Explain the relationship between system implementation and a systems.pdf
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Explain the relationship between supply and demand. Solution The law of demand states that as the price of the product increases/decreases the demand of the product falls/rises respectively. Also, the lasw of supply states that as the price increases the supply of the product increases since sellers are more willing to sell their products at higher prices. Now , the realtionship between supply and demand can be studied by looking at the price movement. As the price goes up, the suppy goes up and the demand falls. So, as supply rises more than the required amount of goods, the demand falls and as the supply falls, the demand of the good increase as the price also falls along with the fall un supply..
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Understanding the System Design Life Cycle_ A Comprehensive Guide.pdf
In the realm of software and systems engineering, the System Design Life Cycle (SDLC) stands as a critical framework for ensuring that complex systems are developed in a structured and efficient manner. This comprehensive guide delves into the intricate stages of the SDLC, providing a detailed overview that caters to both novices and experienced professionals seeking to enhance their understanding of system design and implementation.
The SDLC is a multi-phase process, typically encompassing the following stages: Planning, Analysis, Design, Implementation, Testing, Deployment, and Maintenance. Each phase is crucial in its own right, contributing to the overall success and sustainability of the system. This guide breaks down each stage, highlighting key activities, objectives, and best practices.
1. Planning
The planning phase is the cornerstone of the SDLC. It involves identifying the scope and objectives of the project, conducting feasibility studies, and assembling the project team. This stage sets the groundwork for all subsequent phases, ensuring that the project aligns with business goals and stakeholder expectations. Effective planning requires meticulous attention to detail, risk assessment, and resource allocation.
2. Analysis
During the analysis phase, detailed requirements gathering and analysis are conducted. This involves engaging with stakeholders to understand their needs and expectations, and documenting functional and non-functional requirements. Techniques such as interviews, surveys, and use case analysis are employed to ensure a comprehensive understanding of what the system must achieve. The outcome of this phase is a clear and detailed requirements specification document.
3. Design
The design phase translates requirements into a blueprint for the system. This involves architectural design, which outlines the overall structure and components of the system, and detailed design, which specifies the internal workings of each component. Key considerations during this phase include system architecture, data flow diagrams, interface design, and technology selection. The goal is to create a robust and scalable design that meets the specified requirements.
4. Implementation
Implementation, or development, is where the actual coding and construction of the system take place. Using the design documents as a guide, developers write code, create databases, and integrate various system components. Adhering to coding standards, version control practices, and continuous integration are critical for maintaining code quality and ensuring that the system functions as intended.
5. Testing
Testing is a pivotal phase that ensures the system meets all specified requirements and is free of defects. This phase involves various levels of testing, including unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and user acceptance testing. The objective is to identify and rectify any issues before the system is deployed.
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Overview.docx From IFSM .docx
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Overview.docx
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Module 2: Information System Development
Overview
Today's information systems consist of more than just hardware and software. They include
enterprise environmental factors (people, company culture, and legacy systems) and
organizational process assets (processes, procedures, and historical information). The foundation
for designing, developing, and implementing these complex systems is a structured process
known as the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
SDLC is based on the concept that information systems must pass through a series of phases
during their existence or life cycle. In this module, we will help you understand life-cycle
methodology and the way SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information systems.
In this module, we examine the following topics:
Purpose of System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
In this section, we discuss why the SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information
systems.
The SDLC Phases
In this section, we focus on the states or stages in an information system's life cycle.
SDLC Models
In this section, we examine several SDLC models and their uses.
Relationship between SDLC and Project Management
In this section, we close out the module by discussing how project management is used to plan,
manage, and control the SDLC process.
Report broken links or any other problems on this page.
Copyright © by University of Maryland University College.
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Outcomes.docx
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Module 2: Information System Development
After completing this module, you should be able to:
define systems development life cycle (SDLC)
explain the purpose of using SDLC on information systems projects
describe the SDLC phases
identify and describe several SDLC models
describe how SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information systems
Report broken links or any other problems on this page.
Copyright © by University of Maryland University College.
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Commentary
Topics
Purpose of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
The SDLC Phases
SDLC Models
Relationship between SDLC and Project Management
Summary
Purpose of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
What Is SDLC?
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured methodology and process that guides
the development of information systems. SDLC is based on a series of related activities that are
combined into phases, sometimes called life-cycle phases. The phases represent a state or stage
in the life of an information system. Generally speaking, an information system life cycle
proceeds from requirements gathering to design and development to operations and
maintenance to decommissioning. Each successive phase ...
Running head SDLC1 SDLC2SDLCSai Rohith Cherukumil.docx
Running head: SDLC
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SDLC
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All software development processes must follow a professional standard in which the standard procedures are used. Some of the major software development processes used include Waterfall Model, Agile Software Development model, Rapid Development Model, and also Prototyping. Each of these SDLC models follow particular conventional standards set by the different organizations (Rossberg, 2014). The purpose of system development life cycle is to ensure that business requirements are. The process of coming up with a system from scratch to the point where it is to be implemented into the business environment or sold out into the market is the software development life cycle, which is series of processes depending on the model chosen by the developer or the system analyst conducting the system development. Software development life cycle regards the professional process of coming up with a system for use within a business environment.
7-Step SDLC Model: Traditional SDLC Model
This is the most basic model majorly used in the market by most system analysts, and it follows a series of seven different systematic steps to be fully completed. The steps range from system planning, system analysis, system design, system development, system testing, system implementation, and system maintenance. These steps are sequential and perform a similar role of driving towards achieving the sole purpose of final system functionality. According to this 7-step model, the first phase of system planning involves identification of the project requirements. These project scopes are then analyzed and proper required operational standards are identified for correct solutions. Part of the analyses conducted include parameters such as cost implications on the business organization, time required to complete the system, as well as hardware and software requirements that will be used. All processes must be followed lest any skip of any of these processes would impact heavily on the given organization or client in this case, since a miscalculation of any form would cost the company or the analyst. In each step, specific activities are carried out to ensure that the final product achieves its functionality as per the client’s requests.
The next phase of software development life cycle is the feasibility study. Ritchie (2012) proposes that the analysis phase requires proper information gathering techniques and definition of constraints that will be used in the system. The phase involves different techniques of acquiring sufficient information before proceeding to building the system, and this information would be in form of data such as the organization’s processing requirements. The information can be gathered using techniques such as interviews or questionnaires, with subjectivity to have maximum information.
After sufficiently acquiring relevant information, the system analyst the ...
