The document discusses the use of vacuum distillation in metal refining and separation. It explains that vacuum distillation allows purification of compounds with high boiling points by reducing their boiling points under lower pressure. It provides details on the thermodynamics and equations governing changes in vapor pressure with temperature. Various applications are outlined, including removing impurities from crude lead, mercury, zinc, tin, and cadmium. The technique offers advantages like high recovery rates and low environmental impact but also challenges like more complex equipment requirements.
Cryogenic air separation brochure19 4353 tcm136-414865SonaTrak
→ This document discusses the history and technological progress of Linde Engineering's air separation processes. It began with Carl von Linde's breakthrough invention of the first continuous air liquefaction process in 1895. [1]
→ The document outlines the basic principles of air separation through rectification and double column distillation. It also describes technological developments like the use of structured packings and internal compression processes. [2]
→ Linde Engineering has built over 3,000 air separation plants globally using these cryogenic separation techniques. They are the leading supplier of air separation technology. [3]
pdf on modern chemical manufacture (1).pdfgovinda pathak
1. Ammonia is produced by heating nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures of 200-900 atm and temperatures of 380-450°C in the presence of an iron catalyst.
2. Sulfuric acid is produced via the contact process, which involves catalytically oxidizing sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and absorbing it in concentrated sulfuric acid.
3. Sodium hydroxide is produced through the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using a diaphragm cell, where chlorine gas forms at the anode and hydrogen gas forms at the cathode.
The document discusses various metallurgical processes including calcination, roasting, and sinter roasting. Calcination involves thermal decomposition or removal of volatiles without melting. Roasting converts metal sulfides to oxides using excess air. It is done in multiple hearth furnaces, flash roasters, or fluidized beds. Sinter roasting simultaneously agglomerates and roasts fine ores to produce porous sinter for blast furnaces.
Increasing the temperature in the Gibbs reactor from 800°C to 5000°C:
- Hydrogen production increases significantly, reaching a maximum around 1600°C then decreasing.
- Carbon monoxide production also increases to a maximum at 1600°C then decreases with further temperature rise.
- Carbon dioxide production decreases steadily as temperature increases.
- Methane production increases slightly with temperature over most of the range tested.
Comparison of cycles and measurement of exhaust gases.pptxSAshwinDaniel
1. The document discusses various methods for measuring exhaust emissions from vehicles including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), oxygen/air-fuel ratio, smoke, and particulates.
2. It describes the construction and working principles of different analyzer instruments that use techniques like infrared absorption, chemiluminescence reactions, and electrochemical cells.
3. Emission control methods like thermal converters and catalytic converters are explained, along with their advantages and limitations in automotive applications. Recent developments in emission standards and control technologies are also summarized.
Some Facts about Urea Stripper By Prem Baboo.pdfPremBaboo4
If we talk about the costly and biggest heat exchanger in urea plants, then the name of the stripper comes first. Nowadays the competition of stripper is running for more and more capacity. In this regards some urea plant licensers have gone ahead some are left behind some are very much behind and some are dragging. Urea stripper is a vertical in tube falling film decomposer in which the liquid, distributed on the heating surface as a film, flows by gravity to the bottom. The Urea stripper is the heart of urea plants.
Cryogenic air separation brochure19 4353 tcm136-414865SonaTrak
→ This document discusses the history and technological progress of Linde Engineering's air separation processes. It began with Carl von Linde's breakthrough invention of the first continuous air liquefaction process in 1895. [1]
→ The document outlines the basic principles of air separation through rectification and double column distillation. It also describes technological developments like the use of structured packings and internal compression processes. [2]
→ Linde Engineering has built over 3,000 air separation plants globally using these cryogenic separation techniques. They are the leading supplier of air separation technology. [3]
pdf on modern chemical manufacture (1).pdfgovinda pathak
1. Ammonia is produced by heating nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures of 200-900 atm and temperatures of 380-450°C in the presence of an iron catalyst.
2. Sulfuric acid is produced via the contact process, which involves catalytically oxidizing sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide and absorbing it in concentrated sulfuric acid.
3. Sodium hydroxide is produced through the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using a diaphragm cell, where chlorine gas forms at the anode and hydrogen gas forms at the cathode.
The document discusses various metallurgical processes including calcination, roasting, and sinter roasting. Calcination involves thermal decomposition or removal of volatiles without melting. Roasting converts metal sulfides to oxides using excess air. It is done in multiple hearth furnaces, flash roasters, or fluidized beds. Sinter roasting simultaneously agglomerates and roasts fine ores to produce porous sinter for blast furnaces.
Increasing the temperature in the Gibbs reactor from 800°C to 5000°C:
- Hydrogen production increases significantly, reaching a maximum around 1600°C then decreasing.
- Carbon monoxide production also increases to a maximum at 1600°C then decreases with further temperature rise.
- Carbon dioxide production decreases steadily as temperature increases.
- Methane production increases slightly with temperature over most of the range tested.
