This document discusses error analysis in second language learning. It begins by defining error analysis and distinguishing between errors and mistakes. Four main models of error analysis are described: Corder's 3 stage model, Ellis' elaboration, Gass and Selinker's 6 step model, and Richards' classification of error sources. Errors can be classified linguistically or by the process involved. The significance of errors for learners, teachers and researchers is explained. Pedagogical implications include using findings to prevent errors and provide feedback and correction.
This document provides a summary of error analysis and its historical background. It discusses how error analysis evolved from contrastive analysis in the 1960s. Contrastive analysis predicted errors based on differences between a learner's native language and the target language but did not accurately predict all errors. Error analysis emerged in the 1970s as a superior alternative that studied all types of learner errors without relying solely on native language influences. The document outlines the typical steps in conducting an error analysis, including collecting language samples, identifying errors, describing errors, and explaining error sources. It also discusses theoretical perspectives like interlanguage theory and different types of errors learners may make. Finally, it notes that error evaluation was a supplementary step to determine which errors required instruction but
The document discusses the nature and purpose of error analysis in second language acquisition. It defines an error as a breach of the target language code. Error analysis aims to systematically study deviations from target language norms in a learner's developing language system. Errors are classified according to their type, location, form, and cause. The main causes of errors identified include language transfer, overgeneralization of target language rules, strategies of second language learning, and faulty hypotheses formed by learners about the target language system. Error analysis provides insights into a learner's developing language system and can help teachers identify areas of difficulty and guide correction.
The document outlines the steps in error analysis:
1. Recognition of errors involves identifying errors in writing and speaking.
2. Reconstruction of errors involves comparing the original erroneous sentence to a reconstructed correct version.
3. Explanation of errors examines why and how errors occur from a psycholinguistic perspective, accounting for things like incorrect rules.
Learner language, also called interlanguage, refers to the developing language system of second language learners. It is systematic but dynamic as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses. Studying learner language helps teachers understand learner progress and errors. Learners form rules from intake and transfer from their first language can lead to errors, though it also aids learning. Errors reflect learners' current understanding and follow developmental sequences as interlanguage gradually approximates the target language.
SherLog: Error Diagnosis by Connecting Clues from Run-time LogsDacong (Tony) Yan
The document describes SherLog, a tool for error diagnosis in software by analyzing runtime logs. It infers possible execution paths, variables, and their values to identify root causes of failures without reproducing the exact failure environment. The tool works by parsing logs, inferring paths and variable values, and was evaluated on several cases where it successfully identified useful information for debugging. The discussion considers how results from the tool could be used to automate further debugging steps.
This document discusses error analysis in second language learning. It begins by defining error analysis and distinguishing between errors and mistakes. Four main models of error analysis are described: Corder's 3 stage model, Ellis' elaboration, Gass and Selinker's 6 step model, and Richards' classification of error sources. Errors can be classified linguistically or by the process involved. The significance of errors for learners, teachers and researchers is explained. Pedagogical implications include using findings to prevent errors and provide feedback and correction.
This document provides a summary of error analysis and its historical background. It discusses how error analysis evolved from contrastive analysis in the 1960s. Contrastive analysis predicted errors based on differences between a learner's native language and the target language but did not accurately predict all errors. Error analysis emerged in the 1970s as a superior alternative that studied all types of learner errors without relying solely on native language influences. The document outlines the typical steps in conducting an error analysis, including collecting language samples, identifying errors, describing errors, and explaining error sources. It also discusses theoretical perspectives like interlanguage theory and different types of errors learners may make. Finally, it notes that error evaluation was a supplementary step to determine which errors required instruction but
The document discusses the nature and purpose of error analysis in second language acquisition. It defines an error as a breach of the target language code. Error analysis aims to systematically study deviations from target language norms in a learner's developing language system. Errors are classified according to their type, location, form, and cause. The main causes of errors identified include language transfer, overgeneralization of target language rules, strategies of second language learning, and faulty hypotheses formed by learners about the target language system. Error analysis provides insights into a learner's developing language system and can help teachers identify areas of difficulty and guide correction.