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SDLC Apresentação - Shift Education of Technology
The document discusses the software development lifecycle (SDLC) process. It describes the traditional five phases of the SDLC and how it has evolved to seven phases. Each phase is explained in detail, including planning, analysis, design, development, integration and testing, implementation, and operations and maintenance. Different SDLC models like waterfall, iterative, and agile are also summarized. The agile manifesto and scrum framework are introduced as part of the agile methodology. Key terms related to SDLC documentation are defined in a glossary.
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The document discusses the software development life cycle (SDLC), outlining its main phases and models. The SDLC is a framework that defines tasks performed at each stage of software development, from requirements gathering to maintenance. It aims to produce high-quality software that meets requirements. The document outlines several SDLC models - waterfall, incremental, evolutionary, spiral, RAD, and extreme programming - comparing their advantages and disadvantages. It concludes that the SDLC is a process of developing software through analysis, planning, design, implementation, integration, maintenance and testing.
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SDLC software development life cycle is a process used by software industry to design develop and test high quality software's.
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In the realm of software and systems engineering, the System Design Life Cycle (SDLC) stands as a critical framework for ensuring that complex systems are developed in a structured and efficient manner. This comprehensive guide delves into the intricate stages of the SDLC, providing a detailed overview that caters to both novices and experienced professionals seeking to enhance their understanding of system design and implementation.
The SDLC is a multi-phase process, typically encompassing the following stages: Planning, Analysis, Design, Implementation, Testing, Deployment, and Maintenance. Each phase is crucial in its own right, contributing to the overall success and sustainability of the system. This guide breaks down each stage, highlighting key activities, objectives, and best practices.
1. Planning
The planning phase is the cornerstone of the SDLC. It involves identifying the scope and objectives of the project, conducting feasibility studies, and assembling the project team. This stage sets the groundwork for all subsequent phases, ensuring that the project aligns with business goals and stakeholder expectations. Effective planning requires meticulous attention to detail, risk assessment, and resource allocation.
2. Analysis
During the analysis phase, detailed requirements gathering and analysis are conducted. This involves engaging with stakeholders to understand their needs and expectations, and documenting functional and non-functional requirements. Techniques such as interviews, surveys, and use case analysis are employed to ensure a comprehensive understanding of what the system must achieve. The outcome of this phase is a clear and detailed requirements specification document.
3. Design
The design phase translates requirements into a blueprint for the system. This involves architectural design, which outlines the overall structure and components of the system, and detailed design, which specifies the internal workings of each component. Key considerations during this phase include system architecture, data flow diagrams, interface design, and technology selection. The goal is to create a robust and scalable design that meets the specified requirements.
4. Implementation
Implementation, or development, is where the actual coding and construction of the system take place. Using the design documents as a guide, developers write code, create databases, and integrate various system components. Adhering to coding standards, version control practices, and continuous integration are critical for maintaining code quality and ensuring that the system functions as intended.
5. Testing
Testing is a pivotal phase that ensures the system meets all specified requirements and is free of defects. This phase involves various levels of testing, including unit testing, integration testing, system testing, and user acceptance testing. The objective is to identify and rectify any issues before the system is deployed.
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Overview.docx From IFSM .docx
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Overview.docx
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Module 2: Information System Development
Overview
Today's information systems consist of more than just hardware and software. They include
enterprise environmental factors (people, company culture, and legacy systems) and
organizational process assets (processes, procedures, and historical information). The foundation
for designing, developing, and implementing these complex systems is a structured process
known as the systems development life cycle (SDLC).
SDLC is based on the concept that information systems must pass through a series of phases
during their existence or life cycle. In this module, we will help you understand life-cycle
methodology and the way SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information systems.
In this module, we examine the following topics:
Purpose of System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
In this section, we discuss why the SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information
systems.
The SDLC Phases
In this section, we focus on the states or stages in an information system's life cycle.
SDLC Models
In this section, we examine several SDLC models and their uses.
Relationship between SDLC and Project Management
In this section, we close out the module by discussing how project management is used to plan,
manage, and control the SDLC process.
Report broken links or any other problems on this page.
Copyright © by University of Maryland University College.
SDLC Module 2 from IFSM 201 - Outcomes.docx
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Module 2: Information System Development
After completing this module, you should be able to:
define systems development life cycle (SDLC)
explain the purpose of using SDLC on information systems projects
describe the SDLC phases
identify and describe several SDLC models
describe how SDLC is used to design, develop, and implement information systems
Report broken links or any other problems on this page.
Copyright © by University of Maryland University College.
From IFSM 201 - Module 2: Information System Development
Commentary
Topics
Purpose of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
The SDLC Phases
SDLC Models
Relationship between SDLC and Project Management
Summary
Purpose of the Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
What Is SDLC?
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a structured methodology and process that guides
the development of information systems. SDLC is based on a series of related activities that are
combined into phases, sometimes called life-cycle phases. The phases represent a state or stage
in the life of an information system. Generally speaking, an information system life cycle
proceeds from requirements gathering to design and development to operations and
maintenance to decommissioning. Each successive phase ...
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All software development processes must follow a professional standard in which the standard procedures are used. Some of the major software development processes used include Waterfall Model, Agile Software Development model, Rapid Development Model, and also Prototyping. Each of these SDLC models follow particular conventional standards set by the different organizations (Rossberg, 2014). The purpose of system development life cycle is to ensure that business requirements are. The process of coming up with a system from scratch to the point where it is to be implemented into the business environment or sold out into the market is the software development life cycle, which is series of processes depending on the model chosen by the developer or the system analyst conducting the system development. Software development life cycle regards the professional process of coming up with a system for use within a business environment.
7-Step SDLC Model: Traditional SDLC Model
This is the most basic model majorly used in the market by most system analysts, and it follows a series of seven different systematic steps to be fully completed. The steps range from system planning, system analysis, system design, system development, system testing, system implementation, and system maintenance. These steps are sequential and perform a similar role of driving towards achieving the sole purpose of final system functionality. According to this 7-step model, the first phase of system planning involves identification of the project requirements. These project scopes are then analyzed and proper required operational standards are identified for correct solutions. Part of the analyses conducted include parameters such as cost implications on the business organization, time required to complete the system, as well as hardware and software requirements that will be used. All processes must be followed lest any skip of any of these processes would impact heavily on the given organization or client in this case, since a miscalculation of any form would cost the company or the analyst. In each step, specific activities are carried out to ensure that the final product achieves its functionality as per the client’s requests.
