This article examines the relationship between women's perceived body image and personal happiness. 144 women between the ages of 18-87 completed surveys measuring body esteem, eating attitudes, and life satisfaction. The results indicated that happiness significantly and positively correlated with all three components of body esteem (sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition). There were no significant differences found among women of different ages in terms of body satisfaction. The findings suggest that recognizing body image is an important contributor to overall life happiness for women.

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Women's Perceived Body Image: Relations with
Personal Happiness
Rachel Stokes MA
a
& Christina Frederick-Recascino PhD
b
a
University of Central Florida , P.O. Box 731194, Ormond Beach, FL, 32173-1194 E-mail:
b
Department of Human Factors Psychology , Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University , 600
Clyde Morris Blvd., Daytona Beach, FL, 32114-3900 E-mail:
Published online: 12 Oct 2008.
To cite this article: Rachel Stokes MA & Christina Frederick-Recascino PhD (2003) Women's Perceived Body Image: Relations
with Personal Happiness, Journal of Women & Aging, 15:1, 17-29, DOI: 10.1300/J074v15n01_03
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2. Women’s Perceived Body Image:
Relations with Personal Happiness
Rachel Stokes, MA
Christina Frederick-Recascino, PhD
ABSTRACT. The present study examined the relationships between
body image and happiness in adult women. One hundred and forty-four
women, with an average age of 40 years, were surveyed. Within the sam-
ple, three age groups were established: college-aged women, middle-aged
women, and older women. Each participant completed the Body Esteem
Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984), the Eating Attitudes Test (Garner &
Garfinkel, 1979), and the Life Satisfaction Index A (Neugarten, Havighurst, &
Tobin, 1961). Results indicated that happiness significantly and posi-
tively correlated with the three components of body esteem: sexual at-
tractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition. There were no
significant differences among the types of body satisfaction expressed
by women of different ages. The results are discussed in terms of the im-
portance of recognizing body image as a major contributor to overall life
happiness in women. [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth
Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <getinfo@
haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www.Haworth Press.com> © 2003 by
The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
KEYWORDS. Body image, aging, happiness, subjective well-being
Rachel Stokes is affiliated with the University of Central Florida, P.O. Box 731194,
Ormond Beach, FL 32173-1194 (E-mail: LoveableRS@aol.com).
Christina Frederick-Recascino is affiliated with the Department of Human Factors
Psychology, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, 600 Clyde Morris Blvd.,
Daytona Beach, FL 32114-3900 (E-mail: frederic@cts.db.erau.edu).
Journal of Women & Aging, Vol. 15(1) 2003
http://www.haworthpressinc.com/store/product.asp?sku=J074
 2003 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved. 17
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3. In today’s society, a strong message is sent to women about the im-
portance of physical appearance (Henderson-King & Henderson-King,
1997). These societal pressures result in women placing an inordinate
amount of importance on body image (Van Der Velde, 1985). As a re-
sult, it is hypothesized that body image contributes to more comprehen-
sive quality of life attitudes, such as happiness, in American women. Of
particular interest for the present study is not only whether women’s
personal happiness is associated with body image, but if these relation-
ships remain consistent across the life span.
BODY IMAGE
Body image and its correlates have received mounting attention in
both the fields of psychology and sociology. Body image is a multidi-
mensional self-attitude toward the size, shape, and aesthetics of one’s
body (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990). Body image consists of two compo-
nents. First is a physical component, which represents a given bodily
feature or movement (i.e., thighs, cheeks, physical stamina, etc.). Sec-
ond, there is a psychological meaning which reflects a feeling, thought,
or personal quality expressed by each particular bodily feature or action
(i.e., what one thinks or feels about his/her thighs, cheeks, physical
stamina, etc.) (Van Der Velde, 1985). If the physical component of the
body is seen in a negative manner, then the psychological meaning will
in turn be negative in nature (and vice versa). Not only do we see our-
selves in relation to this self-formed body image, but we also form body
images for those around us. Recognition of other’s appearances and ac-
tions are categorized into certain images we have formed for them (i.e.,
she has a pretty face, he is very athletic, etc.). Consequently, these body
images we have created for others change as we perceive differences in
the individual (Van Der Velde, 1985). A comparison between our own
body image and the body images of others, begins the contest within
ourselves to not only fit in, but also to comply with our society’s ideal of
perfection in order to be happy. Discontentment with one’s own body
and striving to attain the “ideal” body image dictated by those we es-
teem as society’s elite, is the inauspicious situation in which women
commonly find themselves entangled.