The document outlines the steps in error analysis:
1. Recognition of errors involves identifying errors in writing and speaking.
2. Reconstruction of errors involves comparing the original erroneous sentence to a reconstructed correct version.
3. Explanation of errors examines why and how errors occur from a psycholinguistic perspective, accounting for things like incorrect rules.
Learner language, also called interlanguage, refers to the developing language system of second language learners. It is systematic but dynamic as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses. Studying learner language helps teachers understand learner progress and errors. Learners form rules from intake and transfer from their first language can lead to errors, though it also aids learning. Errors reflect learners' current understanding and follow developmental sequences as interlanguage gradually approximates the target language.
SherLog: Error Diagnosis by Connecting Clues from Run-time LogsDacong (Tony) Yan
The document describes SherLog, a tool for error diagnosis in software by analyzing runtime logs. It infers possible execution paths, variables, and their values to identify root causes of failures without reproducing the exact failure environment. The tool works by parsing logs, inferring paths and variable values, and was evaluated on several cases where it successfully identified useful information for debugging. The discussion considers how results from the tool could be used to automate further debugging steps.
Error analysis is the process of identifying, classifying, and describing errors made by language learners. It provides insight into common difficulties faced by learners in speaking or writing a target language. There are two types of errors - mistakes, which occur when a learner does not apply a known rule consistently, and errors, which occur when a rule has not been learned. Sources of errors include influence from the learner's native language, incorrect transfer of rules within the target language, and issues related to the learning context and process. The document then describes a methodology for conducting error analysis on student assignments, categorizing the errors found, and analyzing the results.
This document discusses contrastive analysis and language transfer between Spanish and English. It defines contrastive analysis as comparing two language systems to predict difficulties for learners and help instruction. Language transfer refers to how skills learned in one language influence a second language. Generalizations can be intralingual, from over-applying prior language experiences incorrectly, or interlingual, directly influenced by the native language resulting in errors.
Error analysis is a technique used to identify and interpret systematic errors made by language learners. It examines errors according to modality, linguistic level, form, type, and cause. The history of error analysis can be traced back to the 1960s when S. Pit Corder revived interest in the topic and established its importance in second language acquisition. Error analysis benefits learners by providing feedback that helps develop their second language knowledge.
This document discusses various techniques for teaching grammar to English language learners. It describes the historical view of grammar as consisting of parts of speech like nouns and verbs. It also outlines different approaches to grammar instruction, such as direct, functional, and communicative methods. Finally, it debunks several myths about grammar acquisition and argues that grammar is best taught through a focus on form within meaningful communicative activities.
The document summarizes key aspects of error analysis as applied to the study of second language acquisition. It discusses error analysis as the first approach to SLA, focusing on learners' creative abilities and systematic errors. It then describes the main stages of conducting an error analysis - recognition, description and explanation of errors. Various error classification frameworks are also summarized, including analyzing errors based on linguistic category, surface strategy, comparisons to first language acquisition, and communicative effect.
The document discusses error analysis in second language acquisition. It begins by stating that making errors is natural and inevitable in language learning. It then defines error analysis as the systematic study of deviations from target language norms during second language acquisition. The history of error analysis is discussed, noting that it was established in the 1960s as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis could not predict most learner errors. The document also discusses different ways of classifying errors and some methodological problems with error analysis approaches. It concludes by distinguishing between errors, mistakes, and lapses in learner language.
Error analysis is a technique used to identify, classify, and explain errors made by language learners. It emerged in the 1960s as proposed by Pit Corder and provides insights into the second language acquisition process. Error analysis involves collecting language samples from learners, identifying errors, describing and explaining them, and evaluating or correcting them. It is useful for both learners and teachers as it reveals the problem areas and current status of a learner's language development.
This document provides an overview of error analysis in second language learning. It discusses key topics such as:
- Definitions of error analysis and the distinction between errors and mistakes. Errors reflect a learner's developing linguistic system, while mistakes are performance issues.
- The significance of analyzing learner errors for teachers, researchers, and learners themselves. Errors can indicate what remains to be learned and provide insights into the language learning process.
- Models for conducting error analysis, including data collection, error identification and classification, and explaining error sources.
- Procedures for collecting spontaneous and elicited language samples from learners and interpreting errors in context. The analysis involves identifying intended meanings to reconstruct errors.