The next phase of software development life cycle is the feasibility study. Ritchie (2012) proposes that the analysis phase requires proper information gathering techniques and definition of constraints that will be used in the system. The phase involves different techniques of acquiring sufficient information before proceeding to building the system, and this information would be in form of data such as the organization’s processing requirements. The information can be gathered using techniques such as interviews or questionnaires, with subjectivity to have maximum information.
After sufficiently acquiring relevant information, the system analyst the ...
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The document discusses systems analysis and design (SAD), which refers to the process of examining a business situation with the intent of improving it through better procedures and methods. SAD involves defining problems, requirements, and specifications, as well as designing solutions and implementations. It discusses the various phases of system development like planning, analysis, design, development, testing, implementation, and maintenance. It also describes different approaches to system development like process-oriented, object-oriented, and data-oriented. Finally, it discusses different system development life cycle (SDLC) models like waterfall, spiral, and agile models.
SDLC Apresentação - Shift Education of Technology
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System development life cycle
This document discusses the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), which outlines the formal steps for developing software products. It describes the typical phases of the SDLC as problem definition, program design, coding, debugging, testing, documentation, maintenance, and extension/redesign. Each phase is then further explained in terms of its goals and activities. The document also notes some strengths of the SDLC model for structured development environments and weaknesses for iterative development models.
Software developement life cycle ppt
SDLC software development life cycle is a process used by software industry to design develop and test high quality software's.
The Systems Development Life Cycle
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The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC), which is a process used by systems analysts to develop information systems. It describes the main phases of the SDLC as planning, requirements definition, design, development, integration and testing, operations and maintenance, and implementation and evaluation. Each phase is discussed in detail, with definitions and pictorial representations provided. The document also covers the merits and demerits of following the SDLC process.
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The systems development life cycle (SDLC) describes the process for planning, creating, testing, and deploying an information system. It involves preliminary system study, feasibility study, detailed system study, system analysis, system design, coding, testing, implementation, and maintenance. The SDLC follows a structured process to ensure high quality systems while maximizing productivity and providing management controls. It originated in the 1960s to develop large scale business systems.
SDLC Models
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The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC) in detail. It describes the 8 main steps of SDLC as systems investigation, systems analysis, systems design, programming, testing, implementation, operation, and maintenance. For each step, it provides explanations of the key activities and objectives. The document also covers alternative development methods like prototyping, joint application design, rapid application development, and object-oriented development. Finally, it discusses database management approaches and the advantages of using a database over traditional file-oriented data storage.
Mba it unit 3 ppt
The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC) which includes 8 stages: systems investigation, systems analysis, systems design, programming, testing, implementation, operation, and maintenance. It provides details on each stage, including the objectives and key activities. Additionally, it discusses alternative methods for systems development like prototyping, joint application design, rapid application development, integrated computer-aided software engineering tools, and object-oriented development.
Mba it unit 3 ppt
The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC) in detail. It describes the 8 main steps of SDLC as systems investigation, systems analysis, systems design, programming, testing, implementation, operation, and maintenance. For each step, it provides explanations of the key activities and objectives. The document also covers alternative development methods like prototyping, joint application design, rapid application development, and object-oriented development. Finally, it discusses database management approaches and the advantages of using a database over traditional file-oriented data storage.
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The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC), which is a process used for developing systems from planning through implementation. It contains four main steps: analysis, planning, design, and implementation. During analysis, data flow diagrams are used to model the system's processes. Consistency between context and lower-level data flow diagrams is important for an easy-to-follow process model. SDLC is also used to determine how an information system can support business needs by designing, building, and delivering the system to users through the analysis, design, implementation, and testing phases. Procedure models created during analysis help define requirements graphically. Reliability of the process model is key to improving later SDLC stages.
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Ais Romney 2006 Slides 18 Introduction To Systems Development
The document summarizes the key phases and activities involved in the systems development life cycle. It discusses:
1) The five main phases: systems analysis, conceptual design, physical design, implementation and conversion, and operation and maintenance.
2) The various individuals and groups involved in systems development, including top management, accountants, an information systems steering committee, systems analysts, and computer programmers.
3) How planning, managing change, and ongoing feasibility assessment occur throughout the life cycle.
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The document discusses systems development and analysis. It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The systems development life cycle involves 5 phases: analysis, conceptual design, physical design, implementation, and operations/maintenance. Planning is important to coordinate projects and ensure consistency, efficiency, and lower costs. A feasibility study analyzes technical, operational, economic, legal, and scheduling feasibility to determine if a project should proceed.
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This is a powerpoint presentation on Software Develoment Life Cycle.The software development life cycle (SDLC) is a framework defining tasks performed at each step in the software development process
Management information system
The system development life cycle (SDLC) is a framework for developing information systems. It consists of several sequential phases: initial investigation, feasibility study, system analysis, system design, system coding, testing, implementation, and maintenance. In the past, the waterfall approach was used, but now developers may iterate between phases as needed. The goal is to conceive, design, and implement an information system to solve business problems.
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The document compares and contrasts two systems development life cycle (SDLC) models: the seven-step model and the four-step model. The seven-step model includes requirements, analysis, design, coding, testing, deployment, and maintenance phases. The four-step model includes planning, risk analysis, engineering, and evaluation phases. Both follow an iterative process, but the four-step model combines some phases.
Application lifecycle management (ALM) is the product lifecycle mana.pdf
Application lifecycle management (ALM) is the product lifecycle management is the
governance, development, and maintenance of computer programs. It encompasses requirements
management, software architecture, computer programming, software testing, software
maintenance, change management, continuous integration, project management, and release
management. The systems development life cycle, in its variant forms, remains one of the oldest
and yet still widely used methods of software development and acquisition methods in the
information technology (IT) arena. While it has evolved over the years in response to ever-
changing scenarios and paradigm shifts pertaining to the building or acquiring of software, its
central tenants are as applicable today as they ever were. Life-cycle stages have gone through
iterations of different names and number of steps, but at the core the SDLC is resilient in its
tried-and-true deployment in business, industry, and government. In fact, the SDLC has been
called one of the two dominant systems development methodologies today, along with
prototyping.