Comparison of cycles and measurement of exhaust gases.pptxSAshwinDaniel
1. The document discusses various methods for measuring exhaust emissions from vehicles including carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), oxygen/air-fuel ratio, smoke, and particulates.
2. It describes the construction and working principles of different analyzer instruments that use techniques like infrared absorption, chemiluminescence reactions, and electrochemical cells.
3. Emission control methods like thermal converters and catalytic converters are explained, along with their advantages and limitations in automotive applications. Recent developments in emission standards and control technologies are also summarized.
Some Facts about Urea Stripper By Prem Baboo.pdfPremBaboo4
If we talk about the costly and biggest heat exchanger in urea plants, then the name of the stripper comes first. Nowadays the competition of stripper is running for more and more capacity. In this regards some urea plant licensers have gone ahead some are left behind some are very much behind and some are dragging. Urea stripper is a vertical in tube falling film decomposer in which the liquid, distributed on the heating surface as a film, flows by gravity to the bottom. The Urea stripper is the heart of urea plants.
The production of ammonia involves the Haber-Bosch process, which was first developed in 1908 by Fritz Haber and industrialized in 1910 by Carl Bosch. This process involves the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures and temperatures over a catalyst to produce ammonia. Modern ammonia plants first produce hydrogen from methane and then combine the hydrogen with nitrogen in the ammonia synthesis loop to produce liquid ammonia. The multi-step modern process removes impurities and achieves the necessary pressure and temperature conditions for the ammonia synthesis reaction.
Bidirectional syngas generator TSW work on advanced large scale non steady st...Steve Wittrig
This document summarizes a unique reactor for producing synthesis gas (CO and H2) from catalytic partial oxidation of natural gas with air. The reactor operates adiabatically and autothermally near atmospheric pressure using nickel catalyst at 800°C. It consists of three packed beds - a central reaction zone surrounded by upper and lower heat exchange zones. The reactor periodically reverses gas flow directions to efficiently transfer heat between the beds and maintain a constant average temperature without external energy. Experimental testing on laboratory and pilot scales validated the concept. A mathematical model was developed to simulate the reactor's unsteady-state thermal and compositional behavior.
This document discusses refrigeration, chilling, and freezing processes used to preserve food. It describes the basic refrigeration cycle of evaporation, compression, condensation, and expansion. Low temperatures slow microbial growth and chemical reactions in food, allowing longer storage. Freezing stops microbial growth. The document provides examples calculating refrigeration system requirements and performance based on thermodynamic property charts. It discusses factors like evaporator and condenser temperatures, refrigerant selection, and their impacts on system design and efficiency.
Experimental Performance Evaluation of R152a to replace R134a in Vapour Compr...IJMER
The performance of heat transfer is one of the most important research areas in the field
of thermal engineering. There are a large number of refrigerants, which are used to transfer heat from
low temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir by using vapour compression refrigeration
system. There are various obstacles faced in working of different refrigerants due to their environmental
impact (CFC, HCFC), toxicity (NH3), flammability (HC) and high pressure (CO2); which makes them
more hazardous than other working fluids according to safety and environmental issues.
Experimentation is conducted to observe the performance of Hydro-fluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants
(R134a and R152a) in vapour compression refrigeration. Value of average refrigerating effect for R152a
is about 57% more than that of R134a . Average pressure ratio for R152a was 18.92% higher than that of
R134a. In this result, R152a has emerged as the most energy efficient refrigerant among both the
investigated refrigerants being the one that exhibited the lowest power consumption per ton of
refrigeration with the average value of 13.23% less than that of R134a.The COP of R152a obtain is
higher than R134a by 3.769% .As a result, R152a could be used as a drop-in replacement for R134a in
vapour compression refrigeration system. R152a offers the best desirable environmental requirements;
zero Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) and 120 Global Warming Potential (GWP).
This document discusses replacing the refrigerant R134a with R152a in a vapor compression refrigeration system. It first provides background on vapor compression refrigeration systems and refrigerants such as R134a. It then summarizes an experiment comparing the performance of R134a and R152a. The results found that R152a had 57% higher refrigerating effect, 18.92% higher pressure ratio, and 13.23% lower power consumption than R134a. R152a also had a 3.769% higher COP than R134a. Therefore, the document concludes that R152a can be used as a drop-in replacement for R134a in vapor compression refrigeration systems as it has better environmental
There are three main methods for liquefying gases:
1. Applying sufficient pressure to gases below their critical temperature to cause liquefaction. For example, liquefying carbon dioxide which has a critical temperature of 304K.
2. Making gases do work against an external force, such as in a steam engine, causing them to lose energy and lower in temperature.
3. Forcing gases through a nozzle or porous plug, making them do work against their own internal forces and lose energy, potentially reaching liquefaction after multiple repetitions of expanding through restrictions.
