Environment, development and disaster management 3rd sem

ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES:
● At the end of the course, the students must have an understanding of the resource
optimization and the measures to be taken in the face of a disaster
OUTCOMES:
● Understand the various contextsleading to disaster. Also understand the correctives to help
humans and the environment bounce back to normalcy.
UNIT I - ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT –
INTERFACE
● Resource use,exploitation and conservation;
● Impact of human activities on environment;
● Environment and economy interaction,
● introduction to environmental accounting.
UNIT II - ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
● Environmental Impact Assessment,thresholds, indicators, audits, environmental certification,
lifecycle analysis, environment and poverty links, environmental policy, Acts and regulations;
● Environmental education, participatory approaches,emerging concepts.
● Disaster classification, concepts,hazards, vulnerability, risks, human response to disaster,
impacts
UNIT III - CONCEPTS OF HAZARD
● Vulnerability, Risks,
● Natural Disasters (earthquake,Cyclone, Floods, Volcanoes), and
● Man Made Disaster ( Armed conflicts and civil strip, Technological disasters, Human
Settlement, Slow Disasters (famine, draught, epidemics) and
● Rapid Onset Disasters(Air Crash,tidal waves,Tsunami) Risks,
● Difference between Accidents and Disasters,
● Simple and Complex Disasters,
Refugee problems,
● Political, Social, Economic impacts of Disasters,Gender and Social issues during disasters,
● principles of psychosocial issues and recovery during emergency situations,
● Equity issues in disasters,
● Relationship between Disasters and Development and vulnerabilities,
● different stakeholders in Disaster Relief.
● Refugee operations during disasters,
● Human Resettlement and Rehabilitation issues during and after disasters,
● Inter-sectoralcoordination during disasters,
● Models in Disasters.

● Impact on Environment.
UNIT IV - DISASTER MITIGATION AND MANAGEMENT
● Relevance of disaster management in development and environment,
● disaster preparedness,prevention, displacement and development,
● Role and responsibilities of government and non– government organizations,
● Disaster Education –
● awareness of individuals, communities and participation at various levels;
● Integrating disaster mitigation in the spatial planning process,
● provision of infrastructure for disaster mitigation.
UNIT V - POLICIES AND LEGISLATION PERTAINING TO ENVIRONMENT AND
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
● Policies and Legislation at various levels.,
● Institutional and Legal Arrangements Disaster Management Act,2005.
● Role of Central Ministries and Departments,and States,
● Communications and Information Technology (IT) Support,
● Community Based Disaster Preparedness,
● Stakeholders’ Participation ,
● Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and
● Public- Private Partnership (PPP).
ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVES:
● At the end of the course, the students must have an understanding of the resource
optimization and the measures to be taken in the face of a disaster
OUTCOMES:
● Understand the various contextsleading to disaster. Also understand the correctives to help
humans and the environment bounce back to normalcy.
*** UNIT - I STARTS ***
UNIT I - ENVIRONMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT –
INTERFACE
● Resource use, exploitation and conservation;
A mineral is pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust.
More than two-thousand minerals have been identified and most of these are inorganic, which are
formed by various combination of elements. Mineral are naturally occurring elements or compounds
that have been formed through slow inorganic processes. These are more than 3000 minerals species,
most of them having chemical composition, crystal, hardness,colour and opacity
Our civilization is based on mineral resources. All materials (fuels, metals, water,etc.) needed for
modern society are derived from the earth’s crust,whether directly or indirectly. The naturally
occurring materials (in form of ore) obtained below the earth’s crust having a definite structure and
chemical composition are called minerals.
The minerals from which metals and non metals is extracted are known as ores. Rock is formed
naturally by mineral deposition. According to their origin, rocks are divided into three types:
(i) Igneous rock
(ii) Sedimentary rock
(iii) Metamorphic rock.
The ores yield metal like iron, copper, aluminium, gold, silver, platinum, while non- metallic
materials like cement, sulphur, phosphorus, diamonds and chemical by products of petroleum refining
are vital to industry.
Classification ofminerals:
On the basis of predominant anions or anionic group minerals can be classify as :
(i) Silicates minerals
(ii) Native elements
(iii) Sulphide minerals
(iv) Oxide minerals
(v) Halide minerals
(vi) Hydroxide minerals
(vii) Carbonate and nitrate minerals
(viii) Sulphate minerals
(ix) Borate minerals
(x) Tung state, chromate and molybdate minerals
(xi) Phosphate, Arsenate and Vanedate minerals.
All the minerals are non renewable and valuable because they are stronger than any other materials,
and they can be melted and cast into shape with a good conductor of electricity.
Marine mineral resources

The deep sea basins are found to contain enormous quantities of minerals such a manganese, cobalt-
nickels and copper. The salt, magnesium and bromine are also discovered from marine Marine
mineral resources in India are of three types:
1. Terrigenous minerals:In Maharashtra,Kerala and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa with
Ilmnite, monazite.
2. Biogenous deposits:In Kerala,Gulf Kutch, A & Nicobar with calcium, carbonate.
3. Chemogenous deposits:Manganese nickel, cobalt and copper.
Categories ofMineral Resources
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories:
• Metallic Mineral Resources
• Non-metallic Mineral Resources
Characteristics ofMetallic Minerals
Metallic Minerals are metals that are hard substance and conduct heat and electricity with a
characteristics of luster or shine. For example: Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, Lead,Zinc, Iron, Nickel,
Chromium, and Aluminum.
Metallic minerals contain metal in raw form .Metallic Minerals present a metallic shine in their
appearance. They contains metals in their chemical composition and are potential source of the metal
that can be got through mining.
Metallic minerals are further classified into Ferrous metallic minerals and Non-ferrous metallic
minerals.
Ferrous Minerals are those mineral that contains iron, for example: Iron ore, maganese and Chromites.
Non-Ferrous Minerals are those minerals which do not contain iron, for example: gold, silver, copper
and lead.
Non-metallic minerals
Non-metallic minerals are a special group of chemical elements from which no new product can be
generated if they are melted. For example: sand, gravel, gypsum, halite, Uranium, dimension stone.
Non-metallic minerals are minerals which are either present a non-metallic shine or lustre in their
appearance.These minerals do not contain extractable metals in their chemical composition.
Use ofMinerals
The earth’s resources have been used by all cultures throughout history. The earliest uses of the
earth’s resources involved water,salt and simple tools made from rocks. The quantities of various
mineral resources used by particular societies vary widely but generally correspond per capita to the
nation’s degree of development and standard of living
The use of minerals depends upon its deposits. Some countries are rich in mineral deposits, while
others have no deposits. The greatest use of minerals depends on its properties. Minerals are used in
almost all industries. Gold, silver and platinum are used in the jewelry industry. Copper is used in
coin industry and for making pipes and wire. Silicon obtained from quartz is used in the computer
industry. Aluminum is light, strong and durable in nature, so it is used for aircraft,shipping and car
industries.
The Indian Scenario
A variety of minerals are found in India .On the basis of properties, minerals are broadly classified
into metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals. Manganese,copper, aluminium, zinc, iron, bauxite,
gold, lead, etc are metallic minerals. Metallic minerals are mainly occur in igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Diamond, gypsum, mica, kainite, stones, potash, etc are non metallic minerals.
Manganese- Manganese is used in steel industries and in making paints, glass, insecticides, batteries,
chemicals, bleaching powder, etc. India stands second in the reserves of manganese in the world.
Manganese ore is exported from India.

Iron ore- Iron ore is used in the manufacture of steeland iron. Haematite, limonite, magnetite and
siderite are the varieties of iron ore. Iron ore is a basic and important raw material of most of the
manufacturing industries.
Mica- Mica is used in electrical and electronics industries. It is also used in production of medicines,
paints, etc. Mica has an insulating property.
Copper- Copper is a good conductor of electricity. Copper is used for making alloys, electric wires
and utensils. It is also used in the manufacture of medicines. The demand of copper is always more
due to its non-rusting property.
Lead- Lead is a heavy and soft metal. It does not conduct heat. It is used in the manufacture of
ammunition, glass, rubber, paints, etc.
Bauxite- Bauxite is used in industries as raw materials. India has large deposits of bauxite ore. It is
used in industries which manufacture ships, aeroplanes, automobiles, electric wires, etc.
Mining ofminerals
Mining refers to the process of extracting metals and minerals from the earth. Gold, silver, diamond,
iron, coal, and uranium are just a few of the vast array of metals and minerals that are obtained by this
process. Mining activities require the clearing of large areas of land.
In fact,mining is the source of all the substances that cannot be obtained by industrial processes or
through agriculture. Mining reaps huge profits for the companies that own them and provides
employment to a large number of people. It is also a huge source of revenue for the government.
Mining involves the physical removal of minerals from the crust of Earth. The mineral materials may
be used as such or used for extraction of elements. As minerals are exhaustible resources,it becomes
essential to conserve these resources.
There are three major stages in mineral extraction exploration, mining and mine reclamation.
The Steps ofMining:
Generally these are the stages of mineral exploration
Area Selection:
The most important stage, it is important to choose an area that is possible to find ore deposits easily,
cheaply and quickly
Target Generation:
This stage involves investigation of the geology throughmaps, geophysics, and testing the surface and
subsurface minerals of the area.
Resource Evaluation :
This stage lets you know the quality and quantity of the mineral in the area. This is achieved mainly
by drilling.
Reserve Definition:
Converts an ore resource to a mineral reserve. Similar to resource evaluation, except a lot more
detailed and thorough
Profit Planning :
This step involves planning out a mine to evaluate the economically recoverable portion of the
deposit.
Mine Construction:
This step is physically making the mine. You have to make itso there is access to an ore body.
Mining:
This step is the actual excavation of minerals from the ground. This is achieved in many different
ways,depending on what type of mine it is and whatyou want to take out of the ground
Ecological Rebuilding:
This means returning the land as much as you can to its former self, after all the mining is done.

