Factors Affecting Body Image in College Students

Factors Affecting Body Image
in College Students
Nathan Horton
Spring Arbor University
April 25, 2014

Running head: BODY IMAGE
in College Students
Nathan Horton
Spring Arbor University
PSY 352: Research Design
April 25, 2014
Na004591@arbor.edu

BODY IMAGE
Abstract
A study was conducted with 55 college students at a private Midwestern
university to determine factors that influence body image. Subjects were 47.3%
male (n = 26) and 52.7% female (n = 29) with ages ranging from 18 to 36 (mean
= 20.453). The majority of respondents were Caucasian (n = 38, 70.4%), eight
were African-American (14.8%), and eight were of other races. Twenty students
were athletes (36.4%) and thirty-five were non-athletes (63.6%). Questionnaires
containing 37 items were handed out using a sample of convenience. After
analyzing the data, no variables were found to be statistically significant,
although social support was found to have a slight trend (p = 0.080). This
suggests that, on average, students who have higher levels of social support are
more likely to have higher levels of body image than students with lower levels of
social support. This study did not find any relationship between body image and
self-esteem (p = 0.337), faith commitment (p = 0.482), or media engagement (p =
0.322). Other additional findings are reported at the end of the results section.
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BODY IMAGE
Table of Contents
Literature Review.................................................................................... 1
Gender............................................................................................ 2
Race ............................................................................................... 2
Faith................................................................................................ 3
Media.............................................................................................. 4
Summary ........................................................................................ 5
Present Study ......................................................................................... 5
Purpose .......................................................................................... 5
Hypotheses..................................................................................... 6
Methodology ........................................................................................... 8
Subjects.......................................................................................... 8
Instrument......................................................................................10
Results...................................................................................................11
Major Findings ...............................................................................12
Additional Findings.........................................................................16
Discussion .............................................................................................19
Limitations..............................................................................................22
Implications............................................................................................23
Future Research ....................................................................................25
Summary ...............................................................................................26
References ............................................................................................30
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Appendices............................................................................................35
Appendix A ....................................................................................36
Appendix B ....................................................................................45
Appendix C ....................................................................................52
iii

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Table of Tables
Table 1: Hypothesis and Source of Data ................................................ 7
Table 2: Summary of Participants’ Demographics .................................. 9
Table 3: Summary of Analysis of Variance on
Quality of Body Image as a Function of Self-esteem................12
Table 4: Summary of Quality of Body Image
as a Function of Self-esteem....................................................12
Table 5: Summary of Analysis of Variance on Quality of
Body Image as a Function of Faith Commitment......................13
as a Function of Faith Commitment..........................................13
Body Image as a Function of Media Engagement....................14
as a Function of Media Engagement........................................14
Body Image as a Function of Social Support............................15
as a Function of Social Support................................................15
Table 11: Summary of Biggest Influence to Body Image .......................17
Table 12: Summary of Hypotheses and Results....................................18
Table 13: Summary of Additional Findings ............................................18
iv

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Table 14: Summary of Gender as a Function of Body Image ................46
v

BODY IMAGE 1
Literature Review
In a society with much focus on physical appearance, and with rise of
obesity and eating disorders (Comer, 2011), it is not surprising that one’s
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one’s body image has an impact (Eyal &
Te’eni-Harari, 2013). Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, and Perry (2004) found that such
dissatisfaction is not unusual and can harm a person’s “psychosocial functioning
and quality of life,” and define body image as “a multidimensional construct
encompassing self-perceptions and attitudes regarding one’s physical
appearance” (p. 1081). Objectification of women, a patriarchal byproduct, hurts
both men and women (Swami & Voracek, 2013), and studies show that most
college students (65-78%) have low body image (Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006;
Yates, Edman, & Aruguete, 2004). Men who struggle with body image may
develop obsessive-compulsive symptoms, bulimic symptoms, depression, have
relationship issues, and/or abuse substances (Parent, 2013; McFarland & Petrie,
2012; Parent & Moradi, 2011). Women’s body dissatisfaction correlates to low
self-worth, low self-esteem, and eating disorders, including bulimic behaviors
(Homan, 2012; Rayner, Schniering, Rappe, Taylor, & Hutchinson, 2013).
This literature review explores several factors that affect body image.
Sundry sources factor into body image, including gender, race, faith, and media.
These four variables will be discussed in this literature review.

BODY IMAGE 2
Gender
While males, particularly of college age, may experience low levels of
body image satisfaction (Peat, Peyerl, Ferraro, & Butler, 2011; Parent & Moradi,
2011), females tend to be more dissatisfied with their body image and more likely
to alter their eating habits (Jacobson, Hall, & Anderson, 2013; Cash et al., 2004;
Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, & Morton, 2012; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013).
Female athletes also have the difficulty of negotiating their athletic build and the
ideal feminine body type, which may lead to decreased body satisfaction and the
development of eating disorders (Anderson, Petrie, & Neumann, 2012; Steinfeldt,
Zakrajsek, Carter, & Steinfeldt, 2011).
Studies on men are limited, but younger men may have higher levels of
body dissatisfaction than older men (Daniel & Bridges, 2013; Peat, et al., 2011;
Murray & Lewis, 2014). This may be due to cultural standards of appearance
(Parent & Moradi, 2011). Most studies have been done on heterosexual men, but
Michaels, Parent, and Moradi (2013) found that sexual minority men have less
body satisfaction.
Race
There are differences in body image among races, including Blacks and
Whites. Cash and colleagues (2004) found that Black women did not vary greatly
over two decades (1980s-1990s) in body satisfaction and compared similarly with
non-Black men from 1996 to 2001 (17% and 16%, respectfully). However,
research suggests that body image concerns have increased over the past