Simulation of N2 Gas Separation Process from AirIOSR Journals
Various components of air have been separated for different purposes for their easy availability in the atmosphere. Among those components Nitrogen separation process is very important in chemical engineering sector since it has wide usage in different processes. There are various technologies that are used for the separation of nitrogen. Among those most common is via LINDE-HAMPSON cycle. This paper presents analysis of thermodynamic cycle commonly used for liquefaction of Nitrogen (N2) under given set of operating condition and efficiencies. The liquefying temperature of Nitrogen being -200oC is taken into consideration. This paper also presents the simulation of this process HYSYS for the separation of N2 from air. Simulation result gives the value of product nitrogen purity of 91.75%
Most modern ammonia processes are based on steam-reforming of natural gas or naphtha.
The 3 main technology suppliers are Uhde (Uhde/JM Partnership), Topsoe & KBR.
The process steps are very similar in all cases.
Other suppliers are Linde (LAC) & Ammonia Casale.
1) Boyle's law states that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at constant temperature. Charles' law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure.
2) A refrigerant is a substance used in refrigeration to absorb heat from the space being refrigerated and release it elsewhere. Common refrigerants like Freon gas are used in refrigerators.
3) A refrigerator uses a vapor-compression cycle to cool its interior. Freon gas is compressed, condenses while releasing heat outside, then evaporates in the interior, absorbing heat and cooling the refrigerator. This cycle repeats continuously.
The document discusses various gas laws and their applications in anesthesia and respiratory physiology. It begins by using Boyle's law to calculate the volume of oxygen remaining in a cylinder at a pressure of 15 psig. It then explains Charles, Gay-Lussac's, Avogadro's, Dalton's laws and their relevance. Further sections cover Hagen-Poiseuille's law, Reynolds number, Graham's law, Bernoulli's principle, Venturi effect, Coanda effect, critical temperature, Poynting effect, adiabatic changes, and other gas laws and their importance in areas like gas delivery, flow dynamics, and equipment function.
Liquid Nitrogen Cooling in an Electronic Equipment under low pressureUsamaArifKhanNiazi
The document discusses spray cooling using liquid nitrogen (LN2) to cool electronic equipment under low pressure. It describes two theories that explain the spray cooling mechanism: thin film evaporation and convection, and secondary nucleation. Challenges at low pressure include LN2 flash evaporation. The study models heat and mass transfer between LN2 droplets and surroundings to determine temperature and pressure changes over time. Results show droplet lifetime is affected more by temperature than pressure. Continuous and intermittent LN2 spraying can control temperature by adjusting LN2 mass flow rates and switching spray nozzle frequencies.
AA_In_Situ_Lunar_Propellant_Production_And_ProcessesJulian Wang
This document discusses a process for producing hydrogen and oxygen fuel from lunar water resources. It begins by introducing the motivation for in-situ lunar fuel production to reduce launch mass. It then describes the specific process, which involves electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases, followed by compression and cooling steps to liquefy the gases. The process uses a thermal regeneration cycle with helium to provide the extreme cooling needed. It analyzes the thermodynamics and estimates the overall energy requirements. Producing 1 kg of water would require 1603 kJ of energy. The document also discusses some considerations for scaling up the process to support a lunar colony.
Three main methods are used to remove nitrogen from natural gas: cryogenic distillation, adsorption, and membrane separation. Cryogenic distillation involves using low temperatures and pressures to separate gas components. It is most effective at recovering ethane, propane, butane, and natural gasoline. Adsorption uses materials like molecular sieves to attract moisture and other compounds from the gas stream. Membrane separation exploits differences in molecular sizes to selectively permeate some components over others.
The document summarizes several methods for manufacturing styrene monomer including dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene and oxidation of ethylbenzene to ethylbenzene hydroperoxide. It focuses on describing the oxidation and dehydrogenation processes, which are the two commercially important routes. For the oxidation process, it provides the chemical reactions and process details. For the dehydrogenation process, it discusses design considerations like operating pressure, temperature and catalyst selection and their impact on conversion and selectivity. It also covers styrene purification, safety measures and flowsheet of a typical styrene plant.
A sample of KClO3 is partially decomposed, producing O2 gas that is collected over water at 26°C and 765 torr total pressure. The volume of gas collected is 0.250 L. Using this information and the partial pressure of water vapor at 26°C, the moles of O2 collected and grams of KClO3 decomposed are calculated. The final summary discusses how the volume of the collected O2 gas would change if dry at the same temperature and pressure.
The Mintek process is a large-scale batch silicothermic process for extracting magnesium that operates at atmospheric pressure. It aims to overcome issues with an earlier Magnetherm process. In the Mintek process, the furnace must operate above 1600°C, potentially as high as 1800°C, to achieve an economically acceptable rate of magnesium extraction while maintaining low energy consumption. Several factors like temperature, feed recipe, slag depth relative to furnace diameter, and reactions in the arc attachment zone influence the process.
The document summarizes the process for producing ammonia from natural gas and/or naphtha. Key steps include:
1) Desulphurization of the hydrocarbon feedstock using hydrogenation and ZnO absorption to remove sulfur.
2) Reforming the desulphurized feedstock with steam and air at high pressure and temperature in multiple reactors to produce synthesis gas containing hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
3) Purifying the synthesis gas through shift conversion and CO2/CO removal to increase hydrogen yield before sending the gas to the ammonia synthesis loop.