Mining and quarrying methods-
The method used to extract minerals depends on the deposit size, shape, depth beneath the surface and
grade. A choice is made between surface mining and underground mining.
Surface mining is less expensive, safer and involves fewer complications with air, electricity, water
and rock handling. However,surface mining has a greater environmental impact than underground
mining. Thus, surface mining operations disturb the surface more seriously.
In open pit mines,extraction proceeds by drilling, blasting, loading, transporting and dumping the
ore out of the pit. In strip mining of coal, clay, bauxite, tar sands, phosphates, iron ores, etc.,
overburden is removed and dumped to the rear and the ore is scooped up and loaded into trucks.
Deep mines are extracted using underground minining methods. In most mines, ore extraction and
mine development involve drilling and blasting, and removal with mechanical diggers onto
underground railway cars or dump trucks that reach the surface through a shaft.
Hydraulic mining uses high-pressure water jets to wash soft sediments down an incline toward some
form of concentration plant, where dense mineral grains (such as gold) and soft mineral grains (such
as clay/kaolin) are separated.
Solution mining (leaching) involves dissolving the ore (Au, Ag, U,S, NaCl, etc.) with a liquid
(water,cyanide, etc.). If the ore is extracted on site with solution mining, it is called in-situ leaching.
General Impacts ofmining on the environment:
Energy Consumption:
Mining requires vast amounts of energy. The ore and rock has to be transported great distances by
large vehicles, which require a large amount of energy in the form of gasoline. Underground mines
need extensive hoisting systems to transport the minerals, which also require energy. Controlling the
temperature of mines deep underground is very energy consuming as well. Pneumatic equipment,
which is used a lot in the mining industry, also takes energy. Smelting ores and metal requires lots of
energy
Air:
Mining has a great effect on the quality of the air. Since mines need to blast through rock to get to an
ore, dust may be produced in the process. Coalmines release methane,which contributes to
environmental issues because it is a greenhouse gas. Non-vegetated or uncapped tailing dams release
dust, and when radioactive elements are found in the ore, radiation is emitted. Heavy metals, such as
sulphur dioxide, may be polluted into the air by unsafe smelter operations with insufficient
safeguards. The gold mining industry is one of the most destructive industries in the world, because of
all of the toxins that are released into the air. Acid rain and smog are also some side-effects of mining.
Water:
Mines use a lot of water,though some of the water is reusable. Sulphides-containing minerals
negatively impacts groundwater. This happens from both surface and underground mines. Another
way surface and underground water are affected is through tailing dams and waste rock heaps,
because they are a source of acidic drainage water. Leftover chemicaldeposits from explosives are
usually toxic, and increase the salinity of mine water,as well as contaminating it. Groundwater can be
directly contaminated through “in situ” mining, in which a solvent seeps into un-mined rock, leaching
minerals. Release of toxic chemicals into the water is obviously harmful for the flora and fauna of the
water bodies. Besides the pollution, mining processes require water from nearby water sources. For
example, water is used to wash impurities from the coal. The result is that the water content of the
river or lake from which water is being used gets reduced. Organisms in these water bodies do not
have enough water for their survival.
Previously buried metal sulfides are exposed during mining activities. When they come in contact
with the atmospheric oxygen, they get converted into strong sulphuric acid and metal oxides. Such
compounds get mixed up in the local waterways and contaminate local rivers with heavy metals.
Chemicals like mercury, cyanide, sulphuric acid, arsenic and methyl mercury are used in various
stages of mining. Most of the chemicals are released into nearby water bodies, and are responsible for
water pollution. In spite of tailings (pipes) being used to dispose these chemicals into the water

bodies, there is always a possibility of a leak. When the chemicals slowly percolate through the layers
of the earth, they reach the groundwater and pollute it.
Land:
There are many environmental concerns about the effects mining has on the land. Trees need to be cut
down in order to have a mine built, and whole forests could be destroyed. Mining involves moving
large quantities of rock, and in surface mining, overburden land impacts are immense. Mining
activities also may lead to erosion, which is dangerous and bad for the land. It destroys river banks,
and changes how the river flows, where it flows, what lives in it, etc. Despite measures being taken to
release the chemical waste into the nearby rivers through pipes, a large amount of chemicals still leak
out onto the land. This changes the chemical composition of the land. Besides this, since the
chemicals are poisonous, they make the soil unsuitable for plants to grow. Also, the organisms that
live in the soil find the polluted environment hostile for their survival.
Large-scale deforestation
Mining requires large areas of forest area to be cleared so that the land could be dug into by the
miners. For this reason, large-scale deforestation is required to be carried out in the areas where
mining has to be done. Besides clearing the mining area,vegetation in the adjoining areas also needs
to be cut in order to construct roads and residential facilities for the mine workers. The human
population brings along with it other activities that harm the environment. For example, various
activities at coal mines release dust and gas into the air. Thus, mining is one of the major causes of
deforestation and pollution.
Ecosystem Damage:
Mines are highly damaging to the ecosystems surrounding them. Many different types of mines affect
many different types of ecosystems. Many of the toxins and tailings that are discharged from the
mines can disrupt and disturb the way animals live, and their health. Mining can completely destroy
ecosystems by adding or taking out something from the animals’ everyday lives, therefore throwing
the whole thing out of balance.
Loss ofBiodiversity
The forests that are cleared for mining purposes are home to a large number of organisms.
Indiscriminate clearing of the forests leads to loss of habitat of a large number of animals. This puts
the survival of a large number of animal species at stake. The cutting down of trees in itself is a big
threat to a number of plants, trees,birds and animals that dwell in the forests.
Health and Safety:
Mining can be very safe,but often it is extremely dangerous.Underground mining is usually more
unsafe than surface because of the poor ventilation and visibility, as well as the rock fall hazards. The
biggest health risks are from dust,which can cause breathing problems. Sometimes the liquid waste
that is generated after the metals or minerals have been extracted is disposed in a mining pit. As the
pit gets filled up by the mine tailing, they become a stagnant pool of water. This becomes the breeding
ground for water-borne diseases causing insects and organisms like mosquitoes to flourish.
Impact on environment ofmining
Much of the impact of mining is obvious. The disruption of land otherwise suitable for agricultural,
urban or recreational use; the deterioration of the immediate environment through noise and airborne
dust; and the creation of ore of the most dangerous environments for workers and potentially
hazardous for the public are all environmental problems associated with mining.
In addition to the impact that mining activities may have on the, landscape, the environment may be
disrupted over a wider area by changes İn the distribution and chemistry of surface waters or ground
water. Water passing through the mines or dumps becomes acidified, later finding its way into rivers,
streams or the local groundwater system. Many streams can be affected by abandoned mine works.

Disposal ofmining wastes
Nearly all mining operations generate waste rock,often in very large amounts. Strip mining waste can
be used in reclamation, but an alternative method of disposal must be found for underground mining
operations and most kinds of open pit mining. Usually, this simply involves dumping the wastes İn
piles at the surface next to the mine workings.
Dredging and ocean mining
Dredging involves removing unconsolidated material from rivers, streams,lakes and shallows seas
with machines such as bucket-ladder dredge, drag-line dredge or suction dredge. There is no
mechanical pollution from dredging, but the process disperses large quantities of fine sands and silt
having severe effects on fish and other wild life that require clean water to survive. Ocean mining for
Mn nodules involves significant disruption to ocean water and biological system. Currents,
sedimentation patterns and erosion patterns are changed by ocean mining operations.
Well drilling and production
Drilling wells are used to explore and produce oil, gas, brine, geothermal fluids. Blow out and fire
hazards can create severe pollution. Oil and brine spillage and seepage must be carefully controlled.
Affects ofused resourceson the environment
The burning of fossil fuels in power stations, homes and automobile engines results İn gases,particles
and excess heat being emitted into the environment. The use of nuclear fuels generates toxic
radioactive waste products requiring special disposal. Oil refining and metal/mineral production also
generate wastes and pollutants.
Acid pollution
The most important pollutant of the hydrosphere is acid in the form of acid rain and acid mine
drainage. Acid mine drainage formed by dissolution of pyrite dissolves more pynte, thus accentuating
the effects.
Burning fossil fuels
The burning of fossil fuels in automobiles, power plants and heating systems creates air pollution. The
burning of solid waste and smelting also generates air pollution.
Disposal ofnuclear wastes
The mining and processing of uranium ores, the manufacture of nuclear fuels, the use of fuels in
nuclear power stations, and nuclear weapons manufacture all generate waste products requiring
disposal. The long-term disposal of radioactive wastes is still an unresolved problem.- Low-level
wastes generally have radioactivity less than 1000 times the acceptable level in the environment.
Large quantities of this type of waste are produced at uranium mines.. High-level radioactive wastes
from the nuclear power industry account for roughly 95% of the radioactivity.
Possible Solution for decreasing negative impact
To decrease negative impact on the environment without significantly disrupting the supply of
minerals.We believe this objective can be attained through a method of mining known as“sustainable
mining.
Sustainable mining is an effective way to reduce the impact of mining on the environment. It is a huge
step towards becoming more environmentally and ecologically-friendly. They will meet society’s
needs for minerals and metals, while demonstrating responsibility to social, economic and
environmental issues. They demonstrate these traits through exploring, discovering, developing,
producing, distributing and recycling the products. The mining companies should keep contributing to
the protection of the employees, communities, customers and the natural environment by promoting
the safe and environmentally-friendly production,use and recycling of metals and minerals,
minimizing effects on the environment through all stages of the mine’s development, from
exploration to closure, working with communities about the issues of abandoned mines, and using
new technology and innovations to practice continuous improvement.One of the chief problems of