5 Easy Ways to Improve Cohesion in IELTS Writing Task 2 Ben Worthington
Improve your cohesion through using collocations, repetition, and three other techniques (the fifth is really easy).
For an introduction on how to start IELTS Writing Task 2 click here:
www.ieltspodcast.com/ielts-writing-task/ielts-writing-start-ielts-writing-task-2/
The document discusses navigating the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, noting that it contains unique sources for evidence-based medicine including the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, which contains full-text systematic reviews and meta-analyses and is the top resource for finding such materials, as well as other databases related to clinical trials, methodology reviews, and health economic assessments. It provides links to search and navigate the document and contact information for the presenter.
1. System Disturbances: A system disturbance can be defined as any event that causes the frequency and/or voltage of the system to deviate from the normal range of operation. These are caused by incidents such as occurrence of short circuits, generator trips, feeder trips, sudden increase of power output of a generator due to a defect in its control system.
The responses of the healthy machines for such events should be so as to return the system to the normal status as quickly as possible and with as little manual intervention as possible. Therefore, the response of machines is of utmost importance from the point of view of system security and reliability.
Search Intelligence - Social Media e Search Marketing - Proxxima 2011Leonardo Naressi
O documento discute as interações entre redes sociais e mecanismos de busca na internet. Aponta que 60% do tráfego em redes sociais vem de buscadores e 37% do tráfego em buscadores vem de redes sociais, indicando forte relação entre os dois. Também mostra exemplos de como hashtags e temas virais em redes sociais impulsionam buscas sobre esses assuntos.
Scooby-Doo es un perro misterioso que resuelve crímenes junto a sus amigos adolescentes Norville "Shaggy" Rogers, Fred Jones, Daphne Blake y Velma Dinkley. El grupo viaja en la furgoneta "Máquina del Misterio" y desenmascara a los criminales disfrazados de monstruos o fantasmas que intentan cometer delitos.
O documento discute como muitas pessoas são carentes por falta de autoconhecimento e autoestima. A carência excessiva ocorre quando esperamos que mudanças venham de fora ao invés de dentro de nós. Devemos cuidar mais de nós mesmos, valorizar-nos e nos relacionar com os outros sem dependência, pois a felicidade vem de dentro.
Every business has a story to tell that can connect with customers. Stories are an engaging way to communicate and are at the core of effective marketing. However, many websites are underutilizing their storytelling potential and are operated like boring corporate brochures focused too heavily on search engine optimization. To truly engage customers, businesses need to proactively communicate their brand story on their website in a visual and entertaining way.
Curso: Redes y telecomunicaciones: 06 Protocolo IPv4.
Dictado en la Universidad Telesup -UPT, Lima - Perú, en los ciclos 2009-2 (agosto/2009), 2011-0 (enero/2011).
Treinamento para liderança 3 – a liderança vivendo na expectativa da consumaç...Vilmar Nascimento
O documento discute sobre os últimos dias e a segunda vinda de Cristo, citando passagens bíblicas. Apresenta sinais dos últimos tempos como falsos profetas, guerras, pestes e o esfriamento do amor. Também dá dicas de como a liderança pode viver na expectativa da consumação dos séculos, como não se apegando às coisas deste mundo e anelando contemplar a face de Cristo.
Error analysis is the process of identifying, classifying, and describing errors made by language learners. It provides insight into common difficulties faced by learners in speaking or writing a target language. There are two types of errors - mistakes, which occur when a learner does not apply a known rule consistently, and errors, which occur when a rule has not been learned. Sources of errors include influence from the learner's native language, incorrect transfer of rules within the target language, and issues related to the learning context and process. The document then describes a methodology for conducting error analysis on student assignments, categorizing the errors found, and analyzing the results.
This document discusses contrastive analysis and language transfer between Spanish and English. It defines contrastive analysis as comparing two language systems to predict difficulties for learners and help instruction. Language transfer refers to how skills learned in one language influence a second language. Generalizations can be intralingual, from over-applying prior language experiences incorrectly, or interlingual, directly influenced by the native language resulting in errors.
