender, management, and Middle East studies.
This document provides an overview of the course "Gender, School and Society". The objectives of the course are to develop an understanding of key gender concepts and theories, analyze how socialization impacts identity formation, and reflect on gender issues in education curriculum. Several topics are outlined that will be covered in Unit IV, including the social construction of masculinity and femininity, how patriarchy interacts with other social structures, and strategies for promoting gender equality in the classroom. Definitions of terms like patriarchy, masculinity, and femininity are also presented.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique. The process of questionnaire administration, interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGD), was systematically applied in collection of data which were analyzed using frequency /percentage modules. Consequently, inferential statistics was adapted to test the hypothesis postulated using SPSS 20.0. The findings revealed that nature of generating wastewater from hygiene and sanitation procedure among inmates using restroom and flushing toilet at the rate of about 41-50 litres of water per inmate per day causes significant flooding, as well as generate chemical compounds which catalyses air and soil pollution. Inappropriate discharge of wastewater result to of outbreak of diseases in the custodial environment resulting in high rate of cholera, typhoid, malaria and dysentery. These health challenges constitute serious socio’- economic burden for the management of the custodian centres. The study also shows significant effects of effluent pollution in the area of study at a level of 0.05% significance. Thus, recommendations were made to proffer solution to the menace of effluent discharge on pollution crises around the environment correctional centres.
The Nigerian society of today is torn between the jealousies of Christianity and Islam, and to a little extent, the distinct, but more accommodating values and customs of the indigenous religions of the well over 250 ethnic nationalities. As it were, Nigerians still find themselves involved together in social, economic and political relationships. However, there is the crisis identity and the rights of these different cultural groups, and or orientations, of preserving their distinct ways of life, and yet working together in jointly constructing a society that enhances their self-worth, self-esteem and self-realization at their deepest level of existence. Our paper acknowledges the spate of global interaction in this new world in the making which spirit has forced or fused the coexistence of individuals of different ideological political, religious and moral persuasions. The paper argues on this score that the resultant agitations of these religious groups are what counts as the tensions of the present polity. that, the manipulation of religion or religious practices as a form of discrimination as is evident in the prosecution of the Sharia project violates the rights of other citizens. The paper argues on a second count that, religious pluralism is not contrary to the values and customs of the Nigerian social system, and that, the different religious persuasions, which outlook and practices sometimes contradicts each other; apparently diverse and opposed, are simply expressions from different viewpoints and by different method of one ultimate truth which has the capacity for national integration, social harmony and sustainable human development. The paper advances a philosophy of religious tolerance as an institutional frame and atmosphere in which humanity shares in the richness of its different traditions for a better and more humanized world.
More Related Content
Similar to Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Solwezi District, Zambia.
This document discusses the need for leadership development programs designed specifically for women in higher education. It summarizes that while women now earn over half of college degrees, they hold significantly fewer top administrative positions than men. Gender-specific leadership programs can help advance more women by addressing barriers like unconscious biases, lack of mentors and networks, and challenges balancing career and family responsibilities. The document examines differences in typical leadership styles between men and women, and argues leadership training should consider reinforcing women's tendency toward transformational leadership styles.
This document discusses the lack of gender diversity in leadership positions in Malaysia. It finds that while women make up approximately 60% of university graduates, they hold only 27% of management roles and 5% of CEO positions in Malaysian companies. Similarly, in government, women hold only 34% of decision-making roles in the public service and 11% of parliamentary seats. The document argues that greater gender diversity in leadership leads to better organizational performance and governance. However, women face barriers such as masculine organizational cultures, social and cultural norms, and a lack of role models. To address this, organizations, women, and men must work together to remove these barriers through recognition of the issues, setting numerical diversity targets, and holding leaders accountable.
Women have faced significant barriers in securing formal employment and advancing to leadership positions, known as the "glass ceiling". Factors such as gender stereotypes that associate leadership with masculinity, and the perceived incompatibility of women's family responsibilities with demanding careers, have contributed to the glass ceiling. Organizational practices such as limited recruitment and training of women have also perpetuated barriers to women's advancement.
An Assessment Of Women Empowerment In Public Institutions The Case Of Benish...Jeff Nelson
This document summarizes research on women's empowerment and participation in leadership positions in public institutions in the Benishangul Gumuz region of Ethiopia. It finds that while women make up about half the population, they have less emphasis placed on their empowerment and face cultural and organizational barriers to leadership roles. Even though some women are confident in becoming leaders, organizations do not provide mentoring, coaching or training support. The study recommends that concerned organizations give more attention to empowering women.
There are several reasons why women are underrepresented in elite leadership roles. First, women's family responsibilities often force them to leave their careers voluntarily, and it can be difficult to return or regain their previous status. Additionally, women are less likely than men to promote themselves for leadership positions due to gender biases and social pressures. Finally, prevalent gender stereotypes associate women with communal rather than agentic leadership traits, resulting in prejudice that views women as less qualified than men for elite roles.
Gender Stratification Essay
Gender Stratification in the Workplace
Gender Stratification In Late Adulthood
Gender Stratification
Evolutionary View Of Gender Stratification
The Breadwinner/Caregiver Model
Life Chances And Equality Between Men And Women
Gender Stratification In The United States
Why Does Gender Stratification Exist? Essay
Gender Stratification And Its Impact On Society
Gender Stratification in the U.S. Today Essay
The Gender Division Between Men And Women Essay
Why Does Gender Stratification Exist?
This document summarizes a study that explored factors that contributed to women reaching senior policymaking positions in Israel. The study used in-depth interviews and questionnaires with 20 high-ranking women in Israel and a comparison group of 60 other women.
The findings identified diverse factors at multiple levels - including organizational properties that supported work-life balance, familial features like support at home, and personal attributes such as androgynous personality traits - that contributed to the advancement of women leaders. The researchers aimed to understand the obstacles women faced and how some overcame barriers to provide recommendations for promoting more women to positions of influence.
Qiang 6Gender NormsIntroductionAs human beings, we have a.docxmakdul
Qiang 6
Gender Norms
Introduction
As human beings, we have assigned ourselves roles in society that typify our different genders. Women have been assigned specific roles within society while the men have been assigned different set of roles as well. + Examples? Whereas this separation of roles between genders may be beneficial and accepted in some instances, it has worked to alienate a particular gender from various spheres of life in general. This paper argues that women have been disadvantaged by these accepted gender norms and as a result, stereotypes that are detrimental to women have been developed, women have been stifled when it comes to certain work industries such as the media and the portrayal of women in different media has as well worked to enhance these detrimental stereotypes (O’Brien, 14). It is important that these negative aspects of norms are considered (addressed and tackled) so that gender equality as envisaged by a majority of the world’s governments is achieved.
Gender norms refer to what society views as the correct male or female behavior. These expected norms of behavior are what would normally lead to the development of different gender roles for the males and females. The gender norms differ from one culture to another. The Middle East for instance is known for having their women solely dedicated to household and family duties, with minimal say in the affairs of government or anything beyond the family life. Women in these parts would as well have limited access to an education. Men in these areas, such as Pakistan for instance, have a greater say in the affairs of the country and in development as opposed to women.
Thesis Statement
Gender norms that have been accepted by society have had a detrimental effect on the females, with women being stereotyped in negative ways, their portrayal in society being negative and their progress in various job industries stifled as a result of these assigned norms.
Gender norms pose gender stereotypes on females, leading the public to view them with biased opinions and preventing them to make progress in their careers.
Discussion
Gender norms lead to the development of gender roles which normally develop in human beings from as early as childhood. This is normally as a result of the interactions we have with our parents, peers and teachers as well. + Evidence. These adults will normally reinforce the gender norms through education or the clothes they buy for their children, the colors they decorate rooms with or the different toys they provide to their children. It is these different roles that will normally lead to the development of stereotypes associated with either gender.