The SDLC has been a part of the IT community since the inception of the modern digital
computer. A course in Systems Analysis and Design is requisite in most Management
Information Systems programs (Topi ,Valacich, Wright, Kaiser, Nun a maker, 10). While such
classes offer an overview of many different means of developing or acquiring software (e.g.,
prototyping, extreme programming, rapid application development (RAD), joint application
development (JAD), etc.), at their heart such programs still devote a considerable amount of time
to the SDLC, as they should . following the steps and stages of the methodology is still a valid
method of insuring the successful deployment of software. While the SDLC, and systems
analysis and design in general, has evolved over the years, at its heart it remains a robust
methodology for developing software and systems.
Early treatises of the SDLC promoted the rigorous delineation of necessary steps to follow for
any kind of software project. The Waterfall Model (Boehm, 1976) is one of the most well-known
forms. In this classic representation, the methodology involves seven sequential steps:
1) System Requirements and Validation
2) Software Requirements and Validation
3) Preliminary Design and Validation
4) Detailed Design and Validation
5) Code, Debug, Deployment, and Test
6) Test, Pre operations, Validation Test;
7) Operations, Maintenance, Revalidation. In the original description of the Boehm-Waterfall
software engineering methodology, there is an interactive back step between each stage. Thus the
Boehm-Waterfall is a combination of a sequential methodology with an interactive back step .
Other early works were patterned after the Waterfall Model, with varying numbers of steps and
not-markedly-different names for each stage. Martin and McClure (1988) described it as a
multistep process consisting of five basic sequential phases: a.
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
The document discusses the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), outlining its main phases: planning, requirements analysis, feasibility study, system design, development/coding, system testing, implementation, and maintenance. It provides details on each phase, explaining their key activities and purposes. The SDLC is presented as a process used by systems analysts to develop information systems according to requirements, while ensuring quality, on-time and on-budget completion, effective performance, and cost-efficient maintenance.
Software Development Life Cycle & Its Models
The document discusses the system development life cycle (SDLC) process. It describes the main steps in SDLC as feasibility study, system analysis, system design, development, testing, implementation, and maintenance. Each step is then further explained. For example, feasibility study involves technical, economic, and operational feasibility analysis. System analysis involves requirements gathering and documentation. The document also briefly introduces some common SDLC models like waterfall, iterative, and spiral models.
Explain briefly the system of system of the Balance of Payments Acco.pdf
Explain briefly the system of system of the Balance of Payments Accounting for a country,
including an explanation of the current account, the capital account, and the financial account.
Solution
BOP is an official record that tracks all the transactions of financial nature, between a country
(and its residents) with other countries.
BOP is a flow concept since it measures the transactions during a specific period of time (1 year,
1 quarter etc).
BOP is always prepared in a single currency (the domestic currency).
BOP has 3 types of accounts, based on nature of transaction. These component accounts are:
Current Account, Capital Account, Financial Account. Theoritically, sum of balances in all these
accounts will be zero. But in reality there may be some positive and negative balance which is
then classified under \"Balance Account\".
Current Account records the exports, imports (defining Trade Balance as Exports less Imports),
Services, Net Factor Income from Abroad and fund (Cash) transfers.
Capital Account records all transactions and transfers pertaining to Investment purposes (and not
for consumption purposes). For example, an official exemption on debt (\"Debt Forgiveness\")
falls under Capital Account.
Financial Account records transactions relating to asset/investment borrowing, selling in other
countries. This includes DFI (Direct Foreign Investment, a longer term capital flow), DPI (Direct
Portfolio Investment which is shorter term capital flow) and Official Reserves (which is assets
transacted by Central Bank, for example, foreign exchange).
Together, these 3 components theoritically balance up, implying shortfall in one or more
component account is compensated by surplus in other component account(s). If there is any
negative/positive balance arising out of BPO accounting, that goes into Balance Account..
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the funda.pdf
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the fundamental equation.
Solution
CONVECTION: Flow of heat through currents within a fluid (liquid or gas). Convection is the
displacement of volumes of a substance in a liquid or gaseous phase. When a mass of a fluid is
heated up, for example when it is in contact with a warmer surface, its molecules are carried
away and scattered causing that the mass of that fluid becomes less dense. For this reason, the
warmed mass will be displaced vertically and/or horizontally, while the colder and denser mass
of fluid goes down (the low-kinetic-energy molecules displace the molecules in high-kinetic-
energy states). Through this process, the molecules of the hot fluid transfer heat continuously
toward the volumes of the colder fluid.
For example, when heating up water on a stove, the volume of water at the bottom of the pot will
be warmed up by conduction from the metallic bottom of the pot and its density decreases. Given
that it gets lesser dense, it shifts upwards up to the surface of the volume of water and displaces
the upper -colder and denser- mass of water downwards, to the bottom of the pot.
Formula of Convection:
q = hA (Ts - T ?)
Where h is for convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the area implied in the heat transfer
process, Ts is for the temperature of the system and T ? is a reference temperature.
RADIATION:
It is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves or photons. It does not need a propagating medium.
The energy transferred by radiation moves at the speed of light. The heat radiated by the Sun can
be exchanged between the solar surface and the Earth\'s surface without heating the transitional
space.
For example, if I place an object (such as a coin, a car, or myself) under the direct sunbeams, I
will note in a little while that the object will be heated. The exchange of heat between the Sun
and the object occurs by radiation.
The formula to know the amount of heat transferred by radiation is:
q = e ? A [(?T)^4]
Where q is the heat transferred by radiation, E is the emissivity of the system, ? is the constant of
Stephan-Boltzmann (5.6697 x 10^-8 W/m^2.K^4), A is the area involved in the heat transfer by
radiation, and (?T)^4 is the difference of temperature between two systems to the fourth or
higher power.
Water absorbs the incoming solar Infrared Radiation because the frequency of the internal
vibration of the water molecules is the same frequency of the waves of the solar Infrared
Radiation. This form of Radiative Heat transfer is known as Resonance Absorption.
We humans feel the heat radiated by the Sun and other systems with a higher temperature
because our bodies contain 55-75% of water. The radiative energy inciding on our skin is
absorbed by the molecules of water in our bodies by Resonance Absorption. Just then, the
Infrared Radiation absorbed by our bodies leads to a more intense internal vibration of the water
molecules in our bodies and our bodies get warmer. .
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Application lifecycle management (ALM) is the product lifecycle management is the
governance, development, and maintenance of computer programs. It encompasses requirements
management, software architecture, computer programming, software testing, software
maintenance, change management, continuous integration, project management, and release
management. The systems development life cycle, in its variant forms, remains one of the oldest
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called one of the two dominant systems development methodologies today, along with
prototyping.