Negative feelings, thoughts, or personal qualities related to one’s
body would indicate a disturbance of body image and lead to dissatis-
faction with one’s self. Disturbances in body image have been linked
to eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa
(Garner & Garfinkel, 1980). Not only have distortions been linked to
eating disorders, but also to a variety of problems, including lowered
self-esteem, depression, marital satisfaction, and motivation (Mintz &
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4. Betz, 1986; McCaulay, Mintz, & Glenn, 1988; Brenner & Cunningham,
1992; Cohen-Tovee, 1992; Taylor & Cooper, 1986; Beck, 1976; Fried-
man et al., 1999; Hubbard et al., 1998).
The term “body esteem” has been used synonymously with body im-
age. Body esteem is defined as a person’s attitude toward his or her
body, and is believed to relate to general self-esteem (Franzoi &
Shields, 1984). Measurement of body esteem involves an evaluation of
one’s body in terms of distinct aspects or dimensions (Fisher, 1964;
Franzoi & Shields, 1984). Researchers Franzoi and Shields (1984) have
done extensive work to develop a scale measuring body esteem, the
Body Esteem Scale (BES). They have provided evidence that body es-
teem can be discussed in terms of three primary dimensions (subscales).
The first two factors deal with aspects or functions of the body that are
associated with physical attractiveness. However, the first dimension
includes body parts that cannot be changed through exercise. This
subscale is concerned with facial attractiveness and includes an evalua-
tion of one’s own sexuality, a sense of one’s attractiveness to others. It
is labeled the Sexual Attractiveness subscale. The second dimension
represents all body parts, which can be physically altered through exer-
cise or diet. This subscale is concerned with changes that require more
than cosmetic alterations and is labeled the Weight Concern subscale.
The third and final factor of female body esteem is composed of items
related to one’s attitudes toward physical qualities (e.g., stamina,
strength, and agility). This is labeled the Physical Condition subscale.
Together these multidimensional constructs make up a woman’s overall
body esteem, either positive or negative. The BES has been proven use-
ful in numerous research studies to rate the level of a person’s body es-
teem (Franzoi & Koehler, 1998; Henderson-King et al., 1997; McKinley,
1998) and has been declared a valid measure (Thomas & Freeman,
1990). Results indicate that when females evaluate their bodies, they do
it on a dimensional basis (Fisher, 1964; Franzoi & Shields, 1984).
WOMEN, BODY IMAGE, AND AGE
The majority of research articles, with few exceptions, indicate that
males have a more positive attitude toward their bodies than do females
(Mintz & Kashubeck, 1999; Mintz & Betz, 1986). Observations of sig-
nificant gender differences were made by Furnham and Greaves (1994).
They found women expressed more dissatisfaction with their bodies
and participated in dieting behavior more frequently than men. Evi-
dence confirming these findings was presented by McKinley (1998).
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5. This research indicates that women have higher levels of surveillance,
body shame, and actual/ideal weight discrepancy than men. As a result
of social-cultural pressure, a drive toward thinness and a fear of fat can
be found to a small degree in most of the women living in western cul-
ture (Garner, 1979). Consequently, a preoccupation with dieting, weight,
and body image often results.
Although much research has been conducted to study body attitudes
as they relate to adolescents and college age women (Taylor et al., 1998;
Mintz & Kashubeck, 1999; Cash, Ancis, & Strachan, 1997). Only re-
cently has noticeable interest come to rest on adult women. In our soci-
ety, men are allowed not only to appear their age, but often are viewed
as more attractive while maturing women move farther from society’s
ideal. Regardless of their physical changes, elderly women have been
found to express the same body attitudes as younger women. Loomis
and Thomas (1991) found elderly women who expressed greater satis-
faction with weight and physical condition on the Body Esteem Scale
(BES), also expressed greater life satisfaction. In a study of elderly men
and women, Wilcox (1997) found a positive relationship between body
attitudes and self-esteem. This relationship seems to confirm that physi-
cal appearance is indeed important to satisfaction with self, no matter
the age of the person. It is hypothesized by Wilcox (1997) that as
women age they adjust their standards to match their peers. A sixty-
year-old woman would compare herself not to a beautiful twenty-year-
old, but to someone she considers attractive in her own age category.