Stereotypes are generalizations and assumptions about what ought to be male or female characteristics. In most instances, these assumptions are inaccurate and hence they tend to have a negative impact. The stereotypes that are associated with women have worked to affect their progress in various s ...
Barriers women in Senior Management face in across Public and Private sectorsVanessa C
This document summarizes a report that compares the rates of women in senior management positions across the public and private sectors in Australia. It finds that while women make up over half the public sector workforce, they only hold about 40% of senior roles. In the private sector, women represent 34% of managers but it is estimated it would take 177 years for equal representation. The summary discusses barriers like organizational culture, glass ceilings, and gendered work environments that have limited women's advancement. While equal opportunity laws have been enacted, the impact has been minimal and changes are still largely dependent on policies at the organizational level.
The document discusses gender differences in leadership effectiveness and the barriers that women face in achieving leadership positions. While men and women are equally effective leaders overall, women tend to be more effective in leadership roles that align with stereotypical feminine traits, like education and social services. However, women are underrepresented in top leadership positions due to factors like human capital differences related to domestic responsibilities, gender differences in self-promotion, and prejudice stemming from perceptions that leadership requires stereotypically masculine traits. The "glass ceiling" refers to the invisible barrier preventing women's advancement, and its persistence is related to a lack of recognition of women's business, strategic, and financial acumen.
SArmendariz Literature Review - Black Women in PoliticsSydney Armendariz
The literature review examines how the intersection of race and gender affects Black women's attainment of political leadership positions. Several key points are discussed:
1) Black women experience invisibility in society and politics due to not fitting stereotypes of traditional leaders. Studies show they are more likely to be overlooked or have their contributions confused.
2) Unique leadership styles have developed, such as "bridge leadership," where Black women informally organize people without official titles.
3) Stereotypes of Black women can influence perceptions of their leadership and increase scrutiny of any failures.
The review finds that race presents more barriers than gender for Black women in politics, and their dual minority status subjects them to double standards and criticism
This document summarizes research on the underrepresentation of women in academic and science careers. It finds that while women earn over half of degrees, their representation decreases at higher levels of the career ladder. This is due to both the structure of careers being modeled on a male norm and a lack of support/unconscious bias against women. Key factors include inflexible career timelines that disadvantage women who take time off for family caregiving responsibilities, lack of support networks and mentoring for women, gender bias in hiring and promotion, and discrimination like sexual harassment. Recent research also examines changing attitudes among younger academics but the need for institutional reforms to promote greater transparency and remove bias from decision-making processes.
This document discusses gender and educational attainment. It explores how gender norms are constructed and enacted in schools. Gender influences educational experiences through factors like subject selection, teacher expectations, and peer relationships. While girls have made gains, subject selection remains influenced by 19th century ideas. Boys still face issues like lower rates of university completion. The document examines how students "do gender" and negotiate norms through interactions. It also discusses challenges like gendered bullying and pressures of heteronormativity.
Girls are socialised to grow knowing that their role is taking care of the families. The homemaking role continues to override women career aspirations among the Kenyan women. With emerging trends in the last three decades in Kenya, more girls have continued to access higher education with most studies showing that they still fall under the social sciences. Very few women enrol and complete training in science and technology fields at higher education. This paper examines the role of career counsellors in informing career decision-making process for girls to empower them to aspire fields in science fields, a Kenyan perspective.
This document summarizes research on gender disparities in higher education. It shows that in 2005-2006, women earned more degrees than men at all levels of higher education. However, in 2015, women only represented 42.4% of full-time faculty despite earning more degrees. It also discusses how masculinist culture and gender stereotypes in universities can disadvantage women in obtaining faculty and executive positions. Common barriers for women include fewer obtaining full professor roles, lower salaries, and less representation in university leadership positions like presidents and provosts. The document provides tips for how women can advance, such as finding mentors, building reputation, and seizing collaborative opportunities.
This document summarizes research on factors that contribute to women's underrepresentation in STEM fields. It discusses how a lack of sense of belonging and lower self-efficacy among women in STEM can influence their persistence. Stereotypes and a lack of mentors also impact women's experiences. The document proposes that interstitial communities that provide support, networking, and training in assertiveness can help buffer these issues and improve retention of women in STEM.
This document discusses women, management, and globalization in the Middle East. It provides insights into how globalization has both positively and negatively impacted women's social status and economic opportunities in the region. While globalization has created some jobs for women, gender inequalities persist in the labor market and women face barriers to advancement. Cultural and institutional factors like patriarchal social norms and lack of policies against domestic violence also limit women's empowerment. The document presents a framework to evaluate progress on women's leadership that considers governmental, organizational, and individual strategies, and calls for more research integrating gender, management, and Middle East studies.
This document provides an overview of the course "Gender, School and Society". The objectives of the course are to develop an understanding of key gender concepts and theories, analyze how socialization impacts identity formation, and reflect on gender issues in education curriculum. Several topics are outlined that will be covered in Unit IV, including the social construction of masculinity and femininity, how patriarchy interacts with other social structures, and strategies for promoting gender equality in the classroom. Definitions of terms like patriarchy, masculinity, and femininity are also presented.
Similar to Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Solwezi District, Zambia. (20)
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique. The process of questionnaire administration, interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGD), was systematically applied in collection of data which were analyzed using frequency /percentage modules. Consequently, inferential statistics was adapted to test the hypothesis postulated using SPSS 20.0. The findings revealed that nature of generating wastewater from hygiene and sanitation procedure among inmates using restroom and flushing toilet at the rate of about 41-50 litres of water per inmate per day causes significant flooding, as well as generate chemical compounds which catalyses air and soil pollution. Inappropriate discharge of wastewater result to of outbreak of diseases in the custodial environment resulting in high rate of cholera, typhoid, malaria and dysentery. These health challenges constitute serious socio’- economic burden for the management of the custodian centres. The study also shows significant effects of effluent pollution in the area of study at a level of 0.05% significance. Thus, recommendations were made to proffer solution to the menace of effluent discharge on pollution crises around the environment correctional centres.
The Nigerian society of today is torn between the jealousies of Christianity and Islam, and to a little extent, the distinct, but more accommodating values and customs of the indigenous religions of the well over 250 ethnic nationalities. As it were, Nigerians still find themselves involved together in social, economic and political relationships. However, there is the crisis identity and the rights of these different cultural groups, and or orientations, of preserving their distinct ways of life, and yet working together in jointly constructing a society that enhances their self-worth, self-esteem and self-realization at their deepest level of existence. Our paper acknowledges the spate of global interaction in this new world in the making which spirit has forced or fused the coexistence of individuals of different ideological political, religious and moral persuasions. The paper argues on this score that the resultant agitations of these religious groups are what counts as the tensions of the present polity. that, the manipulation of religion or religious practices as a form of discrimination as is evident in the prosecution of the Sharia project violates the rights of other citizens. The paper argues on a second count that, religious pluralism is not contrary to the values and customs of the Nigerian social system, and that, the different religious persuasions, which outlook and practices sometimes contradicts each other; apparently diverse and opposed, are simply expressions from different viewpoints and by different method of one ultimate truth which has the capacity for national integration, social harmony and sustainable human development. The paper advances a philosophy of religious tolerance as an institutional frame and atmosphere in which humanity shares in the richness of its different traditions for a better and more humanized world.
The study investigates the analysis on the relationship between green accounting and green design for enterprise. Expost-facto research design was use for the study. The secondary data used in the study covered a period of 10 years (2011-2020) and were sources from Business record of vital foam Nig. Ltd, the data were analyze using multiplied linear regression. From the analysis of the data and test of hypothesis result show green accounting and green design for enterprise have both positive and negative effect on the enterprise but due to external and internal factors. It is on this account that the study therefore recommend that enterprise should make sure they have appropriate and well designed green accounting design to be able to stand the test of time.