sustainable mining is that the mining companies simply don’t have enough money to implement
sustainable mining without outside financial assistance. All non-essential mining must be reduced in
size to the absolute minimum possible.
As for the treatment of abandoned mine sites that contaminate the environment, there are several
different treatments for the different types of pollution .
Acid Mine Drainage:Acid mine drainage is currently treatable with several different chemicals that
neutralize the acid: calcium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, calcium oxide,sodium carbonate,sodium
hydroxide, and anhydrous ammonia.
Tailings: The disposal of tailings has always been difficult. In the past, they have been disposed in
numerous ways,almost none of them environmentally friendly: stored in ponds, dumped into rivers,
dumped into oceans, etc. However,there are two more eco-friendly and less unsightly methods that
can be used. The first is disposal into underground caverns or voids left from mines. This method is
good because it leeches fewer minerals into the water table, because it reduces the risk of the cavern
collapsing ,and because it hides the ugly tailings from view. The other method is depositing tailings
into abandoned open pit mines. The main advantages of this method are that it gets rid of the sight of
the tailings, and fills up the hole left from the open pit mine
Air pollution: Unfortunately, there is little we can do about pollution already in the atmosphere. All
we can do is prevent more from getting into it.
Land Pollution : Land pollution can be rectified through standard reclamation efforts;however it
must be made mandatory to reclaim abandoned mines.
Water Pollution:The majority of water pollution can be treated through neutralization. Other acidic
chemicals in the water can also be treated by being pumped to treatment plants
Conclusion
Mining Supporters includes mine employees, mining companies, investors, mining lobbyists, civilians
in favour of mining, and politicians in favour of using the “current methods of mining”.
Mining Companies: Mining companies support the current methods of mining for obvious reasons.
Mining is how they turn a profit. They believe that the benefits of mining [think money] far outweigh
the disadvantages.
Minerals are formed by inorganic processes of long duration. Minerals are exhaustible and non-
renewable resources. Extraction of minerals has increased at large scale to meeting the ever increasing
population of country. Due to improper and excessive use, minerals in certain regions are on the verge
of extinction. Hence,there is a need of conservation of minerals. Avoid use and acceptance of
minerals which are not essential. Modern technology plays an important role in the conservation of
minerals. Recycling is the perfect form of mineral reuse.
● Impact of human activities on environment;
Human activities have impacted the environment more than any other species, including
deforestation, natural resource depletion, reduced biodiversity, and pollution of the air, land and
water.
Humans have been impacting the environment for thousands of years; however, since the industrial
revolution in the 1800s, the impact has drastically increased due to increased population, industrial
manufacturing and agricultural practices.
As the human population has grown, the need for more land has caused an increase in the cutting
down of forest lands for habitation and farming.

The result has been an increase in soil erosion, an increase in species extinction from habitat loss, and
a reduction of oxygen supplied by the trees,as well as lower amounts of carbon dioxide being
removed from the atmosphere.
Much of the land that has been cleared is used for agriculture to feed Earth's growing population. To
increase output farmers have turned to chemical fertilizers and defoliants that pollute the soil and
watersheds. Increased production of limited types of crops and livestock for food has reduced the
amount of different plant and animal species on the planet.
Industrial and personal use of fossil fuels has dramatically increased the amount of air pollution in the
atmosphere while systematically using up the supply of the non-renewable resources such as coal, oil
and natural gas.
Some of the effects of human activities on the environment include global warming,
habitat destruction, land degradation, overpopulation, pollution and resource depletion.
These effects are a result of human activities such as intensive farming, overexploitation
of minerals and natural resources,industrialization, deforestation, illegal dumping of
waste materials, poor disposal of waste materials and overfishing.
Industrialization and intensive farming are huge contributors to air, soil and water
pollution. Greenhouse gases in large amounts, such as carbon dioxide and methane, cause
the Earth’s temperatures to rise, a phenomenon known as global warming.
According to a report by the Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, scientists are
95 percent certain that high levels of greenhouse gases are the cause of global warming,
which leads to climate change. Extreme weather conditions such as heavy snowfall, heavy
rainfall, heat waves and drought are all effects of global warming.
Poor disposal of waste products poses a serious risk to human health and the world’s
ecosystems. It also causes soil and water contamination, as well as air pollution.
Contaminated water causes infections, transmits diseases and pollutes ecosystems.
Effects such as land degradation and habitat destruction are a result of deforestation.
Species become endangered and at risk of becoming extinct. Deforestation also
contributes to soil erosion and can cause flooding. It also affects indigenous communities,
culturally and physically.
● Environment and economy interaction,
Latest scientific evidence confirms that we are now in an era when human activities are having a
significant global impact on Earth’s natural systems (the ‘Anthropocene’), leading to growing risk of
climate change and exceeding the Planetary Boundaries, with resulting socio-economic and political
impacts on development, leading to calls for a fast transition towards a low carbon, resource resilient
economy.
Therefore,the Environment-Economy Interactions research area welcomes submissions which
embrace heterodox ways to analyse the finance – growth – environment nexus, such as (but not
limited to):
● Methodological innovation for modelling the transition to low carbon, resource resilient
economies through green policies (e.g., fiscal, monetary) using different heterodox modelling
approaches in the simulation and computational areas (Agent Based Models, System
Dynamics, Network analysis);
● Understanding the role of modelling uncertainty (model structure, parameters,behaviours,
etc.) in the assessment of climate risks and costs, opening a dialogue among different

modelling approaches with the goal to leverage added value from mutual learning eventually
exploring advantages from integration;
● Evidence-based policies to finance the green economy, focusing on (i) the drivers and
bottlenecks which prevent actors and financial markets to mobilize capital into the green
sector and assets,disinvesting from the brown ones and reversing the current dysfunctional
market allocation, and (ii) the effects of alternative green fiscal and monetary policies,
regulations and incentives to unlock investors capital and promote the green transition;
● Carbon risk disclosure: development of tools for quantitative assessment of investors’
exposure to carbon stranded assets and the potential trickle down effects on the real economy,
and climate stress testing in order to understand the potential sources of instability (stranding
assets,green bubble) and how they may spread within the system;
● Climate finance policy network: analysis of the relation which characterized actors and
stakeholders involved in the green economy and in the policy arena,aimed at informing the
climate policy process and increasing the transparency towards the development of an
international governance for sustainability.
● introduction to environmental accounting.
Introduction :
The developing countries like India are facing the twin problem of protecting the environment and
promoting economic development. A trade-off between environmental protection and development is
required. A careful assessment of the benefits and costs of environmental damages is necessary to find
the safe limits of environmental degradation and the required level of development. This is where
Environmental accounting comes into picture.
So what exactly is environmental accounting?
Environment Accounting is the identification, collection, estimation, analysis, internal reporting, and
use of materials and energy flow information, environmental cost information, and other cost
information for both conventional and environmental decision-making within an organization, be it a
government or a corporate organisation.
Unless the proper accounting work is done either by the individual firm or by the Government itself, it
cannot be determined whether both have been fulfilling their responsibilities towards environment or
not. Therefore,the need of environmental accounting The joint workshops organised by the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank set out to examine the feasibility of

physical and monetary accounting in the area of natural resources and the environment and to develop
alternative macro indicators of environmentally adjusted and sustainable income and product. Parallel
to this revision, the statistical division of the United Nations (UNSTAT) has developed methodologies
for a system of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA), issued as an SNA
handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting which is used as a framework for
EA across the world.
In recent years there has been a trend in many public corporations to provide more information on
environmental matters both within the management accounting system and in annual reports. This is
in response to increased concern by the stakeholders and public awareness of environmental issues.
These factors have put pressure on listed corporations to measure environmental costs and expenses
and to develop and enhance environmental disclosure to different stakeholder groups. The process of
environmental accounting seeks to embed the responsibilities of the senior management towards
shareholders as well as other stakeholders in the company’s accounting and reporting procedures.
Environmental accounting reveals the environmental conservation activities undertaken by a company
or organization in a given period.
The range of environmental costs, energy and material use and waste disposal, insurance and fines
and penalties, shows participation of multiple disciplines, along with accounting sub-disciplines. The
yield of this effort is the decision support system, in which environmental impact can be determined
specifically in the following terms:
• Full cost accounting (FCC)
• Total cost assessment (TCA)
• Life-cycle costs (LCC)
• Life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA)
• Total quality environmental management. (TQEM)
An environmental accounting system is composed of environmentally differentiated conventional
accounting and ecological accounting.
* Environmentally differentiated accounting measures impacts of the natural environment on the
company in nominal or monetary terms.