BODY IMAGE 3
decade (2000s) for African-American women (Comer, 2011). White women were
found to be more likely to respond to media ideal of thinness, though publication
bias may in some part explain the discrepancy (Greenwood & Dal Cin, 2012;
Ferguson, 2013). Black women are underrepresented in media, which may be
why Black men desire a more “Eurocentric” appearance in Black women
(Capodilupo & Kim, 2014, p. 46). Researchers suggest that African Americans
who identify more closely with African American culture are less likely to be
dissatisfied with their bodies (Capodilupo & Kim, 2014; Greenwood & Dal Cin,
2012).
Faith
Various studies have shown that religious faith correlates with
psychological health (Comer, 2011). Homan (2012) used attachment theory
(developed by Bowlby, 1969/1982, 1973, 1980 and further investigated by Hazan
& Shaver, 1987) to see if a relationship with God would impact female body
image when subjects were presented with media pictures of thin women.
Participants were rated on their attachment to God before being exposed to
either thin or normal-weight models. After the slide show, the women filled out a
“visual analogue scale” pertaining to their body image (Homan, 2012, p. 326).
Although the manifestation of thin models resulted in more body dissatisfaction
than the manifestation of normal-weight models, women who were more securely
attached to God had lower levels of body dissatisfaction. In addition, Jacobson et
al. (2013) found that both men and women who considered their body as sacred

BODY IMAGE 4
(a religious concept) had greater body satisfaction. Both Homan (2012) and
Comer (2011) agree that secure attachment to God reduces the levels of stress
felt in a stressful situation.
Media
Media’s interpretations of female beauty often portray women who are
skinnier than the average woman, while men are presented in unattainable
muscular appearance (Greenwood & Dal Cin, 2012; Eyal & Te’eni-Harari, 2013;
Comer, 2011; Parent, 2013). Greenwood and Dal Cin (2012) investigated how
body image was connected with a woman’s favorite television character or
persona. Both Black and White women who were conscious of wanting the
approval of others were more aware of their physical appearance; this correlates
with lower levels of body image. Another study (Eyal & Te’eni-Harari, 2013)
connected favorite television characters and body dissatisfaction in adolescents,
manifesting that media impacts a person’s life early on. However, conditioning
intervention may lead to higher body satisfaction (Martijn et al., 2013; Becker,
Bull, Schaumberg, Cauble, & Franco, 2008).
Researchers studied another popular form of media, Facebook, but
discovered that usage of the social networking site is not related to greater body
image concerns (Rutledge, Gillmor, & Gillen, 2013). Indeed, a meta-analysis
discovered that media’s ideal body types for women (thin) and men (muscular)
may only affect women who are already dissatisfied with their body and do not
appear to affect men at all (Ferguson, 2013).

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Summary
While many factors contribute to body image satisfaction, this literature
review focused on gender, race, faith, and media. Although studies on males are
limited, females tend to be more dissatisfied with their body image. In regard to
race, White women have been shown to be more dissatisfied with their body
image than Black women, but body image concerns have increased over this
past decade for African-American women. Faith has been shown to correlate
with psychological health, and a secure attachment to God protects women
against body dissatisfaction. In addition, the media’s distorted presentation of
attractiveness may lead to lower levels of body image satisfaction, but perhaps
only in women already predisposed to low body image.
The Present Study
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to examine what factors affect body image
in college students. In particular, self-esteem, faith commitment, media
engagement, and social support were tested to determine what effect, if any,
they had on the body image of college students.

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Hypotheses
The hypotheses that were tested in the present study were as follows:
H1: Students with higher self-esteem have a more positive body image than
students with a lower self-esteem.
H0: Students with higher self-esteem do not have a more positive body image
than students with a lower self-esteem.
H2: Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body image
than students with a lower faith commitment.
H0: Students with a higher faith commitment do not have a more positive body
image than students with a lower faith commitment.
H3: Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative body
image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.
H0: Students who are regularly engaged in media do not have a more negative
body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.
H4: Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive
body image than students who have lower levels of social support.

BODY IMAGE 7
H0: Students who have higher levels of social support do not have a more
positive body image than students who have lower levels of social support.
A table listing each hypothesis can be found below. This table also lists the
source of data used in the analysis of each hypothesis.
Table 1: Hypotheses and Source of Data
Hypothesis Source of Data
H1 Students with higher
self-esteem have a
more positive body
image than students
with a lower self-
esteem.
Independent variable—Self-esteem
1. I look people in the eyes when talking to them.
2. I like who I am.
6. I am pessimistic. (R)*
9. I am confident when faced with a new task.
10. I sometimes think about intentionally hurting myself. (R)*
Dependent variable--The total of responses for body image items:
17. I worry about my physical appearance. (R)*
20. I compare my body with other people. (R)*
23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the presence of
someone from the opposite sex. (R)*
25. I feel that other people must think
my body is unattractive. (R)*
26. My thoughts about my body and physical
appearance are negative and self-critical. (R)*
27. I am satisfied with my appearance.
29. I use products to enhance my appearance (makeup, cologne,
etc.). (R)*
31. I am self-conscious about my body weight. (R)*

BODY IMAGE 8
*Reverse-scored
Methodology
Subjects
The sample of 55 college students came from a private Midwestern
university. Surveys were distributed in the Residence Halls, Library and Student
Center of the university and participants completed them voluntarily. Subjects
were 47.3% male (n = 26) and 52.7% female (n = 29) with ages ranging from 18
H2 Students with a
higher faith
commitment have a
more positive body
image than
students with a
lower faith
commitment.
Independent variable—Faith commitment
11. I attend a religious service outside of chapel.
12. I enjoy going to chapel.
13. I read from a religious book (ex. Bible, devotional, Koran,
Book of Mormon, etc.).
16. I feel that I have a close relationship with a higher power.
18. I spend time with friends that have the same religious faith as
me.
Dependent variable—The total of responses for body image.
See H1
H3 Students who are
regularly engaged
in media have a
more negative body
image than
students who are
not regularly
engaged in media.
Independent variable—Media engagement
14. I engage in social media (Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, etc.).
19. I read magazines.
21. I watch television.
22. I watch sports programming.
24. I watch reality shows (ex. The Bachelor/Bachelorette, Biggest
Loser, etc.).
See H1
H4 Students who have
higher levels of
social support have
a more positive
body image than
students who have
lower levels of
social support.
Independent variable—Social support
3. I regularly spend time with opposite gender friends.
4. I have at least one (1) positive male role model in my life.
5. I have at least one (1) positive female role model in my life.
7. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my father.
8. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my mother.
See H1