Ethnomusicologists have undergone several types of research of music cultures of the world. These studies had led to myriads of findings that have given shape to the ethnographic study in field of music and allied disciplines. As much as findings revealed various components of music cultures of many ethnic descents, much is yet to be discovered about the determination of how the recontextualization process affects the transfer of various elements of the music cultures. This paper through historical analysis of existing literature assists to investigate and suggest elements of music culture that cannot evade possible transfer and those thoughts of as unnecessary in the process of recontextualization. The discourse also gives explicit definition to music as found in culture as well as music as culture itself.
The company’s performance which is considered quite important in providing an evaluation for investor decision making triggers further research to find out what factors can improve company performance. Companies have several motivations in risk disclosure, in line with legitimacy theory, that companies tend to take corporate action and behavior similar to the industry itself. This study will examine and analyze the effect of Clan organizational culture on company performance with the intervening variable of risk management disclosure. The research method used is quantitative with multiple linear regression through the Eviews application.
Coral reef ecosystems are useful, among others, as a source of food, a habitat for marine biota, a source of livelihood, and a tourist attraction with high economic value. This study aims to: (i) explain and describe the condition of coral reefs and the factors that cause damage to coral reefs in Perjuangan Village, (ii) determine the role of the church in the management and maintenance of coral reef ecosystems in Perjuangan Village, and (ii) explain the Christian ethics in the management and maintenance of the coral reef ecosystem in Perjuangan Village.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique.
Effluent pollution is the degradation of the physical, chemical or biological properties of sewage, altered as a result of the introduction of certain substances which renders it unsafe and therefore, regarded as wastewater. This paper aims to examine the effects of effluent pollution on the socio-economic ,environment, and health status of people around (9) custodial centres in Nigeria. The study locations are Medium Security Custodial Centres Kuje (Abuja ), Kirikiri (Lagos), Suleja (Abuja ), Badagry (Lagos), Ikoyi (Lagos), Female Kirikiri (Lagos), Maximum Security Custodial centres (Kirikiri-Lagos and Port-harcourt Rivers) and Correctional Farm Centre Dukpa (Abuja) In the study, descriptive survey method was used after familiarity with the environment and selection of 372 respondents through purposive sampling technique. The process of questionnaire administration, interviews and Focused Group Discussions (FGD), was systematically applied in collection of data which were analyzed using frequency /percentage modules. Consequently, inferential statistics was adapted to test the hypothesis postulated using SPSS 20.0.
The document discusses the challenges of solid waste management in Monrovia, Liberia. It finds that the majority of solid waste generated is leftover food, plastic, and paper. On average, each person produces 0.3kg of waste daily. Nearly all respondents admit to never separating recyclables from other waste. Most waste collection is done informally by children. Most respondents also acknowledge disposing of waste through unsafe and illegal means like burning or dumping, with no formal waste management system. The study calls for the government to increase education on waste policies and introduce better management strategies.
In most developing countries like Zambia, entrepreneurs contribute largely in a society’s economic growth and major interruptions such as the COVID-19 pandemic can have a negative impact on the well-being of its citizenry and businesses. The onset of the COVID 19 pandemic found many entrepreneurs unprepared and hence several businesses in societies were profoundly disrupted. During this crisis, entrepreneurs faced unexpected new challenges of creating sustainable business strategies.
There are growing fears that Zimbabwe is missing out on the potential benefits that may be derived from a more defined participation of the aviation sector in improving accessibility of tourist destinations in the country. This research sought to establish the challenges being faced by the aviation sector in improving the accessibility of tourist destinations in Zimbabwe. The research utilised a qualitative research approach.| Publisher:
International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Urbanization is a widespread occurrence across the nation. Urbanism has been affecting the rise in urban crime as a result of societal perception. According to empirical data, crime has risen in metropolitan areas. The study issue is dependent on the specific types of crime that occur in urban settings. | Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
This study has examined the trafficking of Karamoja women and girls from North-Eastern Uganda into Nairobi, Kenya. Trafficking in human beings remains a big challenge confronting the international community. The menace remains a global problem with the countries of the Third World bearing the greatest brunt.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the leadership constructs of eight young women student leaders in the Philippines. The study used a multiple case study approach to interview the participants. Four themes emerged from the interviews: 1) positive values like responsibility, work ethic, and morality; 2) positive identity; 3) being a guide and source of inspiration; and 4) collaboration skills. Late adolescents and those from non-sectarian schools had more developed leadership constructs. The study argues for understanding young women's leadership concepts to promote positive development.
Universities groom up graduates with very specific and detail knowledge. In the fastest growing world specialization is required to serve the purpose. University graduates with tremendous knowledge and efficiency can serve the nation with their full potential. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS).
Education, Skills, Employment, Opportunities, Challenges, Marginal, Graduates
As an embodiment of human rights, freedom of speech in public is the right of every individual and has been constitutionally guaranteed in Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution. That is the reason why legal certainty is needed regarding the concept of handling crowds and legal reform in the handling and regulation of demonstrations by the police so that human rights violations do not happen. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
freedom of speech, Indonesian legal system
Malaysia is not only unique country with a multicultural diversity but also has a rich and numerous culture and heritage treasures. Therefore, as technology growth across world, many cultural heritages might become missing without any effective efforts in preservation and conservation of the culture and heritage. Within this scenario, the qualitative study was conducted through documents review, a field observation followed by a face-to-face interview with corresponding respondents to empirically ascertain the narrative history and uniqueness of Gasing Leper Terengganu which further propose an alternative approach in preserving Gasing Leper Terengganu’s heritage.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
Customer satisfaction may be summed up as the feeling of pleasure that customers have after using or engaging with a company’s product or service. For water as product must be of good quality, sufficient quantity and fair pricing to customers to feel satisfied. This study examines customers’ satisfaction of Municipal water supply in Jos-Metropolis of Plateau State, Nigeria. A mixed research method was applied on the unpredictable customers behaviour towards water supply from PWSC in 7 randomly selected districts of Yelwa, Rahol-Kanang, Nassarawa, Kufang, Federal Lowcost and Utan using purposive sampling and a structured questionnaire was administered on 372 respondents while interviews and FGD was also conducted to complement data collected. The data was analyzed using percentages and regression analysis of SPSS 23.0 application. The findings revealed customers’ satisfaction is reliant on the distribution of sufficient quantity and good quality water for sustainable health. Despite a major affirmation to the quantity and quality of water supplied. Customers, yet attested to coloured, tasteful and particle filled the water supplied from PWSC and demonstrated non-satisfaction to the quality, quantity and price of water supply. This was supported by the regression analysis result showing insignificance on the variables tested at 0.05 significant levels. However, recommendations were made to model PWSC water distribution strategies to meet the global standard for efficient water distribution and among others.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
This study examined the impact of tax reforms on the liquidity of Nigerian stock market. Secondary data were used for this study. The relevant data were sourced from Securities and Exchange Commission Statistics and Federal Inland Revenue Service Statistics Report between 1982 and 2021. Vector Auto Regressive (VAR) Model comprising Impulse Response Function (IRF) and Variance Decomposition (VD) was used to analyze the determinants and the liquidity of the stock market. The results of the VAR Model showed that the stock market liquidity (proxied by turnover ratio) significantly responded to changes in the movement of the tax reform indicators and positive both in the short and long run. This study concluded that a positive relationship exists between tax reforms and stock market liquidity. It was recommended that the regulatory body of tax administration must intensify efforts to mitigate the impacts of the global financial crisis on the Nigerian Exchange Group.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
The environment has been erroneously perceived as a god’s-given resource to be explored and exploited for production of goods and services necessary for the satisfaction of human needs and comfort. This perception inspired man to engage in breath-taking explorations into the huge vaults of the heavens with ozone layer depletion, green house effect as consequences resulting to global warming, climate change, loss of biodiversity on one hand and pollution, deforestation, flooding, draught, famine, flood, extreme weather events on the other hand, as global catastrophic threats to human kind. These problems have become a major concern of the international community who has called for a new type of education for a better understanding of the complexity of the problems of the environment as well as for effective management of environmental resources. This type of education is referred to as environmental education. This paper explored the library as a medium for the dissemination of knowledge of the environment and its problems. It explored various ways through which knowledge of environmental problems and their prevention is promoted through the instrumentality of the library. It concludes that library as a reservoir of knowledge should be equipped with materials containing information on environmental problems and as well as be made accessible to all humans in every part of the globe.| Publisher: International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS)
More from International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) (20)
A presentation on mastering key management concepts across projects, products, programs, and portfolios. Whether you're an aspiring manager or looking to enhance your skills, this session will provide you with the knowledge and tools to succeed in various management roles. Learn about the distinct lifecycles, methodologies, and essential skillsets needed to thrive in today's dynamic business environment.