Error analysis is a technique used to identify and interpret systematic errors made by language learners. It examines errors according to modality, linguistic level, form, type, and cause. The history of error analysis can be traced back to the 1960s when S. Pit Corder revived interest in the topic and established its importance in second language acquisition. Error analysis benefits learners by providing feedback that helps develop their second language knowledge.
This document discusses various techniques for teaching grammar to English language learners. It describes the historical view of grammar as consisting of parts of speech like nouns and verbs. It also outlines different approaches to grammar instruction, such as direct, functional, and communicative methods. Finally, it debunks several myths about grammar acquisition and argues that grammar is best taught through a focus on form within meaningful communicative activities.
The document summarizes key aspects of error analysis as applied to the study of second language acquisition. It discusses error analysis as the first approach to SLA, focusing on learners' creative abilities and systematic errors. It then describes the main stages of conducting an error analysis - recognition, description and explanation of errors. Various error classification frameworks are also summarized, including analyzing errors based on linguistic category, surface strategy, comparisons to first language acquisition, and communicative effect.
The document discusses error analysis in second language acquisition. It begins by stating that making errors is natural and inevitable in language learning. It then defines error analysis as the systematic study of deviations from target language norms during second language acquisition. The history of error analysis is discussed, noting that it was established in the 1960s as an alternative to contrastive analysis. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis could not predict most learner errors. The document also discusses different ways of classifying errors and some methodological problems with error analysis approaches. It concludes by distinguishing between errors, mistakes, and lapses in learner language.
Error analysis is a technique used to identify, classify, and explain errors made by language learners. It emerged in the 1960s as proposed by Pit Corder and provides insights into the second language acquisition process. Error analysis involves collecting language samples from learners, identifying errors, describing and explaining them, and evaluating or correcting them. It is useful for both learners and teachers as it reveals the problem areas and current status of a learner's language development.
This document provides an overview of error analysis in second language learning. It discusses key topics such as:
- Definitions of error analysis and the distinction between errors and mistakes. Errors reflect a learner's developing linguistic system, while mistakes are performance issues.
- The significance of analyzing learner errors for teachers, researchers, and learners themselves. Errors can indicate what remains to be learned and provide insights into the language learning process.
- Models for conducting error analysis, including data collection, error identification and classification, and explaining error sources.
- Procedures for collecting spontaneous and elicited language samples from learners and interpreting errors in context. The analysis involves identifying intended meanings to reconstruct errors.
5 Easy Ways to Improve Cohesion in IELTS Writing Task 2 Ben Worthington
Improve your cohesion through using collocations, repetition, and three other techniques (the fifth is really easy).
For an introduction on how to start IELTS Writing Task 2 click here:
www.ieltspodcast.com/ielts-writing-task/ielts-writing-start-ielts-writing-task-2/
The document discusses navigating the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, noting that it contains unique sources for evidence-based medicine including the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, which contains full-text systematic reviews and meta-analyses and is the top resource for finding such materials, as well as other databases related to clinical trials, methodology reviews, and health economic assessments. It provides links to search and navigate the document and contact information for the presenter.
1. System Disturbances: A system disturbance can be defined as any event that causes the frequency and/or voltage of the system to deviate from the normal range of operation. These are caused by incidents such as occurrence of short circuits, generator trips, feeder trips, sudden increase of power output of a generator due to a defect in its control system.
The responses of the healthy machines for such events should be so as to return the system to the normal status as quickly as possible and with as little manual intervention as possible. Therefore, the response of machines is of utmost importance from the point of view of system security and reliability.
Search Intelligence - Social Media e Search Marketing - Proxxima 2011Leonardo Naressi
O documento discute as interações entre redes sociais e mecanismos de busca na internet. Aponta que 60% do tráfego em redes sociais vem de buscadores e 37% do tráfego em buscadores vem de redes sociais, indicando forte relação entre os dois. Também mostra exemplos de como hashtags e temas virais em redes sociais impulsionam buscas sobre esses assuntos.
Scooby-Doo es un perro misterioso que resuelve crímenes junto a sus amigos adolescentes Norville "Shaggy" Rogers, Fred Jones, Daphne Blake y Velma Dinkley. El grupo viaja en la furgoneta "Máquina del Misterio" y desenmascara a los criminales disfrazados de monstruos o fantasmas que intentan cometer delitos.
