Env edu 216 unit 2

Course Title: Environmental Education
Course Code : BED216 MM:100
GEETA DHASMANA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
FIMT
DELHI
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Objectives of the Course:
• To understand and reflect on the concept and
characteristics of environmental education from various
aspects.
• To develop awareness understanding and concern about
environment and associated problems, and to develop
knowledge, skills, attitudes, motivation and
commitment to work individually and collectively
towards their solutions and prevention of new ones.
• To do teaching learning about the environment, through
the environment and for the environment.
• To develop special skill needed to link theoretical
understanding with practical/applied aspects.

Unit II: Community Participation and Environment
• Community participation in natural resource management –
water, forests, etc.
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It is important that community leaders and project
managers are aware of what is happening within
their communities in order to make decisions that
are inclusive of all interested parties. Local
authorities must now evaluate the significance of
collaborative environmental management in light of
sustainable environmental management and
sustainable development. It is vital that government
institutions should work much more
closely with local people, NGOs and community-
based organisations to support community
structures and systems that have a direct impact on
common pool resources.
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•WHAT ARE GLOBAL FOREST WATCH (GFW) AND THE
GLOBAL FOREST RESOURCES ASSESSMENT (FRA)?
GFW is an independent online forest monitoring platform launched in
2014 by a consortium of partners led by the World Resources
Institute. GFW seeks to empower forest managers, law enforcement
officers and other forest stakeholders with free access to timely and
high resolution data about the current status of forests and recent
forest change. GFW uses satellite technology to monitor tree cover
loss worldwide with weekly and annual updates. The FRA, which the