Colby Hobson: Residential Construction Leader Building a Solid Reputation Thr...dsnow9802
Colby Hobson stands out as a dynamic leader in the residential construction industry. With a solid reputation built on his exceptional communication and presentation skills, Colby has proven himself to be an excellent team player, fostering a collaborative and efficient work environment.
A team is a group of individuals, all working together for a common purpose. This Ppt derives a detail information on team building process and ats type with effective example by Tuckmans Model. it also describes about team issues and effective team work. Unclear Roles and Responsibilities of teams as well as individuals.
12 steps to transform your organization into the agile org you deservePierre E. NEIS
During an organizational transformation, the shift is from the previous state to an improved one. In the realm of agility, I emphasize the significance of identifying polarities. This approach helps establish a clear understanding of your objectives. I have outlined 12 incremental actions to delineate your organizational strategy.
Impact of Effective Performance Appraisal Systems on Employee Motivation and ...Dr. Nazrul Islam
Healthy economic development requires properly managing the banking industry of any
country. Along with state-owned banks, private banks play a critical role in the country's economy.
Managers in all types of banks now confront the same challenge: how to get the utmost output from
their employees. Therefore, Performance appraisal appears to be inevitable since it set the
standard for comparing actual performance to established objectives and recommending practical
solutions that help the organization achieve sustainable growth. Therefore, the purpose of this
research is to determine the effect of performance appraisal on employee motivation and retention.
Designing and Sustaining Large-Scale Value-Centered Agile Ecosystems (powered...Alexey Krivitsky
Is Agile dead? It depends on what you mean by 'Agile'. If you mean that the organizations are not getting the promised benefits because they were focusing too much on the team-level agile "ways of working" instead of systemic global improvements -- then we are in agreement. It is a misunderstanding of Agility that led us down a dead-end. At Org Topologies, we see bright sparks -- the signs of the 'second wave of Agile' as we call it. The emphasis is shifting towards both in-team and inter-team collaboration. Away from false dichotomies. Both: team autonomy and shared broad product ownership are required to sustain true result-oriented organizational agility. Org Topologies is a package offering a visual language plus thinking tools required to communicate org development direction and can be used to help design and then sustain org change aiming at higher organizational archetypes.
Originally presented at XP2024 Bolzano
While agile has entered the post-mainstream age, possibly losing its mojo along the way, the rise of remote working is dealing a more severe blow than its industrialization.
In this talk we'll have a look to the cumulative effect of the constraints of a remote working environment and of the common countermeasures.
Ganpati Kumar Choudhary Indian Ethos PPT.pptx, The Dilemma of Green Energy Corporation
Green Energy Corporation, a leading renewable energy company, faces a dilemma: balancing profitability and sustainability. Pressure to scale rapidly has led to ethical concerns, as the company's commitment to sustainable practices is tested by the need to satisfy shareholders and maintain a competitive edge.
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Solwezi District, Zambia.
1. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1452
www.rsisinternational.org
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership
Positions in Selected Public Secondary Schools in Solwezi District,
Zambia.
Alinifa Magret Mwalwanda and Eunifridah Simuyaba*
Department of Educational Administration and Policy Studies, University of Zambia, Lusaka,
Zambia.
*Corresponding Author
ABSTRACT
This study explored the factors that hinder females from accessing senior leadership roles in selected public
secondary schools in Solwezi district. To achieve the research purpose, a qualitative approach was
employed in order to undertake a direct exploration, analysis and interpretation anchored on a narrative
research design. The study revealed that some women could not assume senior job titles owing to a low
level of academic qualifications as well as a lack of administrative prowess coupled with inexperience. The
study also revealed that some women fail to ascend to senior positions on account of endocentric patriarchal
ideology which disregards the rights of women. The study therefore concluded that government authorities
should construct inclusive identities with incentives that motivate different groups to embrace collective
governance in senior leadership positions; this should be based on merit regardless of gender. The
researchers recommend that societal and customary norms, beliefs and culture that prevent females from
occupying decision-making positions should be discouraged.
Keywords: female representation, gender, leadership, secondary school, senior leadership position.
INTRODUCTION
The subject of gender differentiation and leadership is a heated topic of interest not only at national level,
but also the regional and global levels. Mention can be made at the outset that owing to the intense debate
about who reigns supreme – males or females – and also with regard to participation and work
opportunities, scholarly work has been extensively advanced by various scholars expressing different
problematic perspectives at different levels of society within the Zambian setting. The current paper focuses
on the question of stereotyped and observable inequalities n female leadership roles. The blight of more
males holding positions of influence at almost all levels of society is no longer a disputable proposition as
overwhelming evidence to this effect abounds. For instance, the political landscape in Zambia and many
other African countries may arguably be said to prohibit females from being at the helm of national
leadership. Unfortunately, in many societies, leadership is construed as masculine (Visser, 2011). This can
clearly be seen through the eyes of Achebe (1958) in his book, Things Fall Apart, in which women cannot
question a man’s actions nor can they step the ground where men sit without being viewed negatively. In
this milieu, women are expected to perform household duties relating to child rearing and other domestic
functions. As such, working in a formal institution is more often than not perceived as an affront to the
national and global perspective, leading to very few females filling influential leadership positions.
Background to the Study
An appropriated divide would appear to exist between men and women, with the former seemingly
dominating the latter in almost all aspects of life. Unfortunately, this dominance thwarts the rights and
power of womanhood. Such trends in dominance manifest even in the way both men and women respond to
2. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1453
www.rsisinternational.org
a male leader’s name when asked to describe something about such names. For instance, names such as
Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Nelson Mandela and Barrack Obama, among others, are dotted all
over the world, having hospitals or schools named after them. In sharp contrast, female names are generally
neglected. Even though history has recorded certain women such as Joan of Arc, Marie Curie, Simone de
Beauvoir and Mother Theresa as important figures, they attract little such attention, and less interest is
expressed. It should be noted that the most common way by which people are categorised, stereotyped and
sorted is based on gender (Eagly & Karau, 2002). According to Hentschel et al. (2019), gender stereotypes
were found to be no different in instrumental competence, independence and sociability self-ratings for men
and women. Further, gender stereotypes are also evident in self-characterisations, with female raters rating
themselves as less agentic than male raters and male raters rating themselves as less communal than female
raters, although there were some exceptions.
Statement of the Problem
Zambia’s Ministry of Education (MOE) prides itself on having more female employees in classrooms but
ironically fewer in leadership positions (Kelly et al., 2017). Mosala agrees with Kelly and provocatively
states: “When men are oppressed, it’s a tragedy, when women are oppressed, it’s tradition.” These data
present the picture that women representation in leadership roles in Zambia, and probably elsewhere, is still
lamentably low and thus remains a problem worth investigating. Therefore, the current research undertook
to explore factors which prevent women from ascending to positions of influence in selected public
secondary schools in Solwezi District.