O documento discute como muitas pessoas são carentes por falta de autoconhecimento e autoestima. A carência excessiva ocorre quando esperamos que mudanças venham de fora ao invés de dentro de nós. Devemos cuidar mais de nós mesmos, valorizar-nos e nos relacionar com os outros sem dependência, pois a felicidade vem de dentro.
Every business has a story to tell that can connect with customers. Stories are an engaging way to communicate and are at the core of effective marketing. However, many websites are underutilizing their storytelling potential and are operated like boring corporate brochures focused too heavily on search engine optimization. To truly engage customers, businesses need to proactively communicate their brand story on their website in a visual and entertaining way.
Curso: Redes y telecomunicaciones: 06 Protocolo IPv4.
Dictado en la Universidad Telesup -UPT, Lima - Perú, en los ciclos 2009-2 (agosto/2009), 2011-0 (enero/2011).
Treinamento para liderança 3 – a liderança vivendo na expectativa da consumaç...Vilmar Nascimento
O documento discute sobre os últimos dias e a segunda vinda de Cristo, citando passagens bíblicas. Apresenta sinais dos últimos tempos como falsos profetas, guerras, pestes e o esfriamento do amor. Também dá dicas de como a liderança pode viver na expectativa da consumação dos séculos, como não se apegando às coisas deste mundo e anelando contemplar a face de Cristo.
Treinamento para liderança 3 – a liderança vivendo na expectativa da consumaç...
Error analysis
1. Error analysis (linguistics)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of language
errors. Errors are classified[1] according to:
modality (i.e., level of proficiency in speaking, writing, reading, listening)
linguistic levels (i.e., pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style)
form (e.g., omission, insertion, substitution)
type (systematic errors/errors in competence vs. occasional errors/errors in
performance)
cause (e.g., interference, interlanguage)
norm vs. system
Methodology
Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues.[2]
Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by
behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between
the learners' first and second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that
contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more
valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding
of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty
inferences about the rules of the new language.
Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are
not. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to
basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified
by how apparent they are: overt errors such as "I angry" are obvious even out of context,
whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification
according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent,
the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may
also be classified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or
lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to
which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to
understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, "I angry" would be a local
error, since the meaning is apparent.
From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular,
the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to
reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal
effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner
reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of
2. communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form
with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used
to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner
errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a
more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.
Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today,
the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.
See also
Error analysis
Second language acquisition
Common Sources of Error in Physics Lab Experiments
There is no such thing as "human error"! This vague phrase does not describe
the source of error clearly. Careful description of sources of error allows future
experimenters to improve on your techniques. This long list of common sources of
error is meant to help you identify some of the common sources of error you might
encounter while doing experiments. If you find yourself stuck for words when
describing sources of error, this list may help. The list goes from the common to the
obscure.
Incomplete definition (may be systematic or random) - One reason that it is
impossible to make exact measurements is that the measurement is not always
clearly defined. For example, if two different people measure the length of the same
rope, they would probably get different results because each person may stretch the
rope with a different tension. The best way to minimize definition errors is to
carefully consider and specify the conditions that could affect the measurement.
Failure to account for a factor (usually systematic) - The most challenging part of
designing an experiment is trying to control or account for all possible factors
except the one independent variable that is being analyzed. For instance, you may
inadvertently ignore air resistance when measuring free-fall acceleration, or you
may fail to account for the effect of the Earth's magnetic field when measuring the
field of a small magnet. The best way to account for these sources of error is to
brainstorm with your peers about all the factors that could possibly affect your
result. This brainstorm should be done before beginning the experiment so that
arrangements can be made to account for the confounding factors before taking
data. Sometimes a correction can be applied to a result after taking data, but this is
inefficient and not always possible.
Environmental factors (systematic or random) - Be aware of errors introduced by
your immediate working environment. You may need to take account for or protect
your experiment from vibrations, drafts, changes in temperature, electronic noise or
other effects from nearby apparatus.