* The ecological accounting measures the impact that the company has on the natural environment.
The measurement is usually in physical units.
Environmental accounting can be broken down into three different disciplines:
As environmental awareness continues to grow, so too have careers that account for the health and
well-being of the planet. Environmental or “green” accounting is an expanding field focused on
factors like resource management and environmental impact, in addition to a company’s revenue and
expenses.
“Green accounting demonstrates organizations’ commitment to the most important aspects of the
‘triple bottom line’: people, planet and profitability,” says Tim Gearty, national director and editor-in-
chief, Becker ProfessionalEducation CPA Exam Review.
Although the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics doesn’t forecast the growth of environmental
accountancy specifically, the agency predicts employment of accountants and auditors will grow 13%
from 2012 to 2022.
Why does green accounting matter?
Climate change will affect the quality of life on earth as well as economic factors. According to the
Climate Vulnerability Monitor report, the U.S. could lose 2% of its gross domestic product as a result
of droughts and water shortages by 2030.Investors are increasingly interested in corporate disclosures
of greenhouse gas emissions, water and energy consumption, waste creation and recycling, and
renewable energy use.
How does environmental accounting work?
In the private sector,green accountants may advise clients on the sustainability and environmental
impact of their decisions. As resources wane,environmental factors play an increasingly larger role in
the bottom line.
The Sustainability Accounting Standards Board, a U.S. nonprofit organization incorporated in 2011,
is currently developing industry-specific accounting standards for sustainability that can be used in
annual reports. One example is a Form 10-K, a detailed summary of a company’s business, risks and
results that most publicly traded companies must file with the U.S. Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC). “Without standards, the investment community cannot make meaningful ’apples-

to-apples’ comparisons of performance among companies and over time,” the SASB reports. Green
accountants are needed to make sure such standards are implemented and reported.
What does the future hold?
In 2013, the World Bank reported on the progress of five nations—Botswana, Colombia, Costa Rica,
Madagascar and the Philippines—implementing its Wealth Accounting and Valuation of Ecosystem
Services (WAVES) project.The goal of WAVES is to promote sustainable development by making
sure the value of natural resources is taken into account in the measure of, and plans for, economic
growth. Although sustainability reporting is voluntary under SEC guidelines, that could change. “If
history is any indicator, what is voluntary today may very well become mandated in the not-too-
distant future,” Gearty writes.
Environmental accounting is a subset of accounting proper, its target being to incorporate both
economic and environmental information.
Environmental accounting is a field that identifies resource use,measures and communicates costs of
a company’s or national economic impact on the environment. Costs include costs to clean up or
remediate contaminated sites, environmental fines, penalties and taxes,purchase of pollution
prevention technologies and waste management costs.
An environmental accounting system consists of environmentally differentiated conventional
accounting and ecological accounting. Environmentally differentiated accounting measures effects of
the natural environment on a company in monetary terms. Ecological accounting measures the
influence a company has on the environment, but in physical measurements.
There are severaladvantages environmental accounting brings to business; notably, the complete
costs, including environmental remediation and long term environmental consequences and
externalities can be quantified and addressed.
Environmental accounting is an important tool for understanding the role played by the natural
environment in the economy. Environmental accounts provide data which highlight both the
contribution of natural resources to economic well-being and the costs imposed by pollution or
resource degradation.
"Environmental accounting" - sometimes referred to as "green accounting", "resource accounting" or
"integrated economic and environmental accounting"

How To Get Started?
Successfulwork on environmental accounting depends on two crucial factors:
First, it must be focused on answering important policy questions. This ensures that the
accounting work responds to a real demand for policy guidance, and is not driven simply by a
desire to build databases.
Second, it must bring in the major players in the areas of environmental policy, economic policy,
national income accounting, and the development of information systems on the environment, the
economy, and the population. This ensures that people who could either use or provide the data
required will cooperate with and support the project.
The steps below suggest the activities which may be involved in initiating work on environmental
accounting:
● · Learn more about the subject, by reading and where possible by talking to others with
experience in the area. This learning should cover the purpose of the accounts, the policy
questions which they could answer,the different methods for structuring them, and so on.
● · Bring together the key players in the country and help them learn about the subject. Key
players may include representatives of the national accounting office, the national bank and
the ministries of environment, finance, planning, or economy; academics and researchers on
economy-environment linkages; and concerned environmental or sustainable development
organizations. Further decisions about the accounting project should be made by these key
players as a group.
● · Identify the pressing policy questions facing the country. Where is there a clear demand for
better understanding of the linkages between the environment and the economy? Are specific
resource-based sectors crucialto the economy? Are certain resources constraining economic
development? Are pollution problems growing in importance, affecting well-being, or
imposing excessive costs?
● · Select a sectoral focus and areas to work on which ensure that key policy issues will be
addressed.
● · Choose a methodological approach (or approaches) which will be practical and will also
enable the accounts to answer the key policy questions. This could involve following the
methodology of the SEEA, or it could involve some combination of approaches,depending
on the needs of the country and the questions to be answered.

● · Select an institution to carry out the initial accounting work. While in the long run
environmental accounts are likely to come under the purview of those responsible for national
accounting, often those groups are unwilling to initiate the work because it is perceived as too
experimental. Instead, initial work may be carried out by environment departments,
government-affiliated research groups,or other players who have a strong stake in the
outcome but take less risk by putting their name on experimental work. It is important that the
key players agree on an institution to take charge of this activity, one which will receive the
support and cooperation that the work requires.
● · Build a team to compile the accounts. It is likely to include staff of the institution leading the
effort, staff detailed from other key institutions, and consultants to provide technical expertise
on environmental accounting or on specific issues related to the environment. Team members
should have a strong grounding in economics and environmental issues, and should expect to
spend substantial amounts of time looking for data and using computers to manage and
manipulate them.
● · Build the first set of accounts. Like the national income accounts, environmental accounts
should be produced annually, or every few years,to develop time series data; thus the
accounting process is iterative. The first iteration will be a period of start-up and training,
when all of the players learn what is really involved and develop a deeper understanding of
the activity. The accounting team will want to set out the framework of the accounts and
begin compiling the data to fill it in.
● · Publish the initial results and disseminate them widely. Even if they are statistically weak, it
is crucial to publish them and use them to explore important policy questions from the start,
for severalreasons. First, wide dissemination of such publications will increase awareness of
the work and show how it can address policy questions. This will create additional political
and social support for institutionalizing the accounts. Second, publishing initial results based
on weak data is likely to help in identifying better data. Often data exist, but those who
control them do not see the connections to the accounting work, or are reluctant to make them
available.
● · In subsequent years, the focus of the accounting work will be determined by the outcome of
the first cycle of accounts. It will be important routinely to update the accounts,so that they
begin to present a record of how the economy-environment linkages are evolving over time.
In addition, areas where environmental costs or impacts are found to be particularly large may
warrant further work or additional primary data collection. Emerging policy concerns may be
introduced into the accounting framework. Special studies may be undertaken on particular
questions of policy importance.

*** UNIT - I END ***
*** UNIT - II START’S ***
UNIT II - ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
● Environmental Impact Assessment,
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely environmental impacts
of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-related socio-economic, cultural and
human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.
UNEP defines Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool used to identify the environmental,
social and economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making. It aims to predict environmental
impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find ways and means to reduce adverse
impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present the predictions and options to
decision-makers.
By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as reduced cost and
time of project implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and
regulations.
Although legislation and practice vary around the world, the fundamental components of an EIA
would necessarily involve the following stages:
a. Screening to determine which projects or developments require a full or partial impact
assessment study;
b. Scoping to identify which potential impacts are relevant to assess (based on legislative
requirements, international conventions, expert knowledge and public involvement), to
identify alternative solutions that avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts on
biodiversity (including the option of not proceeding with the development, finding
alternative designs or sites which avoid the impacts, incorporating safeguards in the design
of the project, or providing compensation for adverse impacts), and finally to derive terms
of reference for the impact assessment;
c. Assessment and evaluation ofimpacts and development ofalternatives,to predict and
identify the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, including
the detailed elaboration of alternatives;
d. Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report,including an
environmental management plan (EMP),and a non-technical summary for the general
audience.
e. Reviewofthe Environmental Impact Statement (EIS),based on the terms of reference
(scoping) and public (including authority) participation.
f. Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions;
and
g. Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether
the predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP.
Verify the compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or
failed mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.