Purpose of the Study
The study aimed to explore the factors that hinder females from accessing senior leadership positions in
selected public secondary schools in Solwezi district.
Theoretical Framework
The arguments advanced in this study are anchored on transformational leadership theory and liberal
feminist theory. These have been selected as they attempt to combine thought and application. They also
serve to highlight the relationship between key factors that hinder female access to senior leadership
positions such as gender stereotyping, patriarchy-oriented factors and prejudice in secondary schools.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Factors that Hinder Females from Accessing Senior Leadership Positions
Chabaya et al. (2009), in his study involving 13 female heads of schools in Zimbabwe, observed that the
factors that prevent female teachers from being promoted to senior leadership positions lay within
themselves as they lacked confidence and perceived themselves as not being suitable for promotion. Further
Bubshait (2012), Mathipa and Tsoka (2001) and Moorosi (2010) contended that women lack the confidence
to aspire to leadership positions. Other researchers (Watson, Hatton, Squires & Soliman, 1991; Mbepera,
2015), observed that female teachers had a higher level of satisfaction with their teaching than their male
counterparts. They further observed that the women’s priority was to put extra energy into their work of
classroom teaching rather than eyeing higher positions in the ministry. Another study revealed that women
in some work organisations put less effort into work than men (Bhalalusesa, 2003). Other researchers, such
as Stevens et al (1978) contended that women were less committed to their work. Similarly, Iqbal et al.
(2013) added that young employees were less devoted to work than older ones. As regards women and
leadership roles, Gaus (2011) commented that family issues in Indonesia were given first priority by female
teachers rather than their career. Commenting on what happens in women and leadership in other contexts,
3. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1454
www.rsisinternational.org
Bubshait (2012), Chabaya et al. (2009) and Mbepera (2015) concluded that the rejection of leadership posts
by some women may be attributed to the many family tasks that deprive them of leadership experience. The
other reason that hinders females from accessing senior leadership positions in secondary schools has been
attributed to lack of support from the family, society and institutions (Bhalalusesa & Mboya, 2003; Chabaya
et al., 2009). Sperandio (2011) reported that females had very little family support if they opted to seek
senior leadership positions.
Other researchers contend that the factors that hinder females’ access to senior leadership positions have a
strong relationship with gender, leadership and society, because leadership is a culturally bound practice
(Dimmock & Walker, 2006). That is, the behaviour of males and females is shaped by the culture in a
society which ascribes roles for men and women. This entails that society classifies male and female roles,
which in turn creates opportunities for men and women to have access to different opportunities such as
involvement in leadership (Dimmock & Walker, 2006; Mbepera, 2015). These roles ascribed by society
control females, while males are less controlled (Dimmock & Walker, 2006). Females are discouraged from
accessing senior leadership positions and so obstacles are placed in their way by society because of the
culture that hinders women from becoming leaders. These hurdles are the consequence of outdated beliefs
about female roles (Onsongo, 2004). Society stereotypes females from a cultural perspective and assumes
that the highest decision-making positions were for males (Onsongo, 2004). Cubillo and Brown (2003)
added that stereotypes and social and cultural expectations devalue women. Nevertheless, society tends to
classify females as inferior and as being supposed to take low posts, implying that they are incapable of
accessing senior leadership positions in schools (Amondi, 2011). According to these studies, the factors that
hinder female access to senior leadership positions in secondary schools have been a concern for various
organisations particularly the governments of different countries.
Although many studies have shown a small amount of growth in the proportion of women occupying
positions in middle management, there is still clear evidence that a gender gap exists in senior positions (De
Cabo et al., 2019). This study hopes to bridge the gap in the literature.
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted a qualitative approach owing to the exploratory nature of the research. Njobvu and
Simuyaba (2020) describe a qualitative approach as a systematic subjective approach that is used to describe
life experiences and situations to give them meaning. This study utilised a narrative research design with the
intention of conducting a “direct exploration, analysis, and interpretation of a particular phenomenon
emphasizing the richness, breath, and depth investigation as interpreted by participants in detail (Creswell,
2009). With narrative research design therefore, the researchers were able to tap into the challenges
regarding female access to senior leadership positions by applying the principle of ‘epoche’, their views
thereby taking the information as it was reported by the participants verbatim.
Sampling Techniques
The study used purposive sampling techniques to select both the participants and the schools. Manion and
Morisson (2007) and Simuyaba (2022) agree that in purposive sampling, a researcher uses his or her own
judgement or intelligence to handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their typicality
or possession of the particular characteristic being thought to meet the researcher’s requirements. In view of
this, a purposive sampling technique was adopted for this study.
Sample Size
The study comprised 30 research participants, with one District Education Board Secretary (DEBS), three
education standard officers, three PTA chairpersons, three head teachers, three deputy head teachers, ten
4. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1455
www.rsisinternational.org
female teachers and seven male teachers making up the total sample size.
Data Collection Tools and Data Analysis
The instruments used to collect primary data were interview guides and focus group discussion guides, with
the former being used for the semi-structured interviews and the latter being used for the focus groups.
Interviews included face-to-face verbal communication where the researcher asked another person the
intended questions in order to obtain information (Kombo & Tromp, 2014). Since data were obtained
through qualitative approaches, qualitative thematic analysis was used for data analysis. Thematic data
analysis is used when interpreting responses to open-ended questions, as well as data obtained from histories
or conversations (Kapembwa, Simuyaba, Njobvu, Muleya and Simui, 2020). As the data were interpreted,
particular themes related to the primary concerns or objectives of the study were identified.
Trustworthiness
The acceptability of the study in terms of it being a true and unique academic product was assessed using
Guba’s four trustworthy strategy which are ideal for all qualitative studies: credibility, transferability,
dependability and conformability (Gunawa, 2015).
Ethical Considerations
The study embraced a range of ethical considerations before the researchers started collecting data. A letter
granting permission for conducting the research was obtained from the DEBS and verbal permission was
granted by school managers after ideal protocols were established. In this research, none of the participants
were allowed to participate in the research without their consent. Further, confidentiality and anonymity of
the participants was ensured by not revealing the participants’ names or personal details.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
Findings for this study are presented according to the sub-categories formulated in relation to the objectives
and the emerging themes.
Individual Factors
The first objective intended to ascertain the factors that hinder females from accessing senior leadership
positions in secondary schools in the Solwezi district. The findings showed that lack of administrative
experience was one of the individual factors that hinder females from accessing senior leadership positions
in the district. During the interview, one male participant stated that:
The lack of administrative experience to be recruited, appointed and promoted to senior leadership
positions, followed by publications and personal attributes were the main issues that affected participation in
leadership positions.
However, one the female participants felt that:
Administrative experience requirement was seen to be the main hindrance since men dominantly occupied
senior leadership positions in secondary schools. This shows that it is within ourselves, because women
make us feel inferior.
It was further established that a lack of confidence hinders female access to senior leadership positions. One
5. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1456
www.rsisinternational.org
of the participants revealed as follows:
The factors that prevent female teachers from being promoted to senior leadership positions were within
themselves as they lacked confidence and they perceived themselves as not been suitable for promotion.
The findings of the study further revealed that female teachers experienced satisfaction with their teaching
and their career. This was alluded to by some male participants, who mentioned that:
Yes, satisfaction with their teaching and career hindered females from accessing senior leadership positions.
Female teachers have a higher level of satisfaction with their teaching than us (males), and that their priority
is to put extra energy into their work, and that they were not interested in leadership positions.
It was further established that female teachers’ lack of commitment to work had hindered female access to
senior leadership positions. One participant had the following remark:
Most of us (women) put in less effort into work than men.
Females’ lack of commitment to work and interest in accessing senior leadership positions is also associated
with the benefits associated with the posts.