The ammonia manufacturing process involves 6 key steps:
1) Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming.
2) Nitrogen from air is added to the synthesis gas.
3) Carbon monoxide is removed through a water gas shift reaction.
4) Water is removed by condensation.
5) Carbon dioxide is removed using an MDEA solution.
6) The purified gas mixture is compressed and catalyzed over iron to produce ammonia.
Cryogenics cycle's study, simulation and analysis in a software!!!!.... Suraj Patwal
The document describes various cryogenic cycles used for liquefying gases, including the ideal liquefaction cycle, Linde-Hampson process, Claude cycle, and applications of liquefied gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. It also discusses the Joule-Thomson effect and inversion curve. Simulations of these cycles were performed using ASPEN HYSYS to analyze how parameters vary with pressure ratio, like molar flow increasing for ideal cycle. The Linde and Claude cycles were modeled fixing outlet conditions, determining heat exchanger properties and FOM. Cryogenic cycles help produce and utilize very low temperatures important for various industrial and scientific applications.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
The production of ammonia involves the Haber-Bosch process, which was first developed in 1908 by Fritz Haber and industrialized in 1910 by Carl Bosch. This process involves the direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gases at high pressures and temperatures over a catalyst to produce ammonia. Modern ammonia plants first produce hydrogen from methane and then combine the hydrogen with nitrogen in the ammonia synthesis loop to produce liquid ammonia. The multi-step modern process removes impurities and achieves the necessary pressure and temperature conditions for the ammonia synthesis reaction.
Bidirectional syngas generator TSW work on advanced large scale non steady st...Steve Wittrig
This document summarizes a unique reactor for producing synthesis gas (CO and H2) from catalytic partial oxidation of natural gas with air. The reactor operates adiabatically and autothermally near atmospheric pressure using nickel catalyst at 800°C. It consists of three packed beds - a central reaction zone surrounded by upper and lower heat exchange zones. The reactor periodically reverses gas flow directions to efficiently transfer heat between the beds and maintain a constant average temperature without external energy. Experimental testing on laboratory and pilot scales validated the concept. A mathematical model was developed to simulate the reactor's unsteady-state thermal and compositional behavior.
This document discusses refrigeration, chilling, and freezing processes used to preserve food. It describes the basic refrigeration cycle of evaporation, compression, condensation, and expansion. Low temperatures slow microbial growth and chemical reactions in food, allowing longer storage. Freezing stops microbial growth. The document provides examples calculating refrigeration system requirements and performance based on thermodynamic property charts. It discusses factors like evaporator and condenser temperatures, refrigerant selection, and their impacts on system design and efficiency.
Experimental Performance Evaluation of R152a to replace R134a in Vapour Compr...IJMER
The performance of heat transfer is one of the most important research areas in the field
of thermal engineering. There are a large number of refrigerants, which are used to transfer heat from
low temperature reservoir to high temperature reservoir by using vapour compression refrigeration
system. There are various obstacles faced in working of different refrigerants due to their environmental
impact (CFC, HCFC), toxicity (NH3), flammability (HC) and high pressure (CO2); which makes them
more hazardous than other working fluids according to safety and environmental issues.
Experimentation is conducted to observe the performance of Hydro-fluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants
(R134a and R152a) in vapour compression refrigeration. Value of average refrigerating effect for R152a
is about 57% more than that of R134a . Average pressure ratio for R152a was 18.92% higher than that of
R134a. In this result, R152a has emerged as the most energy efficient refrigerant among both the
investigated refrigerants being the one that exhibited the lowest power consumption per ton of
refrigeration with the average value of 13.23% less than that of R134a.The COP of R152a obtain is
higher than R134a by 3.769% .As a result, R152a could be used as a drop-in replacement for R134a in
vapour compression refrigeration system. R152a offers the best desirable environmental requirements;
zero Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) and 120 Global Warming Potential (GWP).
This document discusses replacing the refrigerant R134a with R152a in a vapor compression refrigeration system. It first provides background on vapor compression refrigeration systems and refrigerants such as R134a. It then summarizes an experiment comparing the performance of R134a and R152a. The results found that R152a had 57% higher refrigerating effect, 18.92% higher pressure ratio, and 13.23% lower power consumption than R134a. R152a also had a 3.769% higher COP than R134a. Therefore, the document concludes that R152a can be used as a drop-in replacement for R134a in vapor compression refrigeration systems as it has better environmental
There are three main methods for liquefying gases:
1. Applying sufficient pressure to gases below their critical temperature to cause liquefaction. For example, liquefying carbon dioxide which has a critical temperature of 304K.
2. Making gases do work against an external force, such as in a steam engine, causing them to lose energy and lower in temperature.
3. Forcing gases through a nozzle or porous plug, making them do work against their own internal forces and lose energy, potentially reaching liquefaction after multiple repetitions of expanding through restrictions.