Janelli (1986) found similar results and reported that there was no sig-
nificant difference between women of middle age and women over 65
with respect to their body image.
In 1998, Franzoi and Koehler used the BES to measure body esteem
in young adults and elderly adults. Their results indicated that elderly
adults expressed less positive attitudes about their level of facial attrac-
tiveness and body functioning, than did the younger adults. On the other
hand, young adults held more negative attitudes toward issues relating
to body weight. Franzoi and Koehler also found that elderly women felt
better about weight concern issues, than their younger counterparts.
Even less studied than older women have been middle-aged women.
Few studies include this large group of women. However, Rackley et al.
(1988) did find that similar to younger and elderly women, the higher a
woman’s self-esteem in mid-life, the higher her satisfaction with her
body. Other factors which influenced middle aged women’s satisfac-
tion were: their feelings of physical attractiveness; the amount of con-
trol they felt over their life; and how they rated their worth as a person.
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6. In contrast to what might be expected, research has been found indicat-
ing that women of middle age do like their physical appearance. Lamb,
Jackson, Cassiday, and Priest (1993) found dissatisfaction with weight
to be more prominent among younger women than middle-aged women.
In summary, body image is the concept of one’s body that is formed
as women begin to observe and compare themselves to others. This
self-concept is carried throughout one’s life span but is constantly alter-
ing and changing. Whether or not a woman’s body image is negative or
positive affects important psychological things, such as self-esteem lev-
els, depression levels, marital satisfaction, and motivation levels.
HAPPINESS
In Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (1947), he states that the highest
of all good achievable by human action is happiness. People across the
world have been asked to define, reflect upon, and explain their life sat-
isfaction and happiness. Single questions, such as “How satisfied are
you with your life?” and more complex multi-item scales asking sub-
jects to rate happiness, have been developed to identify levels of subjec-
tive well-being (Myers & Diener, 1995). In a study by Wilcock et al.
(1998), the majority of participants described the sort of feeling they as-
sociated with the experience of overall well-being as happiness. Thus,
subjective well-being and happiness are defined by the same measures
and are used interchangeably throughout psychological investigations.
Interestingly, little research has directly related body image to life
happiness. Such evidence that exists finds that eating attitudes may be
directly related to well-being (Garner, 1979). Many women do not have
anorexia nervosa, but suffer from weight concerns that interfere with
their psychological well-being. Thus, women’s eating attitudes and body
image concerns may directly reflect their concerns about self-worth, con-
trol, autonomy, and familial relationships, and influence their overall
happiness.
THE CURRENT STUDY
Building on previous research, the present study examined how a
woman’s satisfaction with her body related to overall happiness. In gen-
eral, it was presumed that there was a strong positive relationship be-
tween body satisfaction and women’s happiness levels. More specifically,
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7. it was hypothesized that: (1) as women’s levels of satisfaction with their
bodies increased, their level of subjective well-being (happiness) would
increase; (2) as the age of the participant increased, the relationship be-
tween body image and happiness level would remain constant. How-
ever, we predicted older women would focus more on the physical
component of their body image, whereas younger women would be
more concerned with the sexual attractiveness component; and (3) happi-
ness in women can be predicted by a combination of body image vari-
ables, including eating attitudes.
METHOD
Sample and Procedures
Participants in the present study were 144 women, ranging in age
from 18 to 87 years old, with a mean age of 40 years. Within the sample,
three age groups were established. The first group consisted of 58
women, aged 18-29 enrolled in undergraduate studies at the University
of Central Florida, Daytona Campus. The second group consisted of 48
women who ranged in age from 30-49 years, and were members of the
University of Central Florida’s Alumni Association. The last group
consisted of 38 women age 50 and above, who were all members of lo-
cal Daytona Beach retirement and church communities. Approximately
33% of the sample reported that they were single, while 39% were mar-
ried, 17.8% were divorced, and 8.6% were widowed. The mean yearly
income for the entire group was $34,000.
Extra credit was given to undergraduate students for participation in
the study. For this group, the researcher administered a consent form
and then the questionnaire packet, which included questions pertaining
to the individual’s demographics and variables of interest to the present
study. To assess women between ages 30 and 49, one hundred members
of the University of Central Florida’s Alumni Association were con-
tacted and sent a consent form, self-addressed envelope, and question-
naire packet via mail. Of these, 48 returned their surveys for a return
rate of 48%. Older women were contacted through a local retirement
community that restricted residency to those over 50 years, and through
a local Christian church. They were administered the consent form and
questionnaire packet in person, at their neighborhood clubhouse or at
church social gatherings.