● Environmental thresholds,
Ecological thresholds have been defined as the breaking points of ecosystems. At a threshold there is
an abrupt change in an ecosystem quality, property or phenomenon.
Thus small changes in an environmental driver can produce large responses in the ecosystem.
Ecological threshold is the point at which a relatively small change or disturbance in external
conditions causes a rapid change in an ecosystem.
When an ecological threshold has been passed, the ecosystem may no longer be able to return to its
state by means of its inherent resilience . Crossing an ecological threshold often leads to rapid change
of ecosystem health.
Ecological threshold represent a non-linearity of the responses in ecological or biological systems to
pressures caused by human activities or natural processes.
Critical load, tipping point and regime shift are examples of other closely related terms.
Characteristics:
● Thresholds can be characterized as points or as zones. Zone-type thresholds imply a gradual
shift or transition from one state to another rather than an abrupt change at a specific point.
● Ecological thresholds have caught attention because many cases of catastrophic worsening of
conditions have proved to be difficult or nearly impossible to remedy (also known as points of
no return). Ecological extinction is an example of a definitive point of no return.
● Ecological thresholds are often characterized by hysteresis, which means the dependence of
the state of a system on the history of its state. Even when the change is not irreversible, the
return path from altered to original state can be drastically different from the development
leading to the altered state.
● Another related concept is panarchy. Panarchy views coupled human-natural systems as a
cross-scale set of adaptive cycles that reflect the dynamic nature of human and natural
structures across time and space. Sudden shifts in ecosystem state can induce changes in
human understanding of the way the systems need to be managed.

● Environmental indicators,
Environmental indicators are simple measures that tell us what is happening in the environment.
Since the environment is very complex, indicators provide a more practical and economical way to
track the state of the environment than if we attempted to record every possible variable in the
environment.
For example, concentrations of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in the atmosphere, tracked over
time, is a good indicator with respect to the environmental issue of stratospheric ozone depletion..
Environmental indicators have been defined in different ways but common themes exist.
“An environmental indicator is a numerical value that helps provide insight into the state of the
environment or human health. Indicators are developed based on quantitative measurements or
statistics of environmental condition that are tracked over time. Environmental indicators can be
developed and used at a wide variety of geographic scales, from local to regional to national levels.”
1. Pollution/Emission
2. Climate Change
3. Depletion Of The Ozone Layer
4. Acidification Of The Environment
5. Eutrophication Of The Environment
6. Dispersion Of Toxic Substances
7. Disposal Of Solid Waste
8. Composite Pollution Index
9. Resource Depletion
10. Biodiversity
11. Human Impact/Exposure Indicators

● Environmental audits,
What is an environmental audit?
Environmental audits are tools which can quantify an organisational environmental performance and
position.
What are the different types of environmental audits?
There are three main types of audits:
1. environmental compliance audits,
2. environmental management audits to verify whether an organisation meets its stated
objectives, and,
3. functional environmental audits such as for water and electricity.
What are their benefits?
Benefits vary depending on the objectives and scope of the audit. Environmental auditing benefits
include:
Organisations understand howto meet their legal requirements;
Meeting specific statutory reporting requirements;
Organisations can demonstrate they are environmentally responsible;
Organisations can demonstrate their environmental policy is implemented;
Understanding environmental interactions ofproducts,services & activities,
Knowing their environmental risks are managed appropriately;
Understanding howto develop and implement an ISO 14001 EMS; and
Improving environmental performance and saving money.
Who should complete an environmental audit?
ISO 19011:2012 Guidelines for auditing management systems provides information regarding the
choice of Environmental Auditor.
Environmental Auditors should have personal attributes, such as ethics, open-mindedness,
perceptiveness and tact. They should understand audit principles, procedures and techniques, as well
as having gained experience through conducting audits. They should know the subject matter they are
auditing against and how this applies to different organisations.
Audit Team Leaders should be able to plan and resource effectively, have good communication and
leadership skills. Preferably Environmental Auditors should complete training and have attained an
appropriate level of education. A good Environmental Auditor should have adequate skills and
experience.

https://www.epa.vic.gov.au/~/media/Publications/1609.pdf
● environmental certification,
Environmental certification is a form of environmental regulation and development where a company
can voluntarily choose to comply with predefined processes or objectives set forth by the certification
service.
Most certification services have a logo (commonly known as an ecolabel) which can be applied to
products certified under their standards. This is seen as a form of corporate social responsibility
allowing companies to address their obligation to minimise the harmful impacts to the environment by
voluntarily following a set of externally set and measured objectives.
The primary motivations for many companies who choose to implement environmental certification
schemes are,to provide an ethical product for the consumers, increase sustainable development,
improve the image of the company, gain a better relationship with stakeholders and to make a higher
profit.
Many companies believe that the implementation of environmental certification programmes can lead
to an improved company image and generate competitive advantage.This is usually achieved through
the use of ecolabels which can be used on the company’s products, allowing the product to stand out
as being produced in an environmentally sound way. The ecolabels associated with environmental
certification inform consumers that the product in question has been verified by a third party auditor
as originating from an environmentally well managed company.
Therefore,the certificate gives an indication of good practice and provides the company a better
image. This approach allows consumers to steer their purchasing behaviour in a more environmentally
sound direction.
All environmental certification schemes attempt to provide organisations with an effective
environmental management system to help them to achieve environmental and economic goals.
Examples: - Carbon Trust Standard, EMAS - Eco-Management and Audit Scheme, Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC), ISO 14001, MCERTS
● life cycle analysis,

Life-cycle assessment (LCA,also known as life-cycle analysis,ecobalance,and cradle-to-grave
analysis)is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a product's
life from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair
and maintenance, and disposal or recycling. Designers use this process to help critique their products.
LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook on environmental concerns by:
● Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
● Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
● Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.
● environment and poverty links,
On 25th September 2015, 193 countries of the United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2030
agenda for Sustainable Development which contains 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

The first and the foremost Sustainable Development goal is to “End Poverty in all forms everywhere”.
there should not be any doubt that poor nations and poor people are more severely vulnerable to
effects of environmental damage than the rich.
In my viewpoint, it is very important for everyone to recognize that poverty and environmental issues
are interrelated. Poverty among people puts stress on the environment whereas environmental
problems cause severe suffering to the poor.
People, whether they be rich or poor, consume water,food, and natural resources in order to remain
alive. All economic activities are directly, indirectly or remotely based on natural resources and any
pressure on natural resources can cause environmental stress. Environmental damage can prevent
people, especially the poor, from having good and hygienic living standards.
Poverty often causes people to put relatively more pressure on the environment which results in larger
families (due to high death rates and insecurity), improper human waste disposal leading to unhealthy
living conditions, more pressure on fragile land to meet their needs, overexploitation of natural
resources and more deforestation. Insufficient knowledge about agricultural practices can also lead to
decline in crop yield and productivity etc.
I strongly believe that here cannot be any environmental solution without alleviating poverty from the
world.
Introduction—Linking the Environment and Poverty
Both environmental degradation and poverty alleviation are urgent global issues that have a lot in
common, but are often treated separately. Consider the following:
● Human activities are resulting in mass species extinction rates higher than ever before,
currently approaching 1000 times the normal rate;
● Human-induced climate change is threatening an even bleaker future;
● At the same time, the inequality of human societies is extreme:
Biological diversity allows a variety of species to all work together to help maintain the environment
without costly human intervention. We benefit because the environment sustains us with the variety of
resources produced.
The Impact of Poverty on the Environment
Poverty and third world debt has been shown to result in resource stripping just to survive or pay off
debts.
For example, Nepal and Bangladesh have suffered from various environmental problems such as
increasingly devastating floods, often believed to be resulting from large-scale deforestation.
Forests around the world face increased pressures from timber companies, agricultural businesses, and
local populations that use forest resources.
● Food is a commodity. …
● Much of the best agricultural land in the world is used to grow commodities
such as cotton, sisal, tea,tobacco, sugar cane,and cocoa,items which are non-
food products or are marginally nutritious, but for which there is a large market.