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prototyping, extreme programming, rapid application development (RAD), joint application
development (JAD), etc.), at their heart such programs still devote a considerable amount of time
to the SDLC, as they should . following the steps and stages of the methodology is still a valid
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analysis and design in general, has evolved over the years, at its heart it remains a robust
methodology for developing software and systems.
Early treatises of the SDLC promoted the rigorous delineation of necessary steps to follow for
any kind of software project. The Waterfall Model (Boehm, 1976) is one of the most well-known
forms. In this classic representation, the methodology involves seven sequential steps:
1) System Requirements and Validation
2) Software Requirements and Validation
3) Preliminary Design and Validation
4) Detailed Design and Validation
5) Code, Debug, Deployment, and Test
6) Test, Pre operations, Validation Test;
7) Operations, Maintenance, Revalidation. In the original description of the Boehm-Waterfall
software engineering methodology, there is an interactive back step between each stage. Thus the
Boehm-Waterfall is a combination of a sequential methodology with an interactive back step .
Other early works were patterned after the Waterfall Model, with varying numbers of steps and
not-markedly-different names for each stage. Martin and McClure (1988) described it as a
multistep process consisting of five basic sequential phases: a.
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Explain briefly the system of system of the Balance of Payments Acco.pdf
Explain briefly the system of system of the Balance of Payments Accounting for a country,
including an explanation of the current account, the capital account, and the financial account.
Solution
BOP is an official record that tracks all the transactions of financial nature, between a country
(and its residents) with other countries.
BOP is a flow concept since it measures the transactions during a specific period of time (1 year,
1 quarter etc).
BOP is always prepared in a single currency (the domestic currency).
BOP has 3 types of accounts, based on nature of transaction. These component accounts are:
Current Account, Capital Account, Financial Account. Theoritically, sum of balances in all these
accounts will be zero. But in reality there may be some positive and negative balance which is
then classified under \"Balance Account\".
Current Account records the exports, imports (defining Trade Balance as Exports less Imports),
Services, Net Factor Income from Abroad and fund (Cash) transfers.
Capital Account records all transactions and transfers pertaining to Investment purposes (and not
for consumption purposes). For example, an official exemption on debt (\"Debt Forgiveness\")
falls under Capital Account.
Financial Account records transactions relating to asset/investment borrowing, selling in other
countries. This includes DFI (Direct Foreign Investment, a longer term capital flow), DPI (Direct
Portfolio Investment which is shorter term capital flow) and Official Reserves (which is assets
transacted by Central Bank, for example, foreign exchange).
Together, these 3 components theoritically balance up, implying shortfall in one or more
component account is compensated by surplus in other component account(s). If there is any
negative/positive balance arising out of BPO accounting, that goes into Balance Account..
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the funda.pdf
Explain how convection and radiation terms are included in the fundamental equation.
Solution
CONVECTION: Flow of heat through currents within a fluid (liquid or gas). Convection is the
displacement of volumes of a substance in a liquid or gaseous phase. When a mass of a fluid is
heated up, for example when it is in contact with a warmer surface, its molecules are carried
away and scattered causing that the mass of that fluid becomes less dense. For this reason, the
warmed mass will be displaced vertically and/or horizontally, while the colder and denser mass
of fluid goes down (the low-kinetic-energy molecules displace the molecules in high-kinetic-
energy states). Through this process, the molecules of the hot fluid transfer heat continuously
toward the volumes of the colder fluid.
For example, when heating up water on a stove, the volume of water at the bottom of the pot will
be warmed up by conduction from the metallic bottom of the pot and its density decreases. Given
that it gets lesser dense, it shifts upwards up to the surface of the volume of water and displaces
the upper -colder and denser- mass of water downwards, to the bottom of the pot.
Formula of Convection:
q = hA (Ts - T ?)
Where h is for convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the area implied in the heat transfer
process, Ts is for the temperature of the system and T ? is a reference temperature.
RADIATION:
It is heat transfer by electromagnetic waves or photons. It does not need a propagating medium.
The energy transferred by radiation moves at the speed of light. The heat radiated by the Sun can
be exchanged between the solar surface and the Earth\'s surface without heating the transitional
space.
For example, if I place an object (such as a coin, a car, or myself) under the direct sunbeams, I
will note in a little while that the object will be heated. The exchange of heat between the Sun
and the object occurs by radiation.
The formula to know the amount of heat transferred by radiation is:
q = e ? A [(?T)^4]
Where q is the heat transferred by radiation, E is the emissivity of the system, ? is the constant of
Stephan-Boltzmann (5.6697 x 10^-8 W/m^2.K^4), A is the area involved in the heat transfer by
radiation, and (?T)^4 is the difference of temperature between two systems to the fourth or
higher power.
Water absorbs the incoming solar Infrared Radiation because the frequency of the internal
vibration of the water molecules is the same frequency of the waves of the solar Infrared
Radiation. This form of Radiative Heat transfer is known as Resonance Absorption.
We humans feel the heat radiated by the Sun and other systems with a higher temperature
because our bodies contain 55-75% of water. The radiative energy inciding on our skin is
absorbed by the molecules of water in our bodies by Resonance Absorption. Just then, the
Infrared Radiation absorbed by our bodies leads to a more intense internal vibration of the water
molecules in our bodies and our bodies get warmer. .
Explain how academic knowledge impacts the social elements and insti.pdf
Explain how academic knowledge impacts the social elements and institutions of both local and
global communities.
Solution
Academic Knowledge impacts Global communities because it brings them information that most
of the time communties dont have or dont have access due to the fact they have to pay for it o
they dont know where to find it.
This knowledge has a possive effect because it provides the tools for communitites to develop
further and faster using methods aquired through a superior institution like a college or
university.
The influence allows communitites to grow and narrows the path to follow in order to math the
requirements on the globalization..
Explain the results of the Judge, Ilies, Bono, and Gerhardt review. .pdf
Explain the relevance of a rate reconciliation in a tax provision. Why is it so important and what
information does it provide to a reader of financial statements?
Solution
Users of financial statements continue to emphasize the importance of informative, decision-
useful disclosures. This focus often extends to the reporting of income taxes, a material
component of most financial statements. Tax laws can be difficult to understand due to their
complexity, compounded by the multitude of taxing jurisdictions throughout the world.
Connecting the effects of those laws with financial accounting principles adds to the challenge.
Numerous income tax accounting matters require the use of estimates, judgments, and other
subjective information that can obscure the presentation in the financial statement accounts.