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8. Measures
Body Esteem Scale. The Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields,
1984) consists of 35 items which measure satisfaction with one’s body,
and includes three different dimensions of body image: sexual attrac-
tiveness, weight concern, and physical condition. This scale was used as
a nonclinical measure of body image. Participants indicated their level
of satisfaction for each item on a 5-point response scale (1 = very dissat-
isfied, 5 = very satisfied). Items corresponding to each aspect of body
esteem were summed to create total subscale scores. Franzoi and
Shields (1984) reported the alpha coefficients as .78 for the sexual at-
tractiveness dimension, .87 for the weight concern dimension, and .82
for the physical condition dimension in a sample of women. Test-retest
reliability coefficients for females are: sexual attractiveness, r = .81;
weight concern, r = .87; and physical condition, r = .75. On each
subscale a higher score indicates more positive esteem for that body im-
age dimension.
Eating Attitudes Test. The Eating Attitudes Test (Garner & Garfinkel,
1979) is a 40-item measure of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa. This
test was used as a clinical measure of body image. Items were responded
to using a 6-point response format (1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes,
4 = often, 5 = very often, 6 = always). In an adult population, a validity
coefficient of .87 (biserial correlation) was reported (Garner & Garfinkel,
1979). A higher score on the EAT is indicative of more disturbed eating
behaviors.
Life Satisfaction Index A. The Life Satisfaction Index A: LSIA
(Neugarten, Havighurst, & Tobin, 1961) is a 20-item measure designed
to assess general levels of happiness. Items on the LSIA were presented
using a 5-point response scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly
agree). Items were summed to create a total score. Reliability and valid-
ity of the LSIA for adult samples are provided by Neugarten,
Havighurst, and Tobin (1961) and Liang (1980).
Demographics. Participants were asked to answer questions about
the following: age, marital status, number of biological children, yearly
income, religious involvement, and engagement in physical exercise.
Participants were also asked to rate their level of religiosity/spirituality
on a 9-point response scale (1 = not at all, 9 = very).
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9. RESULTS
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 presents descriptive information about each of the three age
groups in the study and information about mean scores for the body im-
age variables and for happiness.
Group Differences in Body Image and Happiness
Five, one way ANOVAs were used to examine age differences in
body image and happiness levels. There were no significant age differ-
ences for any of the subscales of the Body Esteem Scale, nor were there
significant group differences for scores on the Eating Attitudes Test.
There was a significant age difference for happiness level (F(2,144) =
3.32, p < .05). A post hoc Scheffe test indicated that the oldest group
had significantly higher levels of happiness than either the middle-aged
or the youngest group.
Correlations Between Body Image and Happiness
Table 2 presents the Pearson correlations between the four body im-
age variables and happiness for the entire sample and for each age
group. Overall, the correlations indicated that significant relationships
existed between body image and happiness for all age groups.
Result of Multiple Regression Analysis
A linear multiple regression was calculated to examine the relative
strength of the four body image variables in predicting the dependent
variable of happiness. Four separate equations were tested, one for the
entire sample and three for the different age groups. For the entire sam-
ple, the regression model was significant. (F(4, 136) = 8.24, p < .01, r2 =
20). The model was also significant for the youngest group (F(4,61) =
6.07, p < .01, r2 = 30) and middle-aged group of women (F(4,48 = 5.74,
p < .01, r2 = .34), but not for the oldest old group. For the youngest age
group, sexual attractiveness (t = 2.07, p < .05) and physical condition
(t = 1.97, p = .05) were the only significant individual predictors of hap-
piness. For the middle age group, weight concern was the only signifi-
cant individual predictor of happiness (t = 2.39, p < .05).
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10. Rachel Stokes and Christina Frederick-Recascino 25
TABLE 1. Descriptive Statistics on Variables of Interest
Variable Entire Sample Younger
Women
Middle-Aged
Women
Older
Women
M sd M sd M sd M sd
Age 40.07 16.3 23.97 3.1 39.77 5.4 60.93 9.2
Number of
Children 1.31 1.5 .20 .47 1.49 1.3 2.53 1.5
Yearly
Income in
Thousands 34.31 40.8 19.41 15.2 48.14 55.0 39.35 40.2
Level of
Religiosity 6.65 1.8 6.14 1.7 6.63 1.8 7.35 1.7
Church Att.