BODY IMAGE 9
to 36 (mean = 20.453). The majority of respondents were Caucasian (n = 38,
70.4%), eight were African-American (14.8%), and eight were of other
race/ethnicities. One subject did not indicate race. In terms of class standing,
Juniors (n = 15, 27.3%) outnumbered Sophomores (n = 14, 25.5%), Freshman (n
= 13, 23.6%), Seniors (n = 10, 18.2%), Fifth-year Seniors (n = 2, 3.6%), and
Auditors (n = 1, 1.8%). Twenty students were athletes (36.4%) and thirty-five
were non-athletes (63.6%). Table 2 summarizes the demographics of the
respondents.
Table 2: Summary of Participants’ Demographics
Participants Number Percentage
Gender
Male 26 47.3
Female
Race
29 52.7
Caucasian 38 70.4
African-American 8 14.8
Other Race
Class
8 14.8
Freshman 13 23.6
Sophomore 14 25.5
Junior 15 27.3
Senior 10 18.2
Fifth-year Senior 2 3.6
Auditor
Athlete
1 1.8
Yes 20 36.4
No 35 63.6
Age
Range:18-36
Mean: 20.453
The major variables that were measured were body image, self-esteem,
faith commitment, media engagement, and social support. In the sample

BODY IMAGE 10
surveyed, 62.2% (n = 28) were found to have a high level of body image, and
37.8% (n = 17) were found to have a low level of body image. Most students had
a high level of self-esteem (n = 34, 81%), while only 19% (n = 8) had a low level
of self-esteem. More than two-thirds (n = 23, 67.6%) manifested high levels of
faith commitment and 32.4% (n = 11) manifested low levels of faith commitment.
The majority of respondents were found to have low levels of media engagement
(n = 30, 76.9%) and 23.1% (n = 9) were found to have high levels of media
engagement. In regards to social support, 80.5% (n = 33) reported high levels of
social support and 19.5% (n = 8) reported low levels of social support.
Instrument
Questionnaires were handed out to 55 college students from a private
Midwestern university using a sample of convenience. The questionnaire that
was given to participants of this study was approved by the Human Subjects
Review at the university (see Appendix A1). The subjects signed and put their
informed consent forms (see Appendix A2) in a different pile than their surveys in
order to achieve anonymity.
The survey (see Appendix A3) was a quantitative questionnaire containing
37 items. Most of the questions followed a Likert-type scale, which was designed
to measure body image, self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and
social support. Scoring was achieved by totaling the points of the questions in
each subscale. Points received from each question could range from 1 to 5. The

BODY IMAGE 11
points on each subscale were then summed to form a total index for that
subscale.
Body image was measured by adapting The Body Investment Scale
(Orbach & Mikulincer, 1998) and The Assessing Your Body Image Scale (Strong
& Sayad, 1999; see Appendix A4). Scoring for the eight items could range from 8
to 40. A score of 28 or higher was considered to signify a high level of body
image and a score of 24 or less represented a low level of body image.
The other four subscales each had a total possible point value of 25. A
score of 20 or higher was considered to signify a high level of self-esteem and a
score of 17 or less represented a low level of self-esteem. A score of 22 or higher
was considered to signify a high level of faith commitment and a score of 18 or
less represented a low level of faith commitment. A score of 18 or higher was
considered to signify a high level of media engagement and a score of 14 or less
represented a low level of media engagement. A score of 21 or higher was
considered to signify a high level of social support and a score of 17 or less
represented a low level of social support.
Results
The focus of this study was to examine several factors to determine what
affects body image in college students. Four predictions were hypothesized.
Each of these and the corresponding data are presented in this section.
Additional findings are also presented in this section.

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Major Findings
A. Self-esteem and Body Image
Hypothesis One:
H1: Students with higher self-esteem have a more positive body image than
students with a lower self-esteem.
The data related to hypothesis H1 were analyzed. The findings from this
hypothesis are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
Quality of Body Image as a Function of Self-esteem
Source df Mean Square F p
Body Image 1 52.984 0.943 0.337
Error 40 56.200
Total 41
Mean Scores as a Function of Self-esteem
Body Image N Mean* Standard Deviation
Low 8 25.375 10.663
High 32 28.235 6.634
*Not statistically significant, p = 0.337
Since the differences in self-esteem among students with low and high body
images are not statistically significant (p = 0.337), the research hypothesis H1
cannot be accepted. That is, students with low and high self-esteem do not differ
significantly in regards to their body image. The mean self-esteem score for
those with low body image was 25.375 and the mean self-esteem score for those
with high body image was 28.235.

BODY IMAGE 13
B. Faith and Body Image
Hypothesis Two:
H2: Students with a higher faith commitment have a more positive body
image than students with a lower faith commitment.
Quality of Body Image as a Function of Faith Commitment
Body Image 1 30.682 0.507 0.482
Error 31 60.500
Total 32
Mean Scores as a Function of Faith Commitment
Low 11 25.091 8.203
High 22 27.136 7.567
Again, the differences among students with low and high levels of faith
commitment are not statistically significant (p = 0.482). Hence, the research
hypothesis H2 cannot be accepted. That is, students who have low or high levels
of faith commitment do not differ significantly in regards to body image. The
mean faith commitment score for those with low body image was 25.091 and the
mean faith commitment score for those with high body image was 27.136.