Another participant pointed out yet another factor that hinders female access to senior leadership positions.
This involves females rejecting posts when appointed and is reflected in the following remarks by one of the
male leaders:
Female teachers reject senior posts due to their low risk-taking propensity. It was stated that many family
tasks also deprive them of leadership experience because family issues are given first priority by female
teachers rather than their career. Female teachers also reject posts due to poor working environments in rural
secondary schools. Most female teachers prefer working in urban areas unlike the male teachers who would
not mind.
Societal Factors
The study found that married female teachers were facing issues related to gender, leadership and society
that hindered their access to senior leadership positions. One of the female participants had this to say:
With our society, most of us married female teachers need to seek permission from our husbands to advance
our education or career or even accept a promotion. If he is not of the idea, I cannot accept that promotion,
this is because leadership is a culturally-bound practice and the roles ascribed by society control females,
while males are less controlled.
It is clear from the above findings that social stereotypes are one of the factors that hinder females from
accessing senior leadership positions. One participant had the following to say:
Yes, society and culture like pulling women down. Society stereotypes; social and cultural expectations
devalue women. It is because of society, culture and tradition that the females are not trusted to lead
organisations or lead schools. This has made female teachers inferior.
However, endocentric patriarchal ideology was considered to be a factor that denies females access to senior
leadership positions. Endocentric patriarchal ideology characterises the privileges given to men over
women. One male participant said in this regard:
Placing females to lead males was contrary to traditional norms and culture which says females were helpers
6. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1457
www.rsisinternational.org
and as such they need to look after the families at home while men take on the role of searching for food and
leading the family.
The above finding can be supported by socialisation factors which also hinder female access to senior
leadership positions. A few male participants made remarks in this regard. In particular one of them stated:
Regardless of how educated a female teacher may be, her duty is to be a mother, submissive, and take care
of those issues that require her to use her emotions. The males have been socialised to be strong,
independent, breadwinners, household decision-makers and executives.
The above discussion supports the findings based on the societal factors that hinder females from accessing
leadership positions in selected secondary schools in Solwezi district.
Organisational Factors
Regarding the organisational factors, the study established gender bias in terms of promotion. One female
participant mentioned the following in this regard:
There were few chances and opportunities given to females to gain the experience required to move
forward. More males are considered for appointments and promotions.
Among the other factors that hinder female access to senior leadership positions are prejudices and
stereotypical gender expectations. The study established that prejudice is an organisational factor that
hinders female access to senior leadership positions. One participant had the following to say in this regard:
The influencing perceptions of the general characteristics of men and women, gender stereotypes indicate
the appropriate traits and behaviours they should have. Even in a workplace environment, there are certain
things that are considered to be for men and not women. It is still believed that lack of encouragement for
female from male managers hinders their access to senior leadership positions. The prevalence of gender
stereotyping and the incidence of sexual harassment also remain as major threat to females especially those
entering and remaining in senior leadership positions.
The evidence for the above statement is clear: gender differences hinder females’ access to senior leadership
positions. One female participant had the following to say:
Gender differences hinder our access to senior leadership positions. People have different beliefs that males
and females have different leadership-related traits. It is because of this that there is reduced presence of the
females in higher decision-making and senior leadership positions.
STRATEGIES EMPLOYED TO ALLOW ACCESS BY FEMALES TO SENIOR
LEADERSHIP POSITIONS
It was established that gender diversity can provide better organisational goals. One participant mentioned
that:
It is important for governments to establish policies to persuade the education sector of the importance of
improving career development opportunities for the female counterparts. There is need to encourage
diversity in the education sectors including schools.
A male participant also suggested:
Formulation and implementing supportive policies around parental leave, including offering paternity leave
7. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1458
www.rsisinternational.org
to both genders can share caregiving responsibilities. Flexible, family-friendly arrangements can also enable
more females in leadership positions. Furthermore, effort must be focused on creating inclusive work
cultures and combating unconscious biases that hold females back and hence fail to ascend to senior
positions in schools.
Furthermore, the study found that the establishment of policies on recruitment would be helpful in assisting
females to access senior leadership positions. One participants gave the following remark:
It would be a good idea if policies are put in place and implemented. Those would help to recruit female
counterparts on basis of their educational achievements. This should be changed by having legitimate
requirements and equal opportunities policies. They can also make the recruitment and promotion processes
transparent in order to provide equal chances for all qualified employees applying for vacancies.
The study established that females can access senior leadership positions if society discourages the societal
and customary norms and beliefs that prevent females from occupying decision-making positions. For this
reason many female teachers fail to access senior leadership positions. Fifteen participants that suggested
sentiments depicting the following: ‘The prejudice against the female should be eliminated; this would be
done by adoption of structural measures. It is important to incorporate gender perspective at different levels
of the educational system, in the media and in the workplace’. This would reduce prejudice and gender
stereotype. This will help to change the attitudes through challenging the stereotypes and encouraging more
females to access senior leadership positions.
Regarding strategies, the study established that career advancement would help females to access senior
leadership positions. One participant had the following to say:
Female teachers should be provided with adequate training to improve and develop their competencies in
order for them to easily access senior leadership positions based on merit. Discrimination should be avoided
when institutions are providing different levels of training to male and female.
One female participant had the following to say in this regard:
There is need to provide leadership support such as mentoring of female teachers to take up senior positions
in schools … there must be deliberate policies to ensure that women have equal opportunity to gain the
skills, knowledge, experience and mentorship which is required to rise to senior leadership positions.
Another female participant also suggested the following:
Leaders in governments, especially in the education sector must take immediate action to address the
systemic causes of gender inequality and empower more females to hold senior leadership roles in school
administration.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Factors that hinder females’ access to senior leadership positions at selected secondary schools in
Solwezi district
Despite the international campaigns for gender equality and equity in higher education institutions, studies
conducted in several countries continue to show that women are underrepresented in senior leadership
positions in universities. Women who seek leadership positions face barriers and often give up because they
become overwhelmed in dealing with obvious barriers (Newman, 2016). According to Cunningham (2019),
the biggest stumbling block to seeing more women in senior leadership roles in education is unconscious
8. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1459
www.rsisinternational.org
bias. Unconscious biases are social stereotypes about certain people that form outside of conscious
awareness. Unconscious bias, according to this study, is far more prevalent than conscious bias and is often
incompatible with one’s own conscious values.
In line with the views of the participants above, Mbepera (2017) suggested that females’ ability to take on
leadership, as well as the extent to which female representation in senior leadership positions in secondary
schools, tends to display a distinct leadership style that shapes how they run the affairs of their teams.
However, according to the findings of this study, the majority of the participants stated that female teachers
were only to a low extent involved in senior leadership positions in secondary school administration.
Additionally, some participants stated that to a limited extent female teachers were involved in senior
leadership positions. They indicated that females’ under-representation in these positions was partly the
result of family commitments and slow professional development on their part, while other participants
suggested that females were assigned by Zambian society to take on the weight of the overall domestic and
childcare arrangements, as well as developing themselves professionally, but they only took on the latter
roles to a limited extent (Beši?, 2022). Cultural aspects emerged as factors that influence the kind of
positions women hold in leadership.
In patriarchal societies like Tanzania (Bhalalusesa & Mboya, 2003; Mbepera, 2017, women are viewed as
inferior, resulting in discrimination when accessing various opportunities regardless of their experiences and
qualifications. This therefore implies that cultural practices, patriarchal socialisation and religious beliefs
promote the oppression and marginalisation of females by both society and organisations in most parts of
the world (Govinden, 2008). An endocentric patriarchal ideology is an orientation that characterises the
thinking of society based on its cultural norms. It describes or characterises a system, society or social
organisation in which men are generally higher up in the hierarchy, thus constructing relations of
domination of men over women. Accordingly, men use power to their advantage, dominating in political
leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property. Endocentric patriarchal ideology
characterises the privileges given to men over women.