Simulation of N2 Gas Separation Process from AirIOSR Journals
Various components of air have been separated for different purposes for their easy availability in the atmosphere. Among those components Nitrogen separation process is very important in chemical engineering sector since it has wide usage in different processes. There are various technologies that are used for the separation of nitrogen. Among those most common is via LINDE-HAMPSON cycle. This paper presents analysis of thermodynamic cycle commonly used for liquefaction of Nitrogen (N2) under given set of operating condition and efficiencies. The liquefying temperature of Nitrogen being -200oC is taken into consideration. This paper also presents the simulation of this process HYSYS for the separation of N2 from air. Simulation result gives the value of product nitrogen purity of 91.75%
Most modern ammonia processes are based on steam-reforming of natural gas or naphtha.
The 3 main technology suppliers are Uhde (Uhde/JM Partnership), Topsoe & KBR.
The process steps are very similar in all cases.
Other suppliers are Linde (LAC) & Ammonia Casale.
1) Boyle's law states that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at constant temperature. Charles' law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant pressure.
2) A refrigerant is a substance used in refrigeration to absorb heat from the space being refrigerated and release it elsewhere. Common refrigerants like Freon gas are used in refrigerators.
3) A refrigerator uses a vapor-compression cycle to cool its interior. Freon gas is compressed, condenses while releasing heat outside, then evaporates in the interior, absorbing heat and cooling the refrigerator. This cycle repeats continuously.
The document discusses various gas laws and their applications in anesthesia and respiratory physiology. It begins by using Boyle's law to calculate the volume of oxygen remaining in a cylinder at a pressure of 15 psig. It then explains Charles, Gay-Lussac's, Avogadro's, Dalton's laws and their relevance. Further sections cover Hagen-Poiseuille's law, Reynolds number, Graham's law, Bernoulli's principle, Venturi effect, Coanda effect, critical temperature, Poynting effect, adiabatic changes, and other gas laws and their importance in areas like gas delivery, flow dynamics, and equipment function.
Liquid Nitrogen Cooling in an Electronic Equipment under low pressureUsamaArifKhanNiazi
The document discusses spray cooling using liquid nitrogen (LN2) to cool electronic equipment under low pressure. It describes two theories that explain the spray cooling mechanism: thin film evaporation and convection, and secondary nucleation. Challenges at low pressure include LN2 flash evaporation. The study models heat and mass transfer between LN2 droplets and surroundings to determine temperature and pressure changes over time. Results show droplet lifetime is affected more by temperature than pressure. Continuous and intermittent LN2 spraying can control temperature by adjusting LN2 mass flow rates and switching spray nozzle frequencies.
AA_In_Situ_Lunar_Propellant_Production_And_ProcessesJulian Wang
This document discusses a process for producing hydrogen and oxygen fuel from lunar water resources. It begins by introducing the motivation for in-situ lunar fuel production to reduce launch mass. It then describes the specific process, which involves electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases, followed by compression and cooling steps to liquefy the gases. The process uses a thermal regeneration cycle with helium to provide the extreme cooling needed. It analyzes the thermodynamics and estimates the overall energy requirements. Producing 1 kg of water would require 1603 kJ of energy. The document also discusses some considerations for scaling up the process to support a lunar colony.
Three main methods are used to remove nitrogen from natural gas: cryogenic distillation, adsorption, and membrane separation. Cryogenic distillation involves using low temperatures and pressures to separate gas components. It is most effective at recovering ethane, propane, butane, and natural gasoline. Adsorption uses materials like molecular sieves to attract moisture and other compounds from the gas stream. Membrane separation exploits differences in molecular sizes to selectively permeate some components over others.
The document summarizes several methods for manufacturing styrene monomer including dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene and oxidation of ethylbenzene to ethylbenzene hydroperoxide. It focuses on describing the oxidation and dehydrogenation processes, which are the two commercially important routes. For the oxidation process, it provides the chemical reactions and process details. For the dehydrogenation process, it discusses design considerations like operating pressure, temperature and catalyst selection and their impact on conversion and selectivity. It also covers styrene purification, safety measures and flowsheet of a typical styrene plant.
A sample of KClO3 is partially decomposed, producing O2 gas that is collected over water at 26°C and 765 torr total pressure. The volume of gas collected is 0.250 L. Using this information and the partial pressure of water vapor at 26°C, the moles of O2 collected and grams of KClO3 decomposed are calculated. The final summary discusses how the volume of the collected O2 gas would change if dry at the same temperature and pressure.
The Mintek process is a large-scale batch silicothermic process for extracting magnesium that operates at atmospheric pressure. It aims to overcome issues with an earlier Magnetherm process. In the Mintek process, the furnace must operate above 1600°C, potentially as high as 1800°C, to achieve an economically acceptable rate of magnesium extraction while maintaining low energy consumption. Several factors like temperature, feed recipe, slag depth relative to furnace diameter, and reactions in the arc attachment zone influence the process.
The document summarizes the process for producing ammonia from natural gas and/or naphtha. Key steps include:
1) Desulphurization of the hydrocarbon feedstock using hydrogenation and ZnO absorption to remove sulfur.