● Millions of acres of potentially productive farmland is used to pasture cattle, an
extremely inefficient use of land, water and energy, but one for which there is a
market in wealthy countries.
● In other words, if you don’t have the money to buy food, no one is going to
grow it for you.
● Put yet another way,you would not expect The Gap to manufacture clothes,
Adidas to manufacture sneakers,or IBM to provide computers for those people
earning $1.00 a day or less; likewise, you would not expect ADM (Supermarket
to the World) [A large food processing company] to produce food for them.
● What this means is that ending hunger requires doing away with poverty, or, at
the very least, ensuring that people have enough money or the means to acquire
it, to buy, and hence create a market demand for food.
THE LINKS BETWEEN POVERTY AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
1. In regard to non-renewable resource use,
2. In regard to the use of renewable resources,
3. In regard to waste generation,
4. In regard to greenhouse gas emissions,
● Environmental policy, Acts and regulations;
The Environment

It feels good to step outside and breathe a big breath of fresh air. Having clean air, clean water and an
environment free of toxins and pollutants has always been a desire of man.
Environmental legislation is the collection of laws and regulations pertaining to air quality, water
quality, the wilderness, endangered wildlife and other environmental factors. The umbrella of
environmental legislation covers many laws and regulations, yet they all work together toward a
common goal, which is regulating the interaction between man and the natural world to reduce threats
to the environment and increase public health.
let's look at an example. Let's say that an energy company wants to build a coal-burning power plant
to create electricity for the community. Where should this power plant be built? What type of
pollutants might result from the coal burning, and what measures will need to be taken to control
harmful emissions? If the power plant is built at the edge of town to lessen air pollution for the human
population, how will this impact lesser species that inhabit the land downwind of the plant? These are
all considerations to be evaluated within the scope of environmental law.
What is the National Environmental Policy Act?
The National Environmental Policy Act is a federal law that formally established a U.S. national
policy responsible for promoting the enhancement of the environment.
The National Environmental Policy Act,which was enacted on January 1st of 1970, also established
the President’s Council on Environmental Quality.
History ofthe National Environmental Policy Act:
The National Environmental policy Act of 1969 was enacted by the 91st United States Congress. The
legislation came into existence following increasing public awareness and appreciation for the
environment; growing concerning about the well-being of wildlife and ecosystems also contributed to
the passing of the National Environmental Policy Act 1969.
Basic Information Concerning the National Environmental Policy Act:
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 establishes the national environmental policy and the
coordinating goals for the protection, enhancement and maintenance of the environment. The National
Environmental Policy Act of 1969 also provides a formal process for implementing these goals within
the agencies of the United States FederalGovernment.
The National Environmental Policy Act contains three primary sections:
• The declaration of national policies and goals regarding the environment
• The establishment of action-forcing procedures and provisions; federal agencies are required
to enforce these policies and goals.
• The formal establishment of a Council on Environmental Quality; this office is positioned
within the Executive Office of the President.

The National Environmental Policy Act,to establish the nation’s environmental policy, offers a
multidisciplinary approach to assessing environmental effects with regard to federalgovernment
decision making.
Information Regarding the Council on Environmental Quality:
The Council on Environmental Quality oversees the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969. The
Council, which is headed by a Chairman, is responsible for fulfilling the following duties and
functions:
• The Council on Environmental Quality gathers information concerning the conditions and
trends regarding environmental quality
• Develops and promotes national policies to improve environmental quality
• Evaluates federalprograms in conjunction with the foals established in Title I of the National
Environmental Policy Act
• Conducts studies, research,analyses and surveys relating to environmental quality and the
nation’s ecosystems.
The National Environmental Policy Act’s Process:
There are three levels of evaluation within the National Environmental Policy Act: preparation of an
environmental assessment; categoricalexclusion of determination; and a preparation of environmental
impact statements.
India:-
● Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
● Biological Diversity Act, 2002
● Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
● Forest Conservation Act, 1980
● Hazardous Waste Handling and Management Act, 1989
● Indian Forest Act,1927
● National Green Tribunal Act,2010
● Noise Pollution rule
● Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act of 2001
● Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
● The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights)
Act, 2006
● Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution), 1974
● Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002
● Wildlife Protection Act of 1972
● Environmental education,
Environmental education increases public awareness and knowledge about environmental issues or
problems. In doing so, it provides the public with the necessary skills to make informed decisions and
take responsible action.
Environmental education is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage
in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a

deeper understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible
decisions.
The components of environmental education are:
● Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges
● Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges
● Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain
environmental quality
● Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges
● Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges
Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course of action. Rather,
environmental education teaches individuals how to weigh various sides of an issue through critical
thinking and it enhances their own problem-solving and decision-making skills.
Environmental awareness proves important for severalreasons; it fosters a sense of connection to the
natural world, promotes sustainable development and encourages conservation of irreplaceable natural
resources and vulnerable plant and animal species.
Environmental awareness essentially serves as an educational tool, helping people around the world
understand the economic, aesthetic and biological importance of preserving resources and reducing or
eliminating the harmful impacts of man-made alterations. Environmental awareness or education
helps people understand the consequences of human activities on various lands and identifies remedial
solutions.

● participatory approaches,
“A participatory approach is one in which everyone who has a stake in the intervention has a voice,
either in person or by representation.

Staff of the organization that will run it, members of the target population, community officials,
interested citizens, and people from involved agencies, schools, and other institutions all should be
invited to the table.
Everyone’s participation should be welcomed and respected,and the process shouldn’t be dominated
by any individual or group, or by a single point of view.” But in reality, “some people might not want
to be involved – they may feel it takes too much time, or they don’t have the skills needed. Particular
individuals or groups may feel left out and disrespected if they’re not invited to participate.
Some people’s opinions may be listened to more carefully than those of others. In some of these
situations, a participatory process can cause as many problems as never involving people at all. A
true participatory approach is one in which everyone’s perspective is considered. That doesn’t mean
that people can’t challenge others’ assumptions, or argue about what the best strategy might be. It
does mean, however, that everyone’s thoughts are respected,and it isn’t necessarily assumed that the
professionals or the well -educated automatically know what’s best. Everyone actually gets to
participate in the planning process, and has some role in decision-making.”
In the participatory approach, a public participation is the basic process that can be implemented.
Public participation can be defined as “forums for exchange that are organized for the purpose of
facilitating communication among government, citizens, stakeholders and interest groups, and
businesses regarding a specific decision or problem” (Wittmer et al., 2006, p. 2). This is a democratic
and transparent process that lead to higher compliance since citizens accept the outcomes as a product
of the democratic values (Ananda & Herath,2003; Rauschmayer & Risse, 2005).
There are severalways in which this process can be classified. According to Grifoni et al, there are
four kinds of participation: by feedback, consultation, negotiating and online interaction.
“future challenge in Italy is to overcome issues like accessibility, the costs of equipment and
telephone connections, computer illiteracy and to implement effective participation on these emerging
online tools that could have severalpositive effects both on transparency and involvement processes.
E-government in all countries is going in this direction with the aim to promote an inclusive
information society.”

Participatory approach can also be used in creating policies.
Participatory Policy-Making”, a generalprocess that illustrates a “policy-owning” government
includes the following steps:
● Make an initial analysis of the interests, influence and capacities and identify stakeholders
● Create a working group with representatives of the stakeholders
● Establish a dialogue or consultation meeting with the stakeholders including those that will be
affected
● “Design and implement a process whereby the working group can collect and analyze
informationon the policy issues at stake,including direct feedback”,review data and
interview key people
● Organize a feedback session to reflect on the implications between and among the
stakeholders
● “Facilitate a high-level workshop to hammer out the policy optionsand decide on the way
forward”
● Create and execute communication plans to inform the public and the progress of the policy
Aside from policy-making and programs, there are other ways to implement participatory approach.
In Tanzania, a participatory research was conducted to influence poverty reduction; in Mozambique, a
participatory development in land policy was established and an air quality policy was developed in
Chile.
● Environmental emerging concepts.
CURRENT ISSUES
The world has made considerable progress over the last 40 years which has resulted in many enviable
achievements. These include:
• Food production being doubled
• Infant mortality nearly halved
• Education enrollment for girls up four –fold
• Average life expectancy up 12 years (51 to 63)
• Average per capita consumption up 70%
• World population has reached 6 billion
Conversely a number of global environmental problems are growing more severe and are beginning to
threaten the ability of nations to meet the development goals of a growing human population.
These global environmental problems include:
• climate change
• loss of biological diversity
• land degradation and desertification
• deforestation and forest degradation

• pollution of fresh and marine waters
• depletion of stratospheric ozone and
• accumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
EMERGING CONCEPT / ISSUES
There is a global recognition that many of the environmental problems cannot be solved or minimized
with strategies that have been tried in the past. As a result changes are occurring in the international
sphere that we in Jamaica need to be aware of. Some of these are as follows:
• The growth of Green Consumerism particularly in the developed countries, has forced less
developed countries (LDCs) such as Jamaica to adhere to some very specific and stringent standards
in order to survive in the international trade markets. For example, there are requirements for certain
industries/entities to be ISO 14000 certified in order to access certain markets.
• Greater trend towards Green Certification in some sectors where those considerations were minimal
or completely absent. For example in the tourist sector,you have the following certification:
Green Globe Smart Voyager - Ecuador
Ecotel Green Leaf – Thailand
Blue Flag Sustainable Tourism - Costa Rica
• Greater role for public education and civil society involvement in environment and planning
decision-making. It is now generally accepted that broad public participation in policy development
combined with greater accountability is essential to achieving sustainable development. For this to
occur individuals, groups and organizations need to know about and participate in environment and
development decisions, particularly those which can affect their lives and communities.
• Wider demand and greater use of Environmental Impact Assessment and environmental audits.
• Healthier lifestyle pursuit resulting in greater demand for organic products.
• More profits being made from re-use and recycling initiatives with some countries actively
promoting the concept of “industrial ecology” and “zero-waste” factories. These factories reduce
waste by making production more efficient and converting waste into some other product.
• Many environmental problems are now being tackled from a system perspective rather than
focusing on solitary causes. For example New York City determined that its water supply was best
secured by acquiring and protecting lands around its upland waterways at a cost of $1.4 billion rather
than spending $4 billion to construct water treatment facilities which would cost anther $200-300
million annually in operating costs.
• Greater interest in community tourism and eco-tourist attractions. These represent potential sources
of revenue for national parks and protected areas management.
• More attention is being paid to Natural Resources Accounting/Green Accounting where natural
resources that are depleted and which was previously unvalued e.g. soil loss are now considered in
calculations of GDP and measures of economic growth.