Clarifying disclosures can enable users to gain a better understanding of the reporting entity’s
income tax environment. Today’s financial reporting users represent a spectrum of stakeholders
including investors, lenders, regulators, accounting standard setters, analysts, researchers, and
legislative or public policy-making bodies around the world. The business environment and user
expectations have evolved such that companies are encouraged to communicate more effectively
about their income tax profile. FASB’s focus on disclosure The Financial Accounting Standards
Board (FASB) has a large-scale disclosure framework project in progress. A discussion paper
was issued on July 12, 2012 followed by a comment period. The FASB is currently reviewing
the feedback, while developing a decision process for establishing disclosure requirements. With
the framework project, the FASB hopes to improve the effectiveness of disclosures in the notes
to financial statements by clearly communicating the information that is most important to users.
The FASB intends the framework to promote more consistent decisions around disclosure
requirements. Earlier this month, the FASB announced that it will seek further input on certain
income tax areas noted in a recently completed Financial Accounting Foundation report as
presenting difficulties for users. Specifically, information enabling users to analyze income tax
cash flows and the effects of indefinitely reinvested foreign earnings. IASB’s focus on disclosure
The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) held a discussion forum in London earlier
this year and released a paper in May 2013, Discussion Forum – Financial Reporting Disclosure
Feedback Statement, outlining the initiatives they expect to undertake. The actions include steps
to address materiality considerations and the challenges associated with providing effective
disclosure. SEC’s focus on disclosure The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) recently
announced its plan to hold roundtable discussions with its varying constituents on the subject of
disclosure. In October 2013, Mary Jo White, Chair of the SEC, gave a speech to the National
Associa.
Explain the relevance of a rate reconciliation in a tax provision. W.pdf
Explain the relationship between training and organizational development. How might each
contribute to strategic HR management?
Solution
Training plays a vital role in every Organization whether it is Private Limited firm or Public
Limited firm. In order to achieve desired targets of an Organization and also to make their
Employees to give better Productivity in Performance it is Imperative for an Organization to give
Training to their Employees whether it is Top Level of Management Employees or Bottom Level
of Management Employees. ( CEO\'s, Managers or Executives).
Giving Training to their own Employees and Performing good in their Desired Tasks gives Win-
Win Situation to particular Organization to function good in the Market against their
Competitors. Training their Employees for specific time duration For eg- 3 months can enable
Employees to perform for atleast 2-3 Years i.e. Short term Training with Long Term
Performance.
Training and Organization Management is very well connected with Strategic HR Management-
HR Recruits Employees and Training is also conducted from HR\'s only. If an Employees fails to
perform as per the targets decided from the Managers then Trainers communicates with HR
andaccordingly take actions to terminate Employees.
For Eg of my Own Firm where i work presently- Managers, training initiatives are focused on
providing them with the tools to balance the effective management of their employee resources
with the strategies and goals of the organization. Managers learn to develop their employees
effectively by helping employees learn and change, as well as by identifying and preparing them
for future responsibilities. Management development may also include programs for developing
decision making skills, creating and managing successful work teams, allocating resources
effectively, budgeting, business planning, and goal setting.
Conclusion-Training and development describes the formal, ongoing efforts of organizations to
improve the performance and self-fulfillment of their employees through a variety of methods
and programs. In the modern workplace, these efforts have taken on a broad range of
applications.
Explain how a manufacturerSolutionDistribution involves gettin.pdf
A manufacturer can distribute products through direct sales to customers or by using intermediaries like retailers or wholesalers. Distribution channels can involve zero levels with direct sales, one level by selling to retailers who then sell to customers, or two levels by selling to wholesalers who sell to retailers who then sell to customers, extending the supply chain. The level of distribution depends on the product and getting it to reach the intended customers.
Explain how confusing the two (population and a sample) can lead to .pdf
Explain how confusing the two (population and a sample) can lead to incorrect statistical
inferences.
Solution
In statistics, statistical inference is the process of drawing conclusions from data
that is subject to random variation, for example, observational errors or sampling variation.[1]
More substantially, the terms statistical inference, statistical induction and inferential statistics
are used to describe systems of procedures that can be used to draw conclusions from datasets
arising from systems affected by random variation,[2] such as observational errors, random
sampling, or random experimentation.[1] Initial requirements of such a system of procedures for
inference and induction are that the system should produce reasonable answers when applied to
well-defined situations and that it should be general enough to be applied across a range of
situations. The outcome of statistical inference may be an answer to the question \"what should
be done next?\", where this might be a decision about making further experiments or surveys, or
about drawing a conclusion before implementing some organizational or governmental policy.
Contents [show] [edit]Introduction [edit]Scope For the most part, statistical inference makes
propositions about populations, using data drawn from the population of interest via some form
of random sampling. More generally, data about a random process is obtained from its observed
behavior during a finite period of time. Given a parameter or hypothesis about which one wishes
to make inference, statistical inference most often uses: a statistical model of the random process
that is supposed to generate the data, which is known when randomization has been used, and a
particular realization of the random process; i.e., a set of data. The conclusion of a statistical
inference is a statistical proposition.[citation needed] Some common forms of statistical
proposition are: an estimate; i.e., a particular value that best approximates some parameter of
interest, a confidence interval (or set estimate); i.e., an interval constructed using a dataset drawn
from a population so that, under repeated sampling of such datasets, such intervals would contain
the true parameter value with the probability at the stated confidence level, a credible interval;
i.e., a set of values containing, for example, 95% of posterior belief, rejection of a hypothesis[3]
clustering or classification of data points into groups [edit]Comparison to descriptive statistics
Statistical inference is generally distinguished from descriptive statistics. In simple terms,
descriptive statistics can be thought of as being just a straightforward presentation of facts, in
which modeling decisions made by a data analyst have had minimal influence.
[edit]Models/Assumptions Main articles: Statistical model and Statistical assumptions Any
statistical inference requires some assumptions. A statistical model is a set of assumptions
concerning the generation of the observ.
Explain the process through which individuals with a certain set of .pdf
Explain the process of Positioning and Pointing the Camera in computer graphics?