Per Month 2.42 3.9 1.36 2.7 1.72 3.3 4.55 5.1
Hrs. Per Wk.
Exercise 2.27 3.3 2.96 4.2 1.85 2.5 1.86 2.6
Days Per Wk.
Exercise 2.20 2.3 2.01 2.0 1.97 2.2 2.71 2.6
Happiness 63.23 9.5 62.29 7.6 61.65 10.7 68.07 9.9
Physical
Condition 30.78 7.4 31.00 7.1 30.63 7.6 30.54 8.0
Weight
Concerns 28.71 12.5 30.31 15.0 26.82 10.1 28.50 9.6
Sexual
Attract. 50.07 9.0 51.81 8.6 48.55 9.2 48.89 8.9
Eating
Attitudes 98.19 20.4 100.56 24.7 95.82 17.1 97.11 14.3
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11. DISCUSSION
Results of the present study supported the hypothesis that predicted a
strong positive correlation between body image and happiness in
women. These findings are in line with research showing the increasing
importance of body image in women living in contemporary Northern
American society (McCaulay, Mintz, & Glenn, 1988). It is speculated
that as women fail to realize the “ideal” body that society demands,
their overall life happiness can be affected. However, the causal direc-
tion of the correlation still remains a mystery. Does a healthy body im-
age bring about happiness in an individual, or does life happiness lead
to better body image? While a strong relationship has been uncovered,
further research into the direction is still needed.
Contrary to the study’s prediction that older women’s happiness
would relate focus more to the physical component of their body image,
while younger women’s happiness would be most related to the sexual
attractiveness component, evidence points to a somewhat different set of
outcomes. When compared by age groups, happiness in younger women
26 JOURNAL OF WOMEN & AGING
TABLE 2. Correlations Among Happiness and Body Image Variables
Sexual
Attr.
Physical
Condition
Weight
Concerns
Eating Attitudes
Happiness
Entire Sample .39* .33* .27* ⫺.32*
Happiness
Younger Women .48* .45* .15ns ⫺.30+
Happiness
Middle-Aged
Women .42* .38* .48* ⫺.37*
Happiness
Older Women .40* .12ns .09ns ⫺.19ns
ns = not significant
+ = p < .05
* = p < .01
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12. was found to be most related to sexual attractiveness and physical con-
dition. Happiness in middle-aged women was related to all three com-
ponents of body image; sexual attractiveness, weight concern, and
physical condition. Older women’s appeared only to be related to sex-
ual attractiveness.
While results of the young and middle aged women are in line with
many previous studies, the findings of the older women’s group seem
quite the reverse. Results indicate that sexual attractiveness is a more
relevant factor for older women than once believed. One reason for
these differences could be that the present study had a sample of healthy
participants. Thus, good health could play a vital role in older women’s
attitudes toward sexuality. Also, the unusual results of the present study
could be linked to changes in society. While there is still a large discrep-
ancy between society’s recognition of older women vs. older men as be-
ing “sexy,” our society has increasingly begun to accept and acknowledge
older women as being sexually attractive over the last twenty years. Ex-
amples of this phenomenon include celebrities, such as Goldie Hawn
and Cybil Shepard.
When creating a model for predicting happiness, by use of a multiple
regression, interesting findings emerged. Body image variables com-
bined to significantly predict happiness across the entire sample and
with young and middle-aged women. However, when looking at indi-
vidual predictors within each age group, younger women’s happiness
was significantly predicted by physical condition and sexual attractive-
ness, middle-aged women’s by weight concerns, and older women had
no significant predictors.
These findings provide cause for speculation as to what variables are
predictors of happiness as women age. Many have theorized that mar-
riage and income are predictors of happiness in an adult population
(Myers & Diener, 1995). If not these variables, then which ones? Is it
possible that simply maintaining health and surviving life are predictors
for older women’s happiness? Future studies comparing older men, as
well as older women, to the younger population might shed some light
on these puzzling findings. Also, additional research into individual
predictors of happiness and how they deviate across the life span is
needed. It is hoped that the findings of this study will serve to both ex-
pand research and to guide work in studies focusing on women and hap-
piness, a topic of importance and relevance in today’s society.
Rachel Stokes and Christina Frederick-Recascino 27
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RECEIVED: 08/15/01
ACCEPTED: 11/19/01
Rachel Stokes and Christina Frederick-Recascino 29
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