BODY IMAGE 14
C. Media Engagement and Body Image
Hypothesis Three:
H3: Students who are regularly engaged in media have a more negative
body image than students who are not regularly engaged in media.
Quality of Body Image as a Function of Media Engagement
Body Image 1 56.892 1.008 0.322
Error 37 56.418
Total 38
Mean Scores as a Function of Media Engagement
Low 30 27.867 6.761
High 9 25.000 9.760
Since the differences in media engagement among students with low and
high body images are not statistically significant (p = 0.322), the research
hypothesis H3 cannot be accepted. That is, the number of students who have a
low or high levels of media engagement do not differ significantly in regards to
their body image. The mean media engagement score for those with low body
image was 27.867 and the mean media engagement score for those with high
body image was 25.000.

BODY IMAGE 15
D. Social Support and Body Image
Hypothesis Four:
H4: Students who have higher levels of social support have a more positive
body image than students who have lower levels of social support.
Quality of Body Image as a Function of Social Support
Body Image 1 172.225 3.238 0.080
Error 38 53.181
Total 39
Mean Scores as a Function of Social Support
Low 8 23.000 9.621
High 32 28.188 6.655
Since the differences in social support among students with low and high
body images are not statistically significant (p = 0.080), the research hypothesis
H4 cannot be accepted. That is, the number of students who have a low or high
levels of social support do not differ significantly in regards to their body image,
although there is a very slight trend indicating that students with higher levels of
social support tend to have higher levels of body image. The mean social support
score for those with low body image was 23.000 and the mean social support
score for those with high body image was 28.188.

BODY IMAGE 16
Additional Findings
There was one open-ended question on the survey asking respondents
what influences their body image the most. The subjects’ answers were grouped
into five categories, including ‘social support,’ ‘self-esteem,’ ‘health habits,’
‘media,’ and ‘miscellaneous.’ Because more than one answer was allowed, there
were more responses (n = 64) than respondents (n = 55). Two-fifths of subjects’
answers (n = 22, 40%) involved social support. The other four categories were
nearly equal, as ‘self-esteem’ received 23.6% (n = 13) of the responses, ‘health
habits’ 20% (n = 11), ‘media’ 16.3% (n = 9), and ‘miscellaneous’ 23.6% (n = 13).
All of the responses to what influenced students’ body image the most are listed
and can be viewed in Appendix B2. Answers are also summarized below in
Table 11.
After analyzing the data from the present study, some additional findings are
of interest, but only one case was found to be statistically significant. Race as a
function of body image (p = 0.323), class as a function of body image (p = 0.273),
and athlete status as a function of body image (p = 0.125) were studied and none
manifested statistical significance. However, gender as a function of body image
was statistically significant.
The differences between gender and body image were found to be
statistically significant (p = 0.009). This suggests that, on average, female college
students are more likely to have lower levels of body image than male college
students (see Table 14 in Appendix B1).

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Table 11: Summary of Biggest Influences to Body Image
Biggest Influence N (55) Percent of Subjects
Reporting
Social Support 22 40.0
Self-esteem 13 23.6
Health Habits 11 20.0
Media 9 16.3
Miscellaneous 9 16.3
TOTAL 64 116.3

BODY IMAGE 18
Table 12: Summary of Hypotheses and Results
Hypotheses Results
H1: Students with higher self-
esteem have a more positive
body image than students with
a lower self-esteem.
There is no significant difference in
self-esteem between students with a
low body image and those with a
high body image.
p = 0.337*
H2: Students with a higher faith
commitment have a more
positive body image than
students with a lower faith
commitment.
faith commitment between students
with a low body image and those
with a high body image.
p = 0.482*
H3: Students who are regularly
engaged in media have a more
negative body image than
students who are not regularly
engaged in media.
media engagement between
students with a low body image and
those with a high body image.
p = 0.322*
H4: Students who have higher
levels of social support have a
more positive body image than
students who have lower levels
of social support.
There is a very slight trend; this
suggests that, on average, students
with higher levels of social support
tend to have higher levels of body
image.
p = 0.080*
*Not statistically significant
Table 13: Summary of Additional Findings
Hypothesis Results
H1: Students who are female are
more likely to have lower levels
of body image than students
who are male.
On average, female students have
lower levels of body image than
male students.
p = 0.009*
*Statistically significant

BODY IMAGE 19
Discussion
The present study examined several variables which had been theorized
by the researcher as potential factors influencing body image in college students.
Those variables were self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and
social support.
Hypothesis one stated that there was a correlation between higher levels
of self-esteem and higher levels of body image. However, the results did not
confirm this prediction (p = 0.337). A review of the literature manifested that self-
esteem and body image are linked (Homan, 2012), so this result was surprising.
One explanation for this outcome could be that the survey tested both males and
females, which may have skewed the results, since males tend to have a higher
body image than females (Jacobson, Hall, & Anderson, 2013; Cash et al., 2004;
Else-Quest, Higgins, Allison, & Morton, 2012; Tylka & Kroon Van Diest, 2013).
However, when measured, self-esteem was not affected by gender.
Another explanation may be that the respondents simply did not feel
comfortable admitting they had body image issues, which may be why the
percentage of subjects with a low body image (37.8%) was almost half that of
college students in previous studies (65-78%; Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006; Yates,
Edman, & Aruguete, 2004). Although the researcher let the respondents know
that their answers were anonymous, they may not have wanted to openly admit
something that may be a struggle for them.