Solution
Explain the process of Positioning and Pointing the Camera in computer graphics?
sol: the process of positioning and poiniting the camera in cg in followed by below steps
1)setup your camera towards the scene (this is called viewing transformation)
2)arrange the scene to be taken in required position(it is also called modelling transformation)
3)adjust lens and zoom (this is called projection transafromation
4)calculate how large to be the photograph(it is also called viewport transformation)
viewing transformation: this will transform the real object coordinates into device coordinates
modelling transformation: here it will transform the coordinates of the device which were taken
by the real world object where modelled and adjusted according to our requirements
projection transformation:this transformation will converts the viewing frustum in to a cuboid
shape,here the near end of the frustrum will be smaller than the far end this will give you the
zooming effect
view port transfromation:
viewport means it is an rectangle window where the image is drawn.this is mesured in window
coordinates
here view prot trnsformation means it will maps the coradinates of the device to the window
coordinates.
Explain the origins of the U.S. judicial system and how the judicial.pdf
Explain the organizational archetypes as described by Mintzberg and discuss how organizational
structure influences innovation.
Summarize Mintzberg\'s work with archetypes.
What key features and implications are involved in each archetype?
Why do we need a template for explaining the structure of an organization?
Mintzberg claimed we have too many managers and too few leaders. Do you agree or disagree
with this and why?
Solution
Mintzberg\'s Organizational Types:
The Entrepreneurial Organization: This type of organization has a simple, flat structure. It
consists of one large unit with one or a few top managers. The organization is relatively
unstructured and informal compared with other types of organization, and the lack of
standardized systems allows the organization to be flexible.
A young company that\'s tightly controlled by the owner is the most common example of this
type of organization. However, a particularly strong leader may be able to sustain an
entrepreneurial organization as it grows, and when large companies face hostile conditions, they
can revert to this structure to keep strict control from the top
The Machine Organization (Bureaucracy) : The machine organization is defined by its
standardization. Work is very formalized, there are many routines and procedures, decision-
making is centralized, and tasks are grouped by functional departments. Jobs will be clearly
defined; there will be a formal planning process with budgets and audits; and procedures will
regularly be analyzed for efficiency.
The machine organization has a tight vertical structure. Functional lines go all the way to the top,
allowing top managers to maintain centralized control. These organizations can be very efficient,
and they rely heavily on economies of scale for their success. However, the formalization leads
to specialization and, pretty soon, functional units can have conflicting goals that can be
inconsistent with overall corporate objectives.
The Professional Organization : According to Mintzberg, the professional organization is also
very bureaucratic. The key difference between these and machine organizations is that
professional organizations rely on highly trained professionals who demand control of their own
work. So, while there\'s a high degree of specialization, decision making is decentralized. This
structure is typical when the organization contains a large number of knowledge workers, and
it\'s why it\'s common in places like schools and universities, and in accounting and law firms.
The Divisional (Diversified) Organization : If an organization has many different product lines
and business units, you\'ll typically see a divisional structure in place. A central headquarters
supports a number of autonomous divisions that make their own decisions, and have their own
unique structures. You\'ll often find this type of structure in large and mature organizations that
have a variety of brands, produce a wide range of products, or operate in d.
Explain the organizational archetypes as described by Mintzberg and .pdf
Mintzberg identified five organizational archetypes - entrepreneurial, machine bureaucracy, professional bureaucracy, divisionalized, and adhocracy. Each has distinct structural features and implications. The entrepreneurial organization has a simple, flat structure controlled by few managers, allowing flexibility. The machine bureaucracy has standardized work and centralized decision-making for efficiency. The professional bureaucracy decentralizes decision-making to trained professionals. The divisionalized structure supports autonomous divisions for diversified products/markets. The adhocracy structure is innovative and non-bureaucratic to adapt to new industries. Organizational structures influence innovation and a template is needed to explain them.
Explain the Mutiplier Effect. Try to explain it in some detail so th.pdf
Explain the method which can be used to determine the disjunction normal form of the Boolean
function represented by the following table:
x y z f
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
Solution
To form a DNF representation of the function, we\'ll include a term for each row of the truth
table in which the value of the function is true(1). For each of these terms, include all variables
that are parameters to the function. If a variable is given a value of false(0) in the truth table row,
negate it in the term; otherwise, leave it non-negated. In this way a DNF expression is generated
directly from the truth table.
F(x, y, z) = x\'yz\' + xy\'z\' + xy\'z
The disjunctive normal form should have three minterms corresponding to thethree triples for
which F takes the value 1. Consider one of these: F(0, 1, 0) = 1.In order to have a product of
literals that will equal 1, we need to multiply literalsthat have a value of 1. At the triple (0, 1, 0)
the literals we need are x, y, and z,since x = y = z = 1 when x = 0, y = 1, and z = 0. The
corresponding minterm,xyz, will then have value 1 at (0, 1, 0) and 0 at every other triple in B3.
The othertwo minterms come from considering F(1, 0, 0) = 1 and F(1, 0, 1) = 1. The sum ofthese
three minterms will have value 1 at each of (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1) and 0 atall other triples in
B3..
Explain the main sources of power available to managers, giving exam.pdf
Explain the main porpose of conducting a time study?
Solution
Time study is a direct observation of a task and a continous one at that. This observation is done
using a time keeping device.
The main purpose is to record the time taken to complete a task or a job.
When this is done the time standard for a job can be set and planning of work can be done
accordingly. Time studies can also be used for setting goals, data analysis and reporting..
Explain the mechanisms of internal loading of phosphorus in lakes.pdf
Explain the meaning of the following dimensionless numbers respectively.
Nu, Re, Pr, Gr
Solution
Nusselt number (Nu) is a non dimensional heat transfer coefficient. It is a measure of heat
transfer rate comparison between the conduction and convection.
Nu = h*L / kf
It is the ratio of convection to pure conduction heat transfer, where kf is the conductivity of the
fluid.
Reynolds number (Re) says, whether the flow is inertial or viscous force dominant that leads to
draw characteristics of fluid whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Re = v*L / kinematic viscosity
It is the ratio of the inertia and viscous forces.
Viscous force provides the dampening effect for disturbances in the fluid.
If dampening is laminar flow --> strong enough
Otherwise, instability è turbulent flow --> critical Reynolds number
Prandtl (Pr) number says about the kind of fluid. It can give the information about the thickness
of thermal and hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Pr = kinematic viscosity/thermal diffusivity
It is the ratio of the momentum and thermal diffusivities.
Grashof number is the ratio of buoyancy force to viscous force and plays nearly the same role as
the Reynolds number in forced convection.
Gr = buoyancy force / viscous force
For forced convection, the heat transfer correlation can be expressed as Nu=f (Re, Pr).
Explain the main porpose of conducting a time studySolutionTi.pdf
Explain the long-run consequences of continued increases in the money supply.