• Increased cases of invasive species – new species introduced into an area intentionally or
unintentionally which poses a problem to existing biodiversity.
• Water use has grown six- fold over the last 70 years. Worldwide, 54% of the annual available fresh
water is being used, two thirds for agriculture. In the year 2000, 508 million people lived in 31water
stressed or water scarce country. The WHO estimates that 1.1 billion people do not have access to
clean water
• Between 1985 and 1995, food production lagged behind population growth in 64 of 105 developing
countries.
• More genetically modified organisms and foods being introduced.
• Trend towards increasing frequency and intensity of natural disasters across the globe. For example
hurricanes, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• International Agreements are having an increased impact on domestic practices and legislation. That
is there is a tendency towards global harmonization of procedures.
• Increased attention to strengthening the role of criminal law in the protection of the environment
particularly in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. At the World Summit
on Sustainable Development in South Africa last year a symposium of Chief Justices issued an action
plan, the Johannesburg Principles on the Role of Law and Sustainable Development. This action plan
is to strengthen the development, use and enforcement of environment- related laws in a move that
signals a new era in the quest to deliver sustainable development.
• Emergence/reemergence of Human,Animal and Plant Diseases. Infectious diseases are on the rise
and increasing level of resistance to drugs are making them more and more difficult to treat. The
concern over new viruses started with HIV/AIDS. More recently we have witnessed the emergence
of Mad Cow disease, the West Nile virus (1999), SARS, since November 2002 and Monkey Pox in
May 2003.
● Disaster classification, concepts,hazards, vulnerability, Risks,human response to disaster,
impacts
An Introduction to Disaster Management
Conceptand Meaning
A disaster is a consequence of a sudden disastrous event which seriously disrupts the
normal function of the society or the community to the extent that it cannot subsist
without outside help.
A disaster is not just the occurrence of an event such as an earthquake, flood, conflict,
health epidemic or an industrial accident; a disaster occurs if that event/process
negatively impacts human populations.

Disasters combine two elements: hazard, and the vulnerability of affected people. "A
disaster occurs when a hazard exposes the vulnerability of individuals and
communities in such a way that their lives are directly threatened or sufficient harm
has been done to their community's economic and social structure to undermine their
ability to survive.
A disaster can be defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as
earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon
that disasters can cause damage to life, property and destroy the economic, social and
cultural life of people.
Disaster is the exposure of a group of people to a hazard, leading to a serious
disruption of the functioning of a society and causing human, material, economic
environmental
losses which exceed the ability of the affected community or society to cope. A
disaster results from a combination of hazards and vulnerability that exceeds the
capacity of
a society to reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.
Hazard is an extreme event, natural or man-made , with a destructive potential to
social, economic and human assets. These may include future threats, and may be
“natural”
(geological, hydro meteorological and biological) or “man-made” (Conflict,
environmental degradation and technological hazards).
Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a
hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or
measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster
impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human
physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction
of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental
degradation.
A disaster is a calamitous, distressing, or ruinous effect of a disastrous event which
seriously affects or disrupts (or threaten to disrupt) the critical functions of a
community, society or system, for a period long enough to significantly harm it or
cause its failure. It is beyond the capapabilty of the local community to overcome it.
The stricken community needs extraordinary efforts to cope with it, often with outside
help or international aid.
It is a situation resulting from an environmental phenomenon or armed conflict that
produce stress, personal injury, physical damage, and economic disruption of great
magnitude.
Definition
The World Health Organisation (WHO) defines Disaster as "any occurrence that
causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and

health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from
outside the affected community or area."
Types of disasters
Disasters are broadly divided into two types:
1) Natural
2) Man made disasters.
Natural disasters
Natural disasters occur as the result of action of the natural forces and tend to be
accepted as unfortunate, but inevitable. They include:
Ø Famines
Ø Droughts
Ø Tornadoes,
Ø Hurricanes,
Ø Floods / Sea Surges / Tsunamis
Ø Volcanoes
Ø Snow storms,
Ø Earthquakes,
Famines may be defined as a persistent failure in food supplies over a prolonged
period. It is a phenomenon in which a large percentage of the populations of a region
or country are so undernourished and that death by starvation becomes increasingly
common. A famine weakens body resistance and leads to increases in infectious
diseases, especially cholera, dysentery, malaria, and smallpox. Famine is associated
with naturally-occurring crop failure due to draught and pestilence and artificially
with war and genocide.

Drought is lack or insufficiency of rain for an extended period of months or years
when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a
region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial
impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region.
A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land, producing measurable property
damage or forcing evacuation of people and vital resources. Floods are caused due to
heavy rainfall and the inadequate capacity of rivers to carry the high flood discharge.
Floods develop slowly as rivers swell during an extended period of rain. A flood
occurs when water overflows or inundates land that is normally dry. Mostly it
happens when rivers or streams overflow their banks.
Cyclones are strong winds that are formed over the oceans. The term "cyclone" refers
to all classes of storms with low atmospheric pressure at the centre, are formed when
an organized system of revolving winds, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere, anti-
clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, develops over tropical waters.
A hurricane is a huge storm. It is a powerful, spiraling storm that begins over a warm
sea, near the equator and accompanied by fierce winds, flash floods, mudslides and
huge waves.It is a low pressure, large scale weather system which derives its energy
from the latent heat of condensation of water vapor over warm tropical seas.
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling of the ground crust caused by the
collision of tectonic plates resulting in the abrupt displacement of rock masses.
Earthquakes result from the movement of one rock mass past another in response to
tectonic forces underneath the earth’s surface.
Volcanoes result when magma rises, pushes through a weakness in the Earth’s crust, and
spills out onto the surface,devastating anything in its path. The superheated rock is not the
only danger, however. Far below the earth’s surface,volcanic gasses are dissolved in the
magma. As the magma rises, it begins to cool down, and gas bubbles begin to form. This
makes the magma less dense than the surroundings, causing it to rise faster.
A third threat is a pyroclastic flow. This high speed ejection of hot gasses and debris
can travel in excess of 80 kilometers per hour and usually averages between 200 and
700 degrees Celsius. Not only does the pyroclastic flow travel too fast to be outran,
but it will incinerate everything in its path. pyroclastic
Man made disasters
Ø explosions,
Ø fires,
Ø release of toxic chemicals or radioactive materials(industrial accidents),

Ø dam failures
Ø nuclear reactor accidents
Ø wars
Disasterrisk/threats
The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services,
which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future
time period. Traditional disaster threats:
Most of the old disaster threats still exist like earthquakes, cyclones, volcanic
eruptions, tsunamis, wildfires, floods, landslides, and drought so do the man-made
ones like fire, explosions and other major accidents which cause heavy human
casualties, economic and social losses. These same traditional threats have increased
as increase in population has force people to settle in disaster prone areas which
increase the impact of disasters.
Modern disaster threats:
These consist of manmade events like hijacking, terrorism, civil unrest, terrorism and
conflict with conventional arms as well as chemical, biological, nuclear, or
radiological weapons. Increased social violence has drastically affected many nations
and communities.
Hazard
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss
of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and
services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Hazards are conditions that have the potential to harm to a community or environment
Geological Hazards
Geological process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.
These disasters include landmass related disasters like earthquakes, mudslides,
volcanoes etc,
Water and climatic Hazards (Hydro meteorological hazards)
These include storms, cyclones, floods etc
Chemical Hazards
By their nature, the manufacture, storage, and transport of chemicals are accidents
waiting to happen. Chemicals can be corrosive, toxic, and they may react, often
explosively. The impacts of chemical accidents can be deadly, for both human beings
and the environment.
Industrial/ Technological hazards

A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including accidents,
dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human activities, that may
cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.
These include industrial pollution, nuclear radiation, toxic wastes, dam failures,
transport accidents, factory explosions, fires, and chemical spills.
Biological hazards, also known as biohazards, refer to biological substances that
pose a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. This can
include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a
biological source) that can affect human health. It can also include substances harmful
to animals. Examples: anthrax, smallpox, plague, tularemia, brucellosis and
botulinism toxin, bird flu.
Disastermanagement
Definition and concept.
Disaster management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures
which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose of
avoiding, reducing the impact or recovering from its losses.
According to Kelly (1996),"Disaster management" can be defined as the range of
activities designed to maintain control over disaster and emergency situations and to
provide a framework for helping those who are at risk to avoid or recover from the
impact of the disaster.
Disaster management means managing resources and various responsibilities to deal
with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies. This may include preparedness before
disaster, response and recovery i.e. rebuilding and supporting society. The purpose of
this is to lessen the impact of disasters.
‘Disaster management can be defined as the organization and management of
resources and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in order to lessen the
impact of disasters.
The various aspects of disaster management:
Ø Disaster Prevention
Ø Disaster preparedness
Ø Disaster response
Ø Disaster mitigation
Ø Rehabilitation
Ø Reconstruction