BODY IMAGE 20
A third reason for these results may simply be due to the questions asked
on the survey. Perhaps self-esteem cannot be properly measured in five
questions. If the survey had expanded the self-esteem section, maybe the
findings would have been significant.
Hypothesis two stated that there was an association between higher levels
of faith commitment and higher levels of body image. Again, the results did not
confirm this prediction (p = 0.482). While the literature contrasts with this finding
(Homan, 2012; Jacobson et al., 2013), several factors may explain this outcome.
An obvious limitation is that the study was done at a private Christian university
where students are required to attend chapel and to adhere to Christian behavior
in regards to alcohol, relationships, and language. It is possible that subjects had
the tendency to rate their faith commitment higher than it is in reality.
Alternatively, because the university adheres to Christian principles, perhaps
more Christians attend who do have a high faith commitment. This would help
explain why the levels of body image are higher than normal, but when tested,
body image was not found to be connected to levels of faith commitment.
In addition, faith commitment is difficult to measure. The questions on the
survey pertained mainly to behavior and not cognitive functions. It is possible to
attend church as a ritual without it having any effect on one’s faith. In contrast, it
is also possible that some subjects rarely attend church because they are
required to go to chapel, but they may have more of a faith commitment than the
former group. Faith can be shown through actions, but actions and habits alone

BODY IMAGE 21
do not equate to faith. Perhaps open-ended questions would have yielded more
honest results, as people could then define faith commitment for themselves. But
even this would not be a perfect measure. To yield the most accurate results in
faith commitment, perhaps a combination of qualitative or quantitative answers
and observance of behavior in real world settings is needed, but this was beyond
the scope of this study.
The third hypothesis predicted a connection with higher levels of media
engagement and lower body image, but this was not the result (p = 0.322). This
was not entirely surprising, as media may only play a factor when females
already have low levels of body image and may not affect males at all (Ferguson,
2013). In this study, additional analysis showed that media engagement was not
affected by either gender. Other explanations involve the campus environment.
Three of the five questions measuring media engagement had to do with
television viewing, when the university only provides televisions in residence hall
lobbies; individuals must bring their own to their rooms and a cable subscription
is not provided or even an option. Thus, people may be more likely to watch
movies or play video games in their rooms than watch television programs.
Perhaps if the questions were more geared to a specific form of media
(social media or movies or video games, etc.), statistical significance could be
found. The five questions covered a broad array of the forms of media: social
networks, magazines, and television were included. Lastly, many of the surveys
were handed out in the Library, which may have included students who more

BODY IMAGE 22
studious, and thus do not spend as much time engaging media than people who
do not frequent the Library.
Hypothesis four said that higher levels of social support correlate with
higher levels of body image. This was not found to be statistically significant (p =
0.080), but a very slight trend was found in favor of the prediction. In addition,
40% of respondents to the qualitative question stated that social support
influenced their body image the most. The literature shows some support to this,
as females tend to choose friends with similar levels of body satisfaction (Rayner
et al., 2013). As social creatures, it makes sense that the environment factors
into body image. Body image not only concerns how one person views him or
herself, but also how that person perceives what others think of his or her body.
Therefore, healthier relationships with parents, friends of both genders, and role
models tend to yield higher levels of body satisfaction. Of course, the survey only
shows correlation and not causation. Does healthy social support lead to high
body image or do those with high body image find healthy relationships?
Limitations
In retrospect, this study had several limitations, including sample size,
race demographics, sample location, and questionnaire structure. The sample
was small (n = 55), so generalizability may be limited. In addition, the sample
was taken from a Midwestern university that is comprised mainly of Caucasian
students; only 16 subjects indicated a race other than Caucasian, which again

BODY IMAGE 23
limits generalizability. The university also is faith based, and this may have
skewed the findings of faith commitment, as students may have had the
tendency to rate themselves higher in terms of faith commitment than is reality.
Since the researcher was also a student at the time when the data were
collected, subjects may have worried that their answers would be criticized,
although they were told their responses would be kept anonymous. The structure
of the survey could have been better as well. Questions pertaining to faith were
written in an attempt not to show bias (i.e. although the study was done at a
Christian university, a question about reading religious literature included options
of the Koran and Book of Mormon, in addition to the Bible.), but each of the four
variables had only five questions each. It is quite likely that self-esteem, faith
commitment, media engagement, and social support all require more
scrutinization and depth of questions than this study gave.
Implications
Despite none of the hypotheses showing statistical significance, the
present study has contributed to existing literature on body image. The purpose
of this study was to determine what factors affect body image in college students.
If certain factors could be pinpointed, then these areas could receive more
attention and subsequently, those with low levels of body image could be better
helped.

BODY IMAGE 24
This study found a very slight trend indicating that college students with
higher levels of social support tend to have higher levels of body image. Colleges
and universities could be more intentional in providing social support to new
students through various programs, including peer-to-peer and faculty-to-peer
interactions. This phase of life often is the first time students are away from their
families for an extended period of time and thus, this population may be more in
need of social support from the campus. In addition, students could be educated
about how social support affects their body image and in turn, their health. By
being aware of the importance of building positive relationships, college students
will have the ability to lead healthier lives.
Additional analysis confirmed the gender gap in terms of body image.
Females are more likely to have lower levels of body image than males. More
light needs to be shed on this issue in order that change can occur. In this
patriarchal society, women’s appearance has been scrutinized, and the
traditional role of women has morphed into more ambiguity in the past few
decades. Aside from being attractive, females are expected to succeed in school,
have a good job, rear children, and take care of the home. Men tend not to be
judged as harshly in terms of appearance or behavior, which may be why they do
not struggle as much with body image. A survey can only imply correlation, not
causation, but further study would be beneficial to discover what causes body
image issues.

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Future Research
Since body image dissatisfaction often leads to a lower quality of life,
including health issues, further study on its causes are needed. Of particular
importance would be to discover the differences in the potential causes of low
body image in females and males. As the two sexes have varying gender roles,
pressures, and expectations, it is likely that their causes of body image vary from
one another.
Another area that could receive increased attention is the importance of
social support in regard to body image. Media has been frequently blamed for
producing low body image, but this may only affect females who already have a
low body image. In today’s society, people are not only surrounded by myriad
forms of mass media, but also by people. No matter how advanced technology
becomes, people naturally form relationships with each other and these people
affect their lives. More work should be done to discover how these relationships
affect not only one’s body image, but one’s overall wellbeing. The friend groups,
families, and overall social environment (including co-workers, neighbors, and
enemies) should be examined in order to provide a fuller picture of one’s level of
social support.
Finally, future research on factors affecting body image may be better
served to concentrate on one variable at a time. In order to make a survey that
was not too time consuming (and thereby causing test fatigue), the four variables
received only five questions each, hardly enough to fully measure each item.