Solution
This follows from the Fisher\'s equation of exchange. According to this,
MV = PY
P= MV/Y
In classical theory, V is assumed to be constant because it depends on people\'s stable habits of
holding money and the given modes of payments of wages and salaries.
Further they assume that aggregate output (Y) remain constant at full employment level. The
above equation indicates that the quantity of money in the long run determines the price level.
The rationale behind this was with V and Y fixed, increase in money supply would cause people
to hold more money than they desire to hold. This they use for transaction purposes which leads
to increase in the price level by the same proportion..
Explain the functions of the formal and informal organizationsand .pdf
Explain the formula how they get they obtain X. I already have the answer, but I don\'t know the
exact steps with getting the z-score, area, entry and x which is what we want in this question? So
just work it out for me in detail.
Solution
0.5987 or 0.6 is the alpha value.
For this alpha, critical z is 0.25. [You can calcualte it using any of the critical z value calculators
available online]
Z is defined as (X - Mean)/(Std. Dev.).
Explain the environmental triggers that forces companies to adopt su.pdf
Explain the effects of a tariff and a quota placed on imported automobiles on a domestic market.
Who is hurt with a tariff or a quota and why? Who benefits and why?
Solution
Let us first understand the meaning of “Tariff” and “Quota”.
1) Tariff: A Tariff is a tax imposed on imported goods; it increases the price of the good in the
domestic market by the value of the Tariff. Domestic producers benefit due to the tariff because
they receive higher prices. The government benefits by collecting tax revenues by the value of
the Tariff.
2) Quota: As the name suggests, Quotas are numerical limits imposed on imported goods.
Consumers are harmed by quotas, while domestic and foreign producers benefit by receiving
higher prices.
As we can understand from the above explanations, due to a tariff and quota the consumer of the
product is hurt the most as he/she pays more for it and it also reduces the supply of that good.
The domestic producers of the goods benefit the most due to tariffs and quotas. Due to the tariff
the imported good becomes expensive and hence consumers will shift their demand for the
domestically made products and this increases the demand for the domestically made products
and the domestic manufacturers benefit. Due to the quotas, the supply of the imported good
decreases and again the domestic manufacturers benefit due to the higher demand of their
products. Due to a tariff, the government also benefits because the government receives taxes on
the imported product.
I hope my solution solves your query..
Explain the distinction between the standard deviation and the stand.pdf
Explain the disadvantages of a firm developing relationships with suppliers based on price alone.
Solution
Supply chain suffers: Enlightened thinking suggests that it is preferable to work with suppliers to
add value to the supply chain so that the overall benefits that accrue can be shared amongst all
the parties involved.
Loss of quality: Quality may be compromised in a quest for the lowest price.
Adversarial: The relationship between a firm and its suppliers may become quite adversarial
when discussions are centred on price alone.
Loss of goodwill: The potential loyalty, cooperation and goodwill of suppliers may be
sacrificedthrough harsh negotiation of prices. This may result in an unwillingness of suppliers to
cooperate when there are changes and rush orders, etc. in the future.
Jeopardised supply: Harsh price negotiations may also destabilise suppliers financially making
them more vulnerable to going out of business, so potentially jeopardising future supply.
Administrative expense: Focusing on the lowest price available might lead to a need to
frequently change supplier causing increased administrative effort and a lack of coherence in
external dealings..
Explain the different types of workforce flexibility that an organis.pdf
Explain the different types of planning for the different levels of management?
Solution
First of all planning is a process that give me the status where the organization want to be.
For senior managment you can found a Strategy Planning based in the following steps:
1.Misi.
Explain age Hardening process used to strengthen an aluminium alloy .pdf
Precipitation hardening, or age hardening, is used to strengthen aluminum alloys by forming uniformly dispersed second-phase particles within the alloy's matrix that act as obstacles to dislocation movement. The process involves solution heat treating the alloy to dissolve precipitates, quenching it to retain the solute in solid solution, and then aging it to nucleate and grow precipitate particles within the matrix that increase the alloy's strength and hardness.
Explain the difference between total solids (TS), total suspended so.pdf
Explain the difference between the null and alternate hypothesis. Why is it important to consider
type 1 and type 2 errors with respect to hypothesis testing?
Solution
In a hypothesis test, we first figure out what the null hypothesis is (which we also
assume to be true initially, until we can prove it wrong otherwise). We then create our alternate
hypothesis from that (the thing we want to \"prove right\"). Remember you will be testing the
true/population mean/variance, etc. and not the sample mean, etc. If we fail to reject the null
hypothesis, then we can only say that we do not have enough evidence to support the alternate
hypothesis. Why is it important to consider type 1 and type 2 errors with respect to hypothesis
testing? The alternative hypothesis - This is the reason a criminal is arrested. Obviously the
police don\'t think the arrested person is innocent or they wouldn\'t arrest him. In statistics the
alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis the researchers wish to evaluate. The null hypothesis - In
the criminal justice system this is the presumption of innocence. In both the judicial system and
statistics the null hypothesis indicates that the suspect or treatment didn\'t do anything. In other
words, nothing out of the ordinary happened The null is the logical opposite of the alternative.
For example \"not white\" is the logical opposite of white. Colors such as red, blue and green as
well as black all qualify as \"not white\". A standard of judgment - In the justice system and
statistics there is no possibility of absolute proof and so a standard has to be set for rejecting the
null hypothesis. In the justice system the standard is \"a reasonable doubt\". The null hypothesis
has to be rejected beyond a reasonable doubt. In statistics the standard is the maximum
acceptable probability that the effect is due to random variability in the data rather than the
potential cause being investigated. This standard is often set at 5% which is called the alpha
level. A data sample - This is the information evaluated in order to reach a conclusion. As
mentioned earlier, the data is usually in numerical form for statistical analysis while it may be in
a wide diversity of forms--eye-witness, fiber analysis, fingerprints, DNA analysis, etc.--for the
justice system. However in both cases there are standards for how the data must be collected and
for what is admissible. Both statistical analysis and the justice system operate on samples of data
or in other words partial information because, let\'s face it, getting the whole truth and nothing
but the truth is not possible in the real world. It only takes one good piece of evidence to send a
hypothesis down in flames but an endless amount to prove it correct. If the null is rejected then
logically the alternative hypothesis is accepted. This is why both the justice system and statistics
concentrate on disproving or rejecting the null hypothesis rather than proving the alternative. It\'s
much easier .
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