Instrument resolution (random) - All instruments have finite precision that limits
the ability to resolve small measurement differences. For instance, a meter stick
cannot distinguish distances to a precision much better than about half of its
3. smallest scale division (0.5 mm in this case). One of the best ways to obtain more
precise measurements is to use a null difference method instead of measuring a
quantity directly. Null or balance methods involve using instrumentation to measure
the difference between two similar quantities, one of which is known very
accurately and is adjustable. The adjustable reference quantity is varied until the
difference is reduced to zero. The two quantities are then balanced and the
magnitude of the unknown quantity can be found by comparison with the reference
sample. With this method, problems of source instability are eliminated, and the
measuring instrument can be very sensitive and does not even need a scale.
Failure to calibrate or check zero of instrument (systematic) - Whenever
possible, the calibration of an instrument should be checked before taking data. If a
calibration standard is not available, the accuracy of the instrument should be
checked by comparing with another instrument that is at least as precise, or by
consulting the technical data provided by the manufacturer. When making a
measurement with a micrometer, electronic balance, or an electrical meter, always
check the zero reading first. Re-zero the instrument if possible, or measure the
displacement of the zero reading from the true zero and correct any measurements
accordingly. It is a good idea to check the zero reading throughout the experiment.
Physical variations (random) - It is always wise to obtain multiple measurements
over the entire range being investigated. Doing so often reveals variations that
might otherwise go undetected. If desired, these variations may be cause for closer
examination, or they may be combined to find an average value.
Parallax (systematic or random) - This error can occur whenever there is some
distance between the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a
measurement. If the observer's eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer and
scale, the reading may be too high or low (some analog meters have mirrors to help
with this alignment).
Instrument drift (systematic) - Most electronic instruments have readings that drift
over time. The amount of drift is generally not a concern, but occasionally this
source of error can be significant and should be considered.
Lag time and hysteresis (systematic) - Some measuring devices require time to
reach equilibrium, and taking a measurement before the instrument is stable will
result in a measurement that is generally too low. The most common example is
taking temperature readings with a thermometer that has not reached thermal
equilibrium with its environment. A similar effect is hysteresis where the instrument
readings lag behind and appear to have a "memory" effect as data are taken
sequentially moving up or down through a range of values. Hysteresis is most
commonly associated with materials that become magnetized when a changing
magnetic field is applied.
9.3 Analyzing learners' language
Learners' language provides data for research into the nature of the learning
process. In order to gain insights into the process, researchers have engaged
themselves in the analysis of learners' language. Since the 1940s, there have been
three modes of analysis --- contrastive analysis, error analysis, and the study of
interlanguage, each of which is a milestone in understanding second language
acquisition.
4. Contrastive analysis was conducted from the 1940s to the 1960s as an effort to
understand the source of errors in learners' language. It was assumed that the greater
the difference between the native language and the target language, the greater the
learning problem and the potentiality of mother tongue interference. The
assumption was challenged by findings of later studies. Many errors were found that
had no relation with the native language. As interference makes up a small
proportion of errors, the contrastive analysis hypothesis has proved less powerful in
explaining why learners' language is as it is.
Error analysis was employed from the late 1960s as part of the methodology of
the study of second language acquisition. Corder (1967, 1973) pointed out that
errors have theoretical and practical significance. They are theoretically significant
in that they provide feedback to psycholinguistics in constructing theories of SLA.
They are of practical significance to language teachers, indicating to them the
effectiveness of the teaching materials and techniques.
The practice of error analysis is divided into identifying, describing and
explaining. Identifying errors is the first step of error analysis. To identify errors we
have to compare the sentences produced by the learner with the corresponding
sentences native speakers are likely to produce to express the same meanings. This
is not always straightforward. Sometimes it is not clear whether a deviation is a slip
of the tongue or a systematic error. Corder (1973) first distinguished errors from
mistakes. Errors reflect gaps in a learner's knowledge of the target language. The
learner does not know what is correct. Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in
performance. The learner knows the correct form but slips due to nervousness,
carelessness or tiredness. For example, many Chinese learners of English, even
advanced learners, use he to refer to a female person in conversations. This is a
mistake, not an error, as they know what the correct form is. Learners may correct
themselves once they have the time to monitor their own speech or writing. So,
accurate identification of errors as the starting point of error analysis is not as easy
as assumed. It is of importance to both researchers and teachers. For researchers, it
is important to collect the right data. For teachers, it is necessary to treat mistakes
and errors differently in their instruction.