2) Reforming the desulphurized feedstock with steam and air at high pressure and temperature in multiple reactors to produce synthesis gas containing hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
3) Purifying the synthesis gas through shift conversion and CO2/CO removal to increase hydrogen yield before sending the gas to the ammonia synthesis loop.
The ammonia manufacturing process involves 6 key steps:
1) Hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming.
2) Nitrogen from air is added to the synthesis gas.
3) Carbon monoxide is removed through a water gas shift reaction.
4) Water is removed by condensation.
5) Carbon dioxide is removed using an MDEA solution.
6) The purified gas mixture is compressed and catalyzed over iron to produce ammonia.
Cryogenics cycle's study, simulation and analysis in a software!!!!.... Suraj Patwal
The document describes various cryogenic cycles used for liquefying gases, including the ideal liquefaction cycle, Linde-Hampson process, Claude cycle, and applications of liquefied gases like nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. It also discusses the Joule-Thomson effect and inversion curve. Simulations of these cycles were performed using ASPEN HYSYS to analyze how parameters vary with pressure ratio, like molar flow increasing for ideal cycle. The Linde and Claude cycles were modeled fixing outlet conditions, determining heat exchanger properties and FOM. Cryogenic cycles help produce and utilize very low temperatures important for various industrial and scientific applications.
Batteries -Introduction – Types of Batteries – discharging and charging of battery - characteristics of battery –battery rating- various tests on battery- – Primary battery: silver button cell- Secondary battery :Ni-Cd battery-modern battery: lithium ion battery-maintenance of batteries-choices of batteries for electric vehicle applications.
Fuel Cells: Introduction- importance and classification of fuel cells - description, principle, components, applications of fuel cells: H2-O2 fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, molten carbonate fuel cell and direct methanol fuel cells.
Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoringIJECEIAES
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
artificial intelligence and data science contents.pptxGauravCar
What is artificial intelligence? Artificial intelligence is the ability of a computer or computer-controlled robot to perform tasks that are commonly associated with the intellectual processes characteristic of humans, such as the ability to reason.
› ...
Artificial intelligence (AI) | Definitio
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Null Bangalore | Pentesters Approach to AWS IAMDivyanshu
#Abstract:
- Learn more about the real-world methods for auditing AWS IAM (Identity and Access Management) as a pentester. So let us proceed with a brief discussion of IAM as well as some typical misconfigurations and their potential exploits in order to reinforce the understanding of IAM security best practices.
- Gain actionable insights into AWS IAM policies and roles, using hands on approach.
#Prerequisites:
- Basic understanding of AWS services and architecture
- Familiarity with cloud security concepts
- Experience using the AWS Management Console or AWS CLI.
- For hands on lab create account on [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
# Scenario Covered:
- Basics of IAM in AWS
- Implementing IAM Policies with Least Privilege to Manage S3 Bucket
- Objective: Create an S3 bucket with least privilege IAM policy and validate access.
- Steps:
- Create S3 bucket.
- Attach least privilege policy to IAM user.
- Validate access.
- Exploiting IAM PassRole Misconfiguration
-Allows a user to pass a specific IAM role to an AWS service (ec2), typically used for service access delegation. Then exploit PassRole Misconfiguration granting unauthorized access to sensitive resources.
- Objective: Demonstrate how a PassRole misconfiguration can grant unauthorized access.
- Steps:
- Allow user to pass IAM role to EC2.
- Exploit misconfiguration for unauthorized access.
- Access sensitive resources.
- Exploiting IAM AssumeRole Misconfiguration with Overly Permissive Role
- An overly permissive IAM role configuration can lead to privilege escalation by creating a role with administrative privileges and allow a user to assume this role.
- Objective: Show how overly permissive IAM roles can lead to privilege escalation.
- Steps:
- Create role with administrative privileges.
- Allow user to assume the role.
- Perform administrative actions.
- Differentiation between PassRole vs AssumeRole
Try at [killercoda.com](https://killercoda.com/cloudsecurity-scenario/)
1. Design of metal separation using high temperature
distillation
By:
Ravi Roshan Law Kumar Roy Pushkar Kumar
2. Introduction
The discovery of distillation is
generally attributed to Arab
alchemists in VIII century Spain. The
actual process, however, was kept
secret until 1286, when Montpelier
University professor Arnold de
Villeneuve described the first distiller.
In 1500, German alchemist
Hieronymus Braunschweig published
Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of
the Art of Distillation) the first book
solely dedicated to the subject of
distillation, followed in 1512 by a
much expanded version. In 1651,
John French published The Art of
Distillation the first major English
book on the subject.
Distillation
Principle: In heating a mixture of
substances, the most volatile or the
lowest boiling distils first, and the others
subsequently or not at all.
Apparatus: Distillation
apparatus comprises of three
major, firstly
distillation flask which is
used for heating the mixture
and volatizing the
components, secondly
condenser; used for cooling
the vapors back to liquid
state, and lastly collection
vessel.
Working: This basic
operation requires the
use of a still or retort in
which a liquid is heated,
a condenser to cool the
vapour, and a receiver
to collect the distillate.
4. Distillation in metal refining:
Type equation here.