Madrid et al. (2012) highlighted the practice where female teachers fail to be promoted to leadership roles
based on ethnicity, nepotism, sex and religion, rather than on academic qualifications. These practices seem
to have negatively affected women’s representation in senior leadership positions and perpetuate the
discrimination of females. Thus, Gaus (2011) stressed that the interplay that exists between the cultural
values and traditional stereotypes that undervalue women still exists in many societies. In this way, the
chances of women becoming leaders in senior positions are continually inhibited, as men who normally
dominate appointment committees favour and support themselves (Kagoda & Sperandio, 2009). Ethnicity
has a strong influence on community status relations. However, lack of networking and ethnicity hinder
females from getting jobs and occupying senior leadership positions (Kelly, 2016). Ethnicity can be
understood as the identification of a group of people resulting from cultural ties and networking. It is also
active interaction with others to exchange information and develop professional and social contacts. The
marginalisation of poor females and people from different cultural backgrounds and race contributes to
discrimination when it comes to senior leadership positions. Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the
creation of networks could enhance active the political participation, economic emancipation and social
upliftment of females. This could increase the females in senior leadership positions. This view was
supported by a response from one female teacher participant who stated that the factorswhich contribute to
women’s low participation in leadership positions may be categorised as societal,institutional
(organisational) and individual factors (Yemenu, 2020; Bishu, 2022). It was observed that
9. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1460
www.rsisinternational.org
women’s career advancements are not affected by one factor alone but by a combination of different
factors.Of these factors the current study found that three factors (institutional, sociocultural and individual)
inparticular had contributed to the low participation of women in leadership positions.
Other researchers have highlighted different factors affecting female representation in senior leadership
positions. Hlatywayo et al. (2014) stated that lack of support from society and the institutional context are
some of the causes of the under-representation of and the lack of career progress by women in school
leadership positions. Eshete (2003) indicated that the reasons for women’s low representation in higher
education are of course many and complex (Eshete, 2003; Mushibwe & Simuka, 2021). Some are direct
reflections of the personal, social and economic factors. Others are related to the structural, administrative
and management structures of the institutions that may also become crucial points for intervention. The
highlighted factors hindering the full participation of women in high-level leadership positions were also
cited by participants in Solwezi district.
Possible Strategies for Females to Access Senior Leadership Positions
This section discusses literature related to possible strategies for female access to senior leadership positions
at secondary school level. Commenting on a related subject, Voicila et al. (2018) argued that understanding
the types of barrier that exist within organisations and the impact of these can help inform strategic
directions and advancement of talent. In the long run, this may help manage unconscious bias in thinking
when attempting to create a fair and equitable workplace.
Madziyire and Mapolisa (2012) revealed that gender sensitisation programmes led by many parents in
Zimbabwe helped to improve access to education for both boys and girls. Thus, in Zimbabwe, women with
higher educational and professional qualifications were allowed to compete for senior positions. It was,
however, found that females were occupying fewer challenging jobs in terms of management and decision-
making in organisations in both the private and the public sectors. These findings resonate well with the
findings of this study in that the female teachers in Solwezi district were found to be occupying fewer
challenging positions. The most common leadership position held by female leaders in this district were
heads of department and section heads. Moran and Walker (2019) suggested that leaders should encourage
those in charge of hiring and promoting personnel to let go of the limiting beliefs pertaining to women in
leadership roles. This can be achieved by educating leaders and by discussing success stories, reading books
written by successful women and even attending entrepreneurial summits for women.
In the current study, the surveyed participants were asked whether they had any suggestions for how the
appointment process should be done, with the majority making suggestions in this regard. Following the
same argument, one male participant had this to say:
Placing females to lead males was contrary to traditional norms and culture which says females were helpers
and as such need to look after the families at home while men take on searching for food and leading the
family.
In a related study conducted in other contexts, Fernandez and Campero (2017) found that plans for mind-set
shifts regarding the treatment of women at the organisational level were critical and hard to implement. The
same study recommended that organisations should set clear expectations for the culture, values, beliefs,
behaviours, and the roles and the career paths of its employees based on their gender. It is clear from the
findings of this study that in changing the mind set of an organisation in respect to its expectations of gender
10. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1461
www.rsisinternational.org
roles there has to be an organisational appetite for having females in senior leadership positions.
The findings of this study recommend strategies that discourage societal and customary norms and beliefs
that prevent females from occupying decision-making positions. For example, some participants suggested
that there was a need to develop policies, strategies and legislation to enhance female participation in
decision-making at secondary schools. Other participants indicated that there was a need to encourage
females to take up positions of leadership on merit and through competition with male counterparts, while
still others proposed the element of training and appointing more qualified females on merit to senior
positions. It was also recommended that gender balancing strategies should be developed and implemented
for application by appointment committees to enhance female access to senior leadership positions.
In line with the above findings, Forbes (2018) suggested that there was a need to formulate and implement
techniques that would include providing prospective women leaders with mentors, and utilising sponsors,
role models and networking. Such strategies would enable women to obtain advice and moral support and
would also serve as a means for providing constructive ways of dealing with frustration, sharing feelings
about their work and giving encouragement. In line with the findings of Forbes (2018) above, one male
participant in the current study also suggested the need to formulate “and implement supportive policies that
were flexible, which could enable more females in leadership positions in Solwezi district”. The participants
further recommended that an effort should be made to create inclusive work cultures and strategies meant to
combat the unconscious biases that hold females back and result in them failing to ascend to senior position
in schools.
In a related study, Meneghello (2021) mentioned that one of the strategies was to develop gender responsive
budgets, with tools to analyse governmental budgets from the perspective of gender equality and the
fulfilment of women’s rights. It was further recommended that these budgets should analyse the gender-
differential impact of revenue-generation and allocation of national country budgets and development
assistance, and ensure representation of women on financial management committees and steering groups.
This, in the long run, would support leadership positions at the grassroots level and schools in particular.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
This study sought to document the factors that hinder female access to senior leadership positions in
selected secondary schools in Solwezi district, Zambia. The researcher relied on the following objectives: to
establish whether the individual factors affect female representation in senior leadership positions, to
determine whether societal factors hinder female access to senior leadership positions, and to establish the
strategies employed for females to access senior leadership positions. The study observed and concluded
that gender stereotypes and discrimination based on traditional norms and culture were the major factors at
play that marginalised females and characterised them as homemakers (helpers) and there was a perception
that when in senior leadership positions, women were disrespectful to men. Therefore, the study could
contribute by encouraging females to have smaller families and to share family responsibilities equally with
their spouses in order to create ample time for their career progression and have access to senior leadership
positions at secondary school level in Solwezi district. In this way, the gender gap could be reduced,
allowing more females to access senior administrative positions at secondary schools.
11. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1462
www.rsisinternational.org
Recommendations
From the conclusions arrived at and the revelations that there were problems causing gender gaps in females
accessing senior leadership positions at secondary school levels in Solwezi district, the researchers wish to
make the following recommendations:
Discourage societal and customary norms, beliefs and culture that seem to prevent females from
occupying senior decision-making positions.
Develop policies, strategies and legislation to enhance female participation in decision-making at
secondary schools.
Encourage females to be trained and appointed to senior leadership positions on merit and through
competition with male counterparts.
Develop and implement gender balancing strategies in appointment and decision-making committees,
ensuring a 50/50 balance of female and male professional administrators.
REFERENCES
1. Amondi, O.B. 2011. Representation of women in top educational management and leadership
positions in Kenya. Advancing Women in Leadership Journal, 31: 57–68.
2. Basic, A., Rahimic, Z., Hirt, C. and Ortlieb, R. (2022). Gender Inequality and the Under-
Representation of Women in Managerial Positions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Research Handbook
on New Frontiers of Equality and Diversity at Work. Edward Elgar Publishing.