BODY IMAGE 26
This study may have turned out very differently with additional or alternative
questions. One variable that may need multiple studies or at least a multi-method
study is faith commitment. Since faith is not necessarily an observable behavior,
research could be done using open-ended questions as well as observations. In
this way, it may be possible to see a complete picture of faith commitment.
Summary
Body image encompasses the attitudes that one has with one’s physical
appearance. Low levels of body image are common in college students and may
lead to eating disorders, depression, and relationship issues. The goal of this
present study was to identify factors that contribute to body image. Self-esteem,
faith commitment, media engagement, and social support were analyzed in this
study. Having an understanding of what impacts body image will be beneficial to
the physical and mental health of college students. In addition, insight into these
factors would better enable teachers, parents, coaches, and mentors to instruct
and aid students, children, athletes, and mentees towards healthy lifestyles.
The literature review looked at gender, race, faith, and media as factors
affecting body image. It was manifested that females tend to struggle with body
image more than males. This may be due to Western culture’s patriarchal society
and enveloped other factors, such as media. Many studies bemoan the negative
effect media has on body image, but further investigation revealed that media
may only affect body image in females who already have a low body image and

BODY IMAGE 27
may not affect males at all. The literature also showed that faith commitment
correlates to higher levels of body image and that Caucasians are more likely
than minorities to have body image dissatisfaction.
In an attempt to identify factors that affect body image in college students,
a survey was distributed and completed by 55 students at a private Midwestern
university. The questionnaire included 37 items relating to four hypotheses
believed to contribute to body image. The variables were self-esteem, faith
commitment, media engagement, and social support. The results were later
analyzed.
In the present study, none of the four hypotheses were found to be
statistically significant. Only social support (p = 0.080) was found to have a very
slight trend. This indicates that, on average, students with higher levels of social
support tend to have higher levels of body image. Additional analysis examined
gender, race, class standing, and athlete status, but only gender was found to be
statistically significant (p = 0.009). On average, females have lower levels of
body image than males.
There are several explanations for these results, as the study had some
limitations. The sample size was small (n = 55) and the subjects were primarily
Caucasian (70.4%), so generalizability is an issue. The environment also was a
factor. The university where the research took place is a Christian institution,
which may have led to respondents scoring themselves higher in terms of faith
commitment than reality dictates. In addition, the institution only provides

BODY IMAGE 28
television in residential hall lobbies, but three of the five questions pertaining to
media engagement involved television viewing. Overall, questions could have
been worded better and five questions per variable limit both internal and
external validity.
The present study has various implications and would benefit from future
research. The study contributes to existing literature on body image in an attempt
to pinpoint what affects body image. The importance of social support was
shown, and colleges and universities could be more intentional in providing new
students social support through peer-to-peer and faculty-to-peer programs.
Students would also benefit from education on how social support influences
their body image and in turn, their overall wellbeing. Post-secondary students are
often away from home for an extended period of time for the first time in their
lives and may be especially vulnerable to their social environment. Additional
research on the effects of social support is welcomed.
The present study also reiterated the gender difference in body image. In
today’s society, females are judged more harshly than males in regard to
appearance and behavior, and this may influence their body image. Females are
more likely to have lower levels of body image than males. More study into the
causes of body image satisfaction and dissatisfaction in both sexes would
helpful, as females and males have differing pressures, expectations, and gender
roles.

BODY IMAGE 29
Many factors influence body image. Media is often blamed for producing
unrealistic physical expectations and goals, but this alone does not account for
an influx in body dissatisfaction nor does it have as great of an effect as is
believed. Other variables, including gender and social support have a greater
impact. In particular, females and those with lower levels of social support tend
to, on average, have lower levels of body image. More research is needed to
discover why this is and – more importantly – what can be done about it.

BODY IMAGE 30
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300-307. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.014

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Appendices
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Appendix A1: Human Subjects Review........................... 37
Appendix A2: Letter of Informed Consent....................... 39
Appendix A3: Survey Questionnaire ............................... 40
Appendix A4: Questions taken from other sources......... 44
Appendix B: Additional Findings
Appendix B1: Additional Findings ................................... 46
Appendix B2: Additional Responses............................... 47
Appendix C: PowerPoint Presentation.................................... 53

BODY IMAGE 36
Appendix A:
Questionnaire

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Appendix A1: Human Subjects Review
Human Subjects Review: Spring Arbor University
Request for approval of 352 research proposal
Title of study:
What factors affect body image in college students?
Researcher: Nathan Horton
Faculty sponsor: Dr. Jan Yeaman, Department of Psychology
Question or problem to be investigated:
This present student will measure quality of body image among students at
Spring Arbor University. It will attempt to identify factors that contribute to body
image, such as self-esteem, faith commitment, media engagement, and social
support.
Purpose and/or benefit of study:
The findings of this study could be helpful to many different people. For example,
if it was determined that many students have a low quality of body image, student
programs and assistance for individuals could be developed. Student
development personnel (Resident Directors, Resident Assistants, Peer Advisors),
campus counseling services, and/or the school nurse would be people who could
use this information.
Subjects:
 Description of desired sample:
At least 35 (and no more than 50) students from the main campus. Approximately half of the
subjects will be male and approximately half will be female.
 Methods of selecting subjects:
Subjects will be obtained using a sample of convenience. Questionnaires will be passed out to
students in Andrews and Gainey Halls. If more students are still needed, surveys will be handed
out in the Student Center and the Library as well.
Possible risks to subjects:
There are no perceived risks to subjects. Subjects will voluntarily participate and
can discontinue at any point during the survey.