The activity of an element in a liquid solution, relative to the pure substance standard state, is defined by the
relation:
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑝𝑚 𝑝𝑚
°
where, 𝑝𝑚
°
is the vapor pressure of the pure element at the temperature considered.
From the kinetic theory of gases, Langmuir derived an expression for the mass of vapor molecules, 𝜔𝑖, of a
species, i, striking unit area of surface in unit time:
𝜔𝑖 = 𝑝𝑖 (𝑀𝑖/2𝜋𝑅𝑇)
where 𝑀𝑖 is the atomic or molecular weight of the species in the gas phase and 𝑝𝑖 is the vapor pressure.
5. Distillation in metal refining (contd.):
Type equation here.
Substituting the first equation into second we get:
𝜔𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖𝑝𝑖
°
(𝑀𝑖/2𝜋𝑅𝑇)
At equilibrium, the rate of condensation is equal to the rate of evaporation, so that this equation also gives
the rate at which atoms or molecules are transferred from the melt to the gas.
Hence, if two species, A and B, can volatilize at a given temperature, the relative rates of volatilization are
given by:
𝜔𝐴
𝜔𝐵
=
𝑎𝐴𝑝𝐴
°
(𝑀𝐴/2𝜋𝑅𝑇)
𝑎𝐵𝑝𝐵
°
(𝑀𝐵/2𝜋𝑅𝑇)
6. Distillation in metal refining (contd.):
Type equation here.
If A and B represent the solute and the solvent, respectively, the extent to which the solute can be removed
without excessive loss of the solvent increases as the ratio
𝜔𝐴
𝜔𝐵
is increased. This is the basis of refining by
distillation.
7. Why pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is used?:
Type equation here.
The column operating pressure is the most important distillation design parameter; it affects the
temperatures at which heating and cooling are required, the type of heating and cooling utility required, as
well as heating and cooling duties.
Furthermore, it impacts on the number of theoretical stages needed for the separation and the diameter of
the column.
With a higher operating pressure, the capital cost of the column will increase. A taller column will be
needed, to accommodate a greater number of theoretical stages and a thicker shell may be needed
to withstand the pressure.
It is possible to carry out distillation processes at atmospheric pressure or at pressures that are higher or
lower than atmospheric.
Vacuum distillation is distillation performed under reduced pressure, which allows the purification of
compounds not readily distilled at ambient pressures or simply to save time or energy.
8. Why pressure lower than atmospheric pressure is used?:
Type equation here.
This technique separates compounds based on differences in boiling points. This technique is used when the
boiling point of the desired compound is difficult to achieve or will cause the compound to decompose.
A reduced pressure decreases the boiling point of compounds. The reduction in boiling point can be calculated
using a temperature-pressure nomograph using the Clausius–Clapeyron relation
9. Vacuum Distillation:
Type equation here.
Boiling commences when the vapor pressure of a liquid or
solution equals the external or applied pressure (often
atmospheric pressure).
Thus, if the applied pressure is reduced, the boiling point
of the liquid decreases (see the graph for cinnamyl alcohol
in Figure a).
This behavior occurs because a lower vapor pressure is
necessary for boiling, which can be achieved at a lower
temperature. For example, if water was subjected to a
reduced pressure of 100 mmHg, it would boil at 50°C (see
the graph figure b).
10. Vacuum Distillation:
Type equation here.
The dependence of boiling point on applied pressure can
be exploited in the distillation of very high boiling
compounds (normal B.P. > 150 °C ). which may decompose
if heated to their normal boiling point. A vacuum
distillation is performed by applying a vacuum source for
reducing the pressure.
A vacuum distillation apparatus is shown in Figure a, using
a simple distillation setup. But in this setup before
heating, we turn on the vacuum source to begin reducing
pressure inside the apparatus.
11. Understanding Vacuum Distillation through
Thermodynamics:
Type equation here.
The difference in vapor pressure of each metal at different temperatures is the basic principle of crude metal
vacuum distillation.
The thermodynamic performance of components of crude lead in the vacuum distillation process was
investigated systemically in order to provide a simple, clean, efficient and referential way for the removal of
Cu, Sn, Ag, Zn, As and Sb from crude lead.
the relationship between saturated vapor pressure of the main components and temperature is shown in
equation, and the evaporation constants A, B, C and D for different components are shown in Table (next
slide).
log 𝑝 ∗ = 𝐴𝑇−1 + 𝐵 log 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑇 + 𝐷
where, p* is the saturated vapor pressure; T is the temperature.
12. Understanding Vacuum Distillation through
Thermodynamics:
According to the previous equation and the given table,
the saturated vapor pressure can be calculated.
13. Understanding Vacuum Distillation through
Thermodynamics:
This graph shows the trend of the saturated vapor
pressure.
It shows that the saturated vapor pressure of As or Zn
are much higher than that of Pb at 873-1073 K. At 823 K,
As begins to sublimate, which indicates that As and Zn
are easier to volatilize into the vapor phase and can be
removed from crude lead completely.