Describing errors, the second step of error analysis, is categorizing errors
grammatically. Once errors are identified, they can be classified into categories.
Corder (1973) proposed four major categories: omission of some required elements,
e.g. “He went bus stop”; addition of some unnecessary or incorrect element, e.g.
“Does he can swim?”; selection of an incorrect element, e.g. “I lost my road”; and
misordering of elements, e.g. “I gave to him the book”. These categories are highly
generalized. Another way to describe errors is to classify them into grammatical
categories. For example, we can gather all the errors that have been identified
relating to verbs and then classify them. The latter is more practicable for language
teachers and provides more useful feedback to teaching.
Explaining errors, the final step, is the task of tracing the source of errors. This
task is more psychological than linguistic in essence. In terms of sources, errors are
divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors, based on whether they are
caused by L1. Interlingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference. One's
knowledge of L1 contributes to learning L2. The positive role L1 plays is called
transfer. The negative role is termed interference. For example, many Chinese
5. learners of English use although and but in the same sentence. This is an instance of
interference, specifically, a kind of negative transfer of the learners' syntactic
knowledge. Interference also occurs in other aspects of language.
Intralingual errors are produced by second language learners regardless of their
mother tongue. If a learner says “I eated too much”, he has overgeneralized the
formation of past tense. Overgeneralization is found universal in SLA (also in L1
acquisition). Some errors are attributed to simplification (also called redundancy
reduction). Many Chinese learners of English omit the third person singular -s in
speech and writing. This is a typical error of simplification. The meaning of third
person singular is already expressed by the subject, the marker of the predicate verb
is redundant in terms of information. That is why the -s is often left out. Some
errors are attributed to cross-association, confusion in memory of two forms. The
word stalagmite is often confused with stalactite. Dessert (sweet food) and desert (a
large area of sand) are often mixed in pronunciation.
Although error analysis has gained some insights into the complex process of
SLA, it is not without limitations. By focusing only on errors, researchers may loose
sight of the whole picture of learners' language. Engaged in error analysis,
researchers study what learners are doing wrong, but not what they have done
successfully. Another flaw in error analysis is that it fails to account for all the areas
of L2 in which learners have difficulty. Schachter (1974) reported that Chinese and
Japanese learners of English committed fewer errors in relative clauses than Spanish
and Persian learners of English. It was discovered that the Chinese and Japanese
students avoided producing relative clauses. This result shows that fewer errors may
not necessarily prove achievement in learning a particular aspect of L2. It is equally
important to determine whether the learner's use of correct forms approximates that
of the native speaker. This idea gave rise to the study of interlanguage.
Interlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for
use in communication through the target language. The term was coined by the
American linguist Larry Selinker, (Selinker 1972). Corder (1971) called learners'
language an idiosyncratic dialect. Both terms suggest that learners' language is
between L1 and L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.
Learners construct a series of mental grammars as they gradually accumulate their
knowledge of the target language.
From the perspective of interlanguage, errors can be seen as the evidence of
learning strategies. Overgeneralization reflects learners' cognitive activity in
working out the rules of L2. Omission errors suggest that learners are in some way
simplifying the learning task by ignoring some grammatical morphemes that they
are not yet ready to use.
Studies in interlanguage find that learners resort to communication strategies. In
communication through the target language learners every now and then are at loss
in saying what they want to say in the language due to inadequate knowledge. In
this case they will naturally employ communication strategies to continue the
conversation. They may avoid a particular syntactic structure. They may use a
superordinate (for example, worm for silkworm) or coin a word (airball for balloon,
apricot seed for almond, for instance). The choice of communication strategies
reflect the learner's stage of development along the interlanguage continuum. The
6. effect of using communication strategies on SLA will be an interesting topic in SLA
research.
http://digilib.petra.ac.id/viewer.php?page=2&submit.x=28&submit.y=11&qual=high&submitval
=next&fname=%2Fjiunkpe%2Fs1%2Fsing%2F2002%2Fjiunkpe-ns-s1-2002-11497119-352-local-
chapter1.pdf
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+of+language+acquisition&ots=wCYjho3CtV&sig=_Cgy3ntriJ-
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