BODY IMAGE 38
Plan or method for carrying out study:
The present study will use a survey questionnaire. Subjects will be approached
by me and asked to participate.
Time table for study (Please specify what is being done on what dates):
Data will be collected between March 17 and March 24, 2014. The entire
research project will be completed by April 24, 2014.
If deception is to be used, describe debriefing procedures:
Deception will not be used.
Please include the following: Note—all are attached.
1. a copy of data collection instrument(s)
2. a copy of voluntary informed consent form that subjects will sign. (If
informed consent will not be obtained, please indicate the reasons for this
omission.) A voluntary informed consent form must include:
a. an explanation of procedures that will be followed during the study
b. description of possible discomforts and risks to subjects
c. how data will be used and who will have access to it
d. assurance that subject is free to withdraw from the study at any time
e. description of the benefits that can be expected from the study.

BODY IMAGE 39
Appendix A2: Letter of Informed Consent
Welcome and thank you for taking the time to participate in this research
project conducted by Nathan Horton, at Spring Arbor University.
The questionnaire that you will complete today will greatly assist this
college and others like it to understand issues related to students throughout
their academic career. Knowing this information will make it possible to provide
more effective services for students.
Your responses to all questions will be completely anonymous. Do not
put your name on the answer sheet. The data collected for the study will only
be considered as a group data pool. You will hand in the signed statement of
informed consent separately from your questionnaire. No one associated with
the college, including myself, will be able to identify any individual's questionnaire
nor their responses to specific questions.
This study involves no deceit and no risk or discomfort to you for
participating. You may change your mind about participating at anytime. A
report of the results of this study may be submitted to a professional publication
or conference at a later time.
If you are willing to participate, you need to sign the Statement of
Informed Consent below:
THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS STUDY.
ιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιιι
STATEMENT OF INFORMED CONSENT
I have read the above information about this research study. My signature below
indicates that I voluntarily agree to participate as a subject in this study, based on
the information above.
Today’s Date __________________
Signature ________________________________________________

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Appendix A3: Survey Questionnaire
Section I
For each of the following questions please circle the response that best
describes you with Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree (2), Not Sure (3), Agree (4),
or Strongly Agree (5).
1. I look people in the eyes when talking to them ................ 1 2 3 4 5
2. I like who I am.................................................................. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I regularly spend time with opposite gender friends......... 1 2 3 4 5
4. I have at least one (1) positive
male role model in my life ................................................ 1 2 3 4 5
5. I have at least one (1) positive
female role model in my life ............................................. 1 2 3 4 5
6. I am pessimistic................................................................ 1 2 3 4 5
7. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my father...... 1 2 3 4 5
8. I feel that I have a healthy relationship with my mother ... 1 2 3 4 5
9. I am confident when faced with a new task...................... 1 2 3 4 5
10. I sometimes think about intentionally hurting myself........ 1 2 3 4 5
StronglyDisagree
Disagree
NotSure
Agree
StronglyAgree

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Section II
For each of the following questions please circle the response that best
describes you with Never (1), Rarely (2), Sometimes (3), Usually (4),
or Always (5).
11. I attend a religious service outside of chapel .................. 1 2 3 4 5
12. I enjoy going to chapel..................................................... 1 2 3 4 5
13. I read from a religious book
(ex. Bible, devotional, Koran, Book of Mormon, etc.)...... 1 2 3 4 5
14. I engage in social media
(ex. Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, etc.) ............................ 1 2 3 4 5
15. I exercise ......................................................................... 1 2 3 4 5
16. I feel that I have a close relationship
with a higher power.......................................................... 1 2 3 4 5
17. I worry about my physical appearance............................. 1 2 3 4 5
18. I spend time with friends that have
the same religious faith as me ......................................... 1 2 3 4 5
19. I read magazines ............................................................. 1 2 3 4 5
20. I compare my body with other people .............................. 1 2 3 4 5
21. I watch television.............................................................. 1 2 3 4 5
22. I watch sports programming............................................. 1 2 3 4 5
23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the
presence of someone from the opposite sex ................... 1 2 3 4 5
24. I watch reality shows
(ex. The Bachelor/Bachelorette, Biggest Loser, etc.)....... 1 2 3 4 5
Never
Rarely
Sometimes
Usually
Always

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25. I feel that other people must think
my body is unattractive .................................................... 1 2 3 4 5
26. My thoughts about my body and physical
appearance are negative and self-critical ........................ 1 2 3 4 5
27. I am satisfied with my appearance................................... 1 2 3 4 5
28. I eat healthy foods............................................................ 1 2 3 4 5
29. I use products to enhance my appearance
(makeup, cologne, etc.) .................................................. 1 2 3 4 5
30. I take pictures of myself ................................................... 1 2 3 4 5
31. I am self-conscious about my body weight ...................... 1 2 3 4 5
Section III
For each of the following questions please circle or fill in the response that
applies to you.
32. Please indicate your gender
1 Male
2 Female
33. How old were you on your last birthday? ______
34. Please indicate your class standing according to the registrar’s office
1 Freshman
2 Sophomore
3 Junior
4 Senior
5 Fifth year Senior
6 Other (please specify): ______________
35. Are you on a Spring Arbor University athletic team?
1 Yes
2 No

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36. Please indicate your race
1 Caucasian
2 African-American
3 Hispanic/Latino
4 Asian
5 Other (please specify): ____________
37. What do you feel influences your body image the most?