The saturated vapor pressure of Sb is also high in
comparison with Pb, which can be partially removed at
an appropriate temperature.
14. Understanding Vacuum Distillation through
Thermodynamics:
The saturated vapor pressure of Cu, Sn or Ag is much
lower than that of Pb at 1273-1523 K, which shows that
Cu, Sn and Ag are difficult to volatilize into a vapor phase
and were concentrated in the residual phase.
It also can be seen that the saturated vapor pressure of
Bi is close to that of Pb, which indicates that Bi cannot be
separated from lead by vacuum distillation.
15. Understanding Vacuum Distillation through
Thermodynamics:
Based on the above results we can conclude that, we can see:
The impurities of Cu, Sn, Ag, Zn, As and Sb in crude lead can be easily removed by vacuum distillation in
thermodynamics, but Bi cannot be removed.
The vacuum distillation should be taken to obtain lead from crude lead. Zn, As and Sb are removed at
lower temperature of 923-1023 K. Lead is distilled from the residual liquid containing Cu, Sn, Ag and Bi at
higher temperature of 1323-1423 K, and Cu, Sn and Ag are concentrated and remain in the residual liquid.
The sufficient thermodynamic calculations are helpful to choose the conditions of operation and acquire
reliable results in vacuum distillation refining process for crude lead.
16. Distillation of Mercury:
Type equation here.
Most of the world's mercury is obtained from its main ore, cinnabar or vermillion with the chemical structure
mercury sulphide (HgS).
The most common refining method for mercury is triple distillation, in which the temperature of the liquid
mercury is carefully raised until the impurities either evaporate or the mercury itself evaporates, leaving the
impurities behind. This distillation process is performed three times, with the purity increasing each time.
Distillation of impure mercury constitutes the best method of removing foreign metals, and distillation in a
vacuum is the only feasible plan of conducting the operation in laboratory.
Mercury can be purified by distillation because it is very volatile for a metal. But the boiling point at normal
pressure is ~360 °C which is inconveniently hot. Using reduced pressure (say around 1/1000th of an
atmosphere) can make this practical at closer to 100 °C which is far more convenient.
17. Zn Distillation:
Type equation here.
Another example of use of distillation in metal refining is in Zn refining.
Lead and cadmium are the major impurities present in Zn produced in the blast furnace. 𝑝𝑃𝑏
°
is much lower
and 𝑝𝐶𝑑
°
is much larger than 𝑝𝑍𝑛
°
at any given temperature.
Thus, when the impure Zn is completely distilled in a refluxing unit, Cd is also distilled, but, by controlling the
maximum temperature, Pb can be retained as a liquid that can be drained off.
Most of the Cd remains in the vapor phase if the vapor is then cooled just sufficiently to condense the Zn.
The method has the advantages of little device investment, high metal recovering rate, small occupation area
of a workshop and little construction investment, and the environmental pollution is basically eliminated.
18. Other Applications:
Type equation here.
Vacuum distillation is one of the techniques used for removal of major impurities at ppm level in cadmium
from 3N+ to 5N+. Although the zone refining and allied techniques are used to remove the impurities from 5N
and above, the vacuum distillation is used as a preceding supportive to remove the high melting point
impurities.
Pb−Sn alloys were separated successfully by the vacuum distillation in small- scale and continuous
industrialized experiments, and lead content in refined tin decreased to less than 0.01%.
An interesting alternative for recycling all types of scrap magnesium is vacuum distillation. This method aims
at refining magnesium scrap into very high-purity magnesium (99.999%) to be used in the semiconductor
industry.
The impurities in crude tin were effectively removed at 1473 K for 35 min and material weight of 80 g under 5
Pa. Under this condition, 98.67 mass% of tin in the residue can be recovered, and 84 mass% of arsenic in
crude tin was removed by vacuum distillation. Arsenic can be removed effectively from crude tin by using
vacuum distillation.
19. Advantages:
Type equation here.
Simple process and easy to operate.
Low loss of valuable metals and high metal recovery metals.
Low processing cost and investment & good economic returns.
Environmentally friendly.
Various choice for end products: alloy, pure metal ingot, and metal powder.
20. Disadvantages:
Type equation here.
While operating under vacuum makes the separation easier, the low vapor density requires a greater cross-
sectional area in the column to accommodate the high volumetric flow of material.
More importantly, operating under vacuum increases the complexity of the flowsheet, requiring additional,
costly equipment to draw the vacuum and recover material drawn into the vacuum system.
Vacuum also introduces safety hazards, related to risk of air ingress and resulting fire or explosion of
flammable process fluids.
The principal disadvantages are that the equipment is more complicated to build and that low vapor pressure
tends to limit the flow rate of the vapor and hence reduces the capacity for equipment of any given size.
21. References:
Type equation here.
Distillation: Operation and Applications by Andrzej Górak and Hartmut Schoenmakers.
Distillation: Fundamentals and Principles by Andrzej Górak and Hartmut Schoenmakers.
The Extraction and Refining of Metals by Colin Bodsworth.
https://www.totalmateria.com/
https://chem.libretexts.org/