The aims of disaster management are to:
Reduce (avoid, if possible) the potential losses from hazards;
Assure prompt and appropriate assistance to victims when necessary;
Achieve rapid and durable recovery.
Importance and relevance of disaster management in the present environmental
scenario
Over the past 20 years disasters have affected 4.4 billion people, caused $2 trillion of
damage and killed 1.3 million people. These losses have outstripped the total value of
official development assistance in the same period. Natural disasters
disproportionately affect people living in developing countries and the most
vulnerable communities within those countries. Over 95 per cent of people killed by
natural disasters are from developing countries (Extreme Weather and Natural
Disasters, 2012).
In developing countries, the incidence of natural disasters, the impact of climate
changes and the management of the natural environment strongly influence the rate of
development progress
In the decade 1990-2000, an average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about
30 million people were affected by disasters every year. The loss in terms of private,
community and public assets has been astronomical.
At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters. Even
as s scientific and material progress is made, the loss of lives and property due to
disasters has not decision. In fact, the human toll and economic losses have mounted.
It was in this background that the Nations General Assembly, in 1989, declared the
decade 1990-2000 as the International Natural Disaster Reduction with the objective
to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict economic damage through concerted
international action, especially in developing countries.
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique
geo-climatic condi-tions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have
been recurrent phenomena.
About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various intensities; over 40
million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to cyclones and
68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
Over the past couple of years, the Government of India has brought about a paradigm
shift in approach to disaster management. The new approach proceeds from the
conviction that develop cannot be sustainable unless disaster mitigation is built into
the development process.

Another stone of the approach is that mitigation has to be multi-disciplinary spanning
across all sectors. The new policy also emanates from the belief that investments in
mitigation are much cost effective than expenditure on relief and rehabilitation.
Disaster management occupies an important place in this country's policy framework
as it is poor and the under-privileged who are worst affected on account of
calamities/disasters.
The steps being taken by the Government emanate from the approach outlined above.
The app: has been translated into a National Disaster Framework [a roadmap]
covering institutional mechanic; disaster prevention strategy, early warning system,
disaster mitigation, preparedness and response human resource development.
The expected inputs, areas of intervention and agencies to be in at the National, State
and district levels have been identified and listed in the roadmap. This road has been
shared with all the State Governments and Union Territory Administrations.
Ministries Departments of Government of India, and the State Governments/UT
Administrations have been to develop their respective roadmaps taking the national
roadmap as a broad guideline. There is, therefore: now a common strategy
underpinning the action being taken by the entire participating organisation'
stakeholders.
The approachis being put into effect through:
(a) Institutional changes
(b) Enunciation of policy
(c) Legal and techno-legal framework
(d) Mainstreaming Mitigation into Development process
(e) Funding mechanism
(f) Specific schemes addressing mitigation
(g) Preparedness measures
(h) Community participation and capacity building
In India, the role of emergency management falls to National Disaster Management of
India, a government agency subordinate to the Ministry of Home Affairs. In recent
years, there has been a shift in emphasis, from response and recovery to strategic risk
management and reduction, and from a government-centered approach to
decentralized community participation.
Funding mechanisms
Bilateral-Aid i.e. foreign and local, national funding is being used to deal with
disasters especially the post disaster phase
Community based disaster management:

The role of community participation in disaster management is very important. When
the community becomes a part of the decision making system it ensures the
ownership and accountability. It is very important for the medical staff and doctors to
know the local language for treating the disaster victims. The local people have to be
trained to manage the disasters. One of the most effective mechanisms for a country
to prepare for a disaster is by conducting education and public awareness programmes
at the local community level, educating, preparing and supporting local populations
and communities in their everyday efforts to reduce risks and prepare their own local
response mechanisms to address disaster emergency situations.
Community based approach in disaster management is a process of educating and
empowering the population through sharing knowledge and information about the
various types of disasters and their potential risks as widely as possible so that people
act appropriately when a disaster happens. Members of a community are the
immediate victims of adverse effects of a disaster. They have the best knowledge
about their local surrounding in terms of the most disaster-prone areas, the
demography of their community and their social and traditional organisation.
*** UNIT - II END ***
UNIT III - CONCEPTS OF HAZARD
● Vulnerability,
Vulnerability is a concept which describes factors or constraints of an economic, social,
physical or geographic nature, which reduce the ability to prepare for and cope with the
impact of hazards.
The quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed,
either physically or emotionally.
‘conservation authorities have realized the vulnerability of the local population’
‘he is confined in isolation because of his vulnerability to infection’
Categories of Vulnerabilities
• Hazard-specific: – a characteristic which makes the element concerned susceptible to the
force/s or impact of a hazard. The geo-physical and locational attributes of the element/s
concerned are considered in this category. Based on the present-knowledge of the distribution
and frequency of hazards, a community or country may be threatened by specific hazards.
• Setting-specific: – this is concerned with the prevailing socio-economic arrangement of the
area concerned as to whether it is predominantly rural or urban. There are inherent setting

characteristics that may be common to both as well as exclusive to each which contribute to
the general susceptibility of the area.
Characteristics of Urban Setting Vulnerabilities
• Concentrations and Crowdedness - the three aspects are crowdedness and disease;
crowdedness and buildings; crowdedness and resource base.
• Numbers of Peoples and Activities - the two aspect of this condition are Technologies and
the Management System.
• Proximity to Man-made Hazards - the aspects considered are Technological hazards,
Economic hazards, and Social Hazards
● Risks,
A situation involving exposure to danger.
‘flouting the law was too much of a risk’
RISK is the probability that negative consequences may arise when hazards interact with
vulnerab le areas, people, property, environment. RISK is a concept which describes a
potential set of consequences that may arise from a given set of circumstances.
Hazard : potential threat to humans and their welfare
+
vulnerability : exposure and susceptibility to losses
=
risk : probability of hazard occurrence
disaster : realization of a risk

Vulnerability and Risk
What is Vulnerability
Vulnerability describes the characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or
asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. There are many aspects of
vulnerability, arising from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors.
Examples may include:
poor design and construction of buildings,
inadequate protection of assets,
lack of public information and awareness,
limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and
disregard for wise environmental management.
Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and over time. This definition
identifies vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest (community, system or
asset) which is independent of its exposure. However, in common use the word is often used
more broadly to include the element’s exposure.
The above explanation was taken from the United Nations (UN) International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR) Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. Follow the link to look
up other terminologies.
There are four (4) main types of vulnerability:
1. Physical Vulnerability may be determined by aspects such as population density levels,
remoteness of a settlement, the site, design and materials used for critical infrastructure and
for housing (UNISDR).
Example: Wooden homes are less likely to collapse in an earthquake, but are more vulnerable
to fire.
2. Social Vulnerability refers to the inability of people, organizations and societies to
withstand adverse impacts to hazards due to characteristics inherent in social interactions,
institutions and systems of cultural values. It is linked to the level of well being of
individuals, communities and society. It includes aspects related to levels of literacy and
education, the existence of peace and security, access to basic human rights, systems of good
governance, social equity, positive traditional values, customs and ideological beliefs and
overall collective organizational systems (UNISDR).
Example: When flooding occurs some citizens, such as children, elderly and differently-able,
may be unable to protect themselves or evacuate if necessary.
3. Economic Vulnerability. The level of vulnerability is highly dependent upon the
economic status of individuals, communities and nations The poor are usually more
vulnerable to disasters because they lack the resources to build sturdy structures and put other

engineering measures in place to protect themselves from being negatively impacted by
disasters.
Example: Poorer families may live in squatter settlements because they cannot afford to live
in safer (more expensive) areas.
4. Environmental Vulnerability. Natural resource depletion and resource degradation are
key aspects of environmental vulnerability.
Example: Wetlands, such as the Caroni Swamp, are sensitive to increasing salinity from sea
water, and pollution from stormwater runoff containing agricultural chemicals, eroded soils,
etc.
What is Risk
Risk (or more specifically, disaster risk) is the potential disaster losses (in terms of lives,
health status, livelihoods, assets and services) which could occur to a particular community or
a society over some specified future time period. (Reference UNISDR Terminology)
It considers the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries,
property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environmentally damaged) resulting
from interactions between natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
Risk can be calculated using the following equation: Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree
of Vulnerability.
There are different ways of dealing with risk, such as:
Risk Acceptance: an informed decision to accept the possible consequences and likelihood
of a particular risk.
Risk Avoidance: an informed decision to avoid involvement in activities leading to risk
realization.
Risk Reduction refers to the application of appropriate techniques to reduce the likelihood of
risk occurrence and its consequences.
Risk Transfer involves shifting of the burden of risk to another party. One of the most
common forms of risk transfer is Insurance.
● Natural Disasters (earthquake, Cyclone, Floods, Volcanoes), and
● Man Made Disaster ( Armed conflicts and civil strip, Technological
disasters, Human Settlement, Slow Disasters (famine, draught,
epidemics) and
● Rapid Onset Disasters(Air Crash, tidal waves, Tsunami) Risks,

Environment, development and disaster management 3rd sem

Environment, development and disaster management 3rd sem

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