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Appendix A4: Questions taken from other sources
Orbach, I., & Mikulincer, M. (1998). The body investment scale: Construction and
validation of a body experience scale. Psychological Assessment, 10, 425.
Copyright 1998 Israel Orbach.
17. I worry about my physical appearance.
27. I am satisfied with my appearance.
29. I use products to enhance my appearance (makeup, cologne, etc.)
Strong, B., & Sayad, B. W. (1999). The resource book: A teacher’s tool kit to
accompany human sexuality by Bryan Strong, Christine DeVault, and
Barbara W. Sayad (p. 209). Copyright 1999 Mayfield Publishing Company.
20. I compare my body with other people.
23. I feel embarrassed by my body when in the presence of someone from
the opposite sex.
25. I feel that other people must think my body is unattractive.
26. My thoughts about my body and physical appearance are negative
and self-critical.

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Appendix B:
Additional Findings

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Appendix B1: Additional Tables
I. Gender as a Function of Body Image
Table 14: Summary of Gender as a
Function of Body Image (in percentages)
Gender
Level of Body Image Male Female
Low 15.8 53.8
High 84.2 46.2
N = 19 26
Chi-square = 6.764; df = 1; p = 0.009

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Appendix B2: Additional Responses
Question
What do you feel influences your body image the most?
*All 64 responses included. Some are repeated because they overlap into
multiple categories.*
Social Support (n = 22, 40.0%)
• My girlfriend
• The other people around me and social media
• Being around other really fit runners and athletes who are extremely
skinny
• Just being around smaller woman, or pictures of other woman. Television,
magazines?
• Media, and those closest to me. Primarily girls
• Friends, media
• I’m not really sure. Maybe my friends’ and family’s opinion of how I look?
• Other people I live with
• I know that I’m loved and my body image doesn’t affect how the people
who love me see me. So I don’t worry about it.
• Friends who I perceive to have healthy/athletic body types
• Media & friends
• Friends

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• Media, my friends, and family
• Close relationships w/ other people, proper eating/exercise (as in if my
appearance is a result of creation or laziness) and being loved physically
& emotionally in the past and thus being confident now.
• The way other people view it.
• Seeing other girls skinnier, more toned, in shape, beautiful, well
developed, taller than I am.
• Other people around me regularly.
• Opinions of friends
• How I feel that day, and whether or not someone pays me a compliment.
• The biggest influence on my body image would be if I am constantly
around girls who are thinner than I am and continue to talk about it.
• Other people
• Other people. My sister
Self-esteem (n = 13, 23.6%)
• Looking and feeling healthy!
• I know that I’m loved and my body image doesn’t affect how the people
who love me see me. So I don’t worry about it.
• My personality
• My physical performance if I’m more muscular I can do more. My image is
influenced by this and what self confidence I have.

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• I will say nothing influences my body image. Because I feel confidently
about myself.
• Myself.
• My insecurities because of my lack of a father figure.
• Me.
• How I feel that day, and whether or not someone pays me a compliment.
• Attitude
• I’ve been small for a long time…my mom informed me that I probably
won’t start picking up major weight until I start having kids. So until that
time is right in my life. I just try to enjoy the shape and figure I have now!
• My feelings because I am a Health and Exercise major so staying fit is
proper to me. I feel happier when I eat and look better. More confidence
comes from a more comfortable look.
Health Habits (n = 11, 20.0%)
• What I eat and how I exercise
• Staying healthy
• I exercise constantly – at least twice a day, and I eat super healthy.
• Muscle, posture, clothes, and hygiene

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• How often I exercise
• Exercise
• My feelings because I am a Health and Exercise major so staying fit is
proper to me. I feel happier when I eat and look better. More confidence
comes from a more comfortable look.
• Athletic ability & Strength
• My physical performance if I’m more muscular I can do more. My image is
influenced by this and what self confidence I have.
• Muscles
Media (n = 9, 16.3%)
• The other people around me and social media
• Just being around smaller woman, or pictures of other woman. Television,
magazines?
• Media, and those closest to me. Primarily girls
• Friends, media
• Media
• Media & friends
• Media, my friends, and family
• The Internet and advertisements and my faith

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• All the different forms of media forcing perfection as a societal norm
Miscellaneous (n = 9, 16.3%)
• Nothing.
• Tall, Dark, & Handsome
• Christ and being made in his image
• Things
• N/A
• What Jesus has to say about it.
• Probably the stereotypical idea of what a “man” should look like.
• Clothes
• Clothing?

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Appendix C:
PowerPoint Presentation Slides

BODY IMAGE 53
in College Students
Nathan Horton
PSY 352
May 1, 2014
Literature Review
Low body image: 65-78%
(Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006; Yates, Edman, & Aruguete, 2004)
Major variables explored:
Gender
Females ↓ Males ↑
Race
(Cash, Morrow, Hrabosky, & Perry, 2004; Comer, 2011)
Faith ↑
(Jacobson, et al., 2013; Comer, 2011; Homan, 2012)
Media??
(Ferguson, 2013)

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Subjects (n = 55)
Participants Percent (n)
Gender
Males 47.3 (26)
Females 52.7 (29)
Race
Caucasian 70.4 (38)
African-American 14.8 (8)
Other Races 14.8 (8)
Class
Freshman 23.6 (13)
Sophomore 25.5 (14)
Junior 27.3 (15)
Senior 18.2 (10)
Other 5.4 (3)
Athlete
Yes 36.4 (20)
No 63.6 (35)
Methodology
Instrument
Approved by Human Subjects
37 item questionnaire
31 items (5-point Likert scale)
1 open ended
5 demographic
Procedure
Sample of convenience

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Results
Four hypotheses tested
Zero with statistical significance
One with trend in predicted direction
One additional finding statistically significant
H1 Quality of body image as a
function of self-esteem
p = 0.337
Body image and self-esteem were
not found to be related

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function of faith commitment
p = 0.482
Body image and faith commitment were
function of media engagement
p = 0.322
Body image and media engagement were

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function of social support
p = 0.080
Those with higher levels
of body image tend to have
higher levels of social support
Additional Findings
Females are more likely to
have lower levels of body image
p = 0.009

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Discussion: Any Questions??

Factors Affecting Body Image in College Students

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