3. Bishu, S.G., (2022). Women’s representation in public sector organizations: persistent challenges and
potential for change. In Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. Edward Elgar Publishing.
4. Bubshait, A.I. (2012). Women’s leadership in Saudi universities: Required skills and current
obstacles. European Journal of Social Sciences, 36(1): 69–77.
5. Bhalalusesa, E., and Mboya, M. (2003). Gender Analysis to the Factors Influencing Performances
Management and Leadership. Unpublished paper, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Dar es
Salaam.
6. Coleman, M. (2009). Women in educational leadership in England. In Sobehart H.C. (ed.), Women
leading education across the continents: Sharing the spirit, fanning the flame. Lanham, MA: Rowman
and Littlefield Education, 13–20.
7. Cubillo, L. and Brown, M. 2003. Women into educational leadership and management: international
differences. Journal of Educational Administration.
8. Chabaya, O., Rembe, S., and Wadesango, N. (2009). The Persistence of Gender Inequality in
Zimbabwe: Factors that Impede the Advancement of Women into Leadership Positions in Primary
Schools. South African Journal of Education, 29, 235-251.
9. Cunningham, G. B. (2019). Diversity and Inclusion in Sport Organizations: A Multilevel Perspective.
4th Edition, Routledge, USA: Taxes.
10. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
3rd Edition, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
11. Gaus, N. (2011). Women and School Leaderships: Factors Deterring Female Teachers from
12. Holding Principal Positions at Elementary Schools in Makassar. Advancing Women in
13. Leadership, Vol. 31, pp.175-188.
14. Dimmock, C. and Walker, A. 2006. 2. Women, educational leadership, and cultural context. In
Oplatka, I. and Hertz-Lazarowitz, R. (eds), Women principals in a multicultural society: new insights
into feminist educational leadership. Brill, 33.
15. Eagly, A. H. and Carli, L. L. (2002). Through The Labyrinth: The Truth about How Women Become
Leaders. London: Harvard Business School Press.
16. Fernandez, R.M. and Campero, S. (2017). Gender sorting and the glass ceiling in high-tech firms. ILR
Review, 70(1): 73–104.
17. Govinden, Y. J. (2008). Challenges Fcaed by Female Teachers in Assuming Leadership Role in
12. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1463
www.rsisinternational.org
Schools: A Study of Two Schools in Pietermaritzburg and Two Schools in Small Town Just Outside
Pietermaritzburg. (Masters Dissertation), South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal.
18. Gunawan, J. (2015). Ensuring Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research. Belitung Nursing Journal,
1(1), pp.10-11. https://doi.org/10.33546/bnj.4.
19. Hentschel, T., Heilman, E.E. and Peus, C.V. (2019). The multiple dimensions of gender stereotypes: a
current look at men’s and women’s characterisations of others and themselves. Frontiers in
Psychology, vol. 10: 11.
20. Hlatywayo, L., Hlatywayo, S. and Muranda, Z. A. (2014). The Extent to which Females Occupy
Leadership Positions in Zimbabwean Teachers Colleges. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS), Vol. 19(9), pp. 28-36.
21. Iqbal, A., Ali, M. S., Akhtar, M. S., and Ahmed, S. (2013). A Comparison of the Perceptions of
Secondary School Teachers’ Satisfaction about their Jobs. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social
Science (IOSR-JHSS), 7(5), 92-98.
22. Kapembwa, R., Simuyaba, e., Njobvu, T, Muleya, G. and Simui, F (2020). School based restorative
practices in influencing positive behavior in deviant pupils in Zambia. International Journal of
Education and Research. Vol. 8 (12) 93-109.
23. Kelly, A. M. (2016), Social cognitive perspective of gender disparities in undergraduate physics.
Physical Review Physics Education Research Vol.12. Doi: 10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.12.020116.
24. Madrid, R., López, V., Ahumada, L. and Galdames, S. (2012) School principals at their lonely work:
recording workday practices through ESM logs. Computers & Education, 58(1): 413–422.
25. Madziyire, N.C., and Mapolisa, T. (2012). The Role of Programme Leaders in the Management of
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Programmes in the Department of Education of the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU). International Journal of Social Sciences & Education, 2(4).
26. Mathipa, E.R. and Tsoka, E.M. 2001. Possible barriers to the advancement of women to leadership
positions in the education profession. South African Journal of Education, 21(4): 324–331.
27. Mbepera, J. C. (2015). An Exploration of the Influences of Female Under-representation in Senior
Leadership Positions in Community Secondary Schools (CSSs) in Rural Tanzania. (Degree of Doctor
of Philosophy), UCL Institute of Education.
28. Mbepera, J.C. (2017) The perception of members of school community towards female heads of co-
educational secondary school in Tanzania. Unpublished Masters of Education Management
Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
29. Moran, N. and Walker, K.L. (2019) Consumer information for data-driven decision making: teaching
socially responsible use of data. Journal of Marketing Education, 41(2): 109–126.
30. Morrison, K, Manion, L. and Cohen, L. (2007). Research Methods in Education. New York:
Routledge.
31. Mushibwe, C.P. and Simuka, J. (2021) Motivations for women leadership positions in higher
education institutions: a case of selected universities in Zambia and Zimbabwe. Africa journal of
Leadership and Governance, Vol1, No.1, December, 2020. Pp. 61ff.
32. Mwalwanda, M.A. 2021. An exploration of the nature and extent of female representation in senior
leadership positions at selected secondary schools of Solwezi District. Unpublished Master’s
Dissertation, University of Zambia.
33. Newman, A., Schwarz, G., Cooper, B. and Eva, N., (2016). Servant Leafership and Follower Job
Performance: The Mediating Effect of Public Service Motivation. Public Administration, 94(4), pp.
1025- 1041.
34. Njobvu, T. and Simuyaba, E. (2020). Pupil indiscipline in the no corporal punishment era in Zambia:
trends and implication for management in schools. Zambia Journal of Education Management,
Administration and Leadership, 1(1): 179-192.
https://education.unza.zm/index.php/ZJEMAL/article/download/2 21/201
35. Nswana, A. 2021. Challenges which hinder citizen participation in governance affairs in Nalusanga
Zone, Mumbwa District, Zambia. Unpublished Master’s dissertation, University of Zambia.
36. Nswana, A. and Simuyaba, E. (2021). Challenges which hinder citizen participation in governance
13. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)
ISSN No. 2454-6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS |Volume VII Issue II February 2023
Page 1464
www.rsisinternational.org
affairs in Nalusanga Zone in Mumbwa District. International Journal of Research and Innovation in
Social Sciences, 12(12): 152–158.
37. Rincon, D., Virginia, M.G. and Karle, B. (2017). Women and leadership: gender barriers to senior
management positions. Intangible Capital, 13(2): 319–386.
38. Simuyaba, E. (2022). The role of school governing bodies in the democratization of secondary school
education in Zambia-a case study. A PhD thesis available on https://uir.unisa.ac.za>handle. Also
available on scholar.google.com
39. Stevens, J.M., Beyer, JM and Trice, H. M., (1978) Accessing personal role, organisational predictors
of managerial commitment. Academy of Management Journal, 21(3): 380396.
40. Visser, M. (2011). The Female Leadership Paradox: Power, Performance and Promotion. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan.
41. Voicila, A., Ghinea, V. M., and Filculescu, A. (2018). Women in Leadership Positions: Perspectives
from an International Consultancy Company. International Journal of Academic Research in Business
and Social Sciences, Vol. 8(8), pp. 170-192.
42. Yemenu, C.B. (2020) Factors affecting women participation in leadership position: the case of Derbe
Markos City Administration. Asian Journal of Humanity and Art Literature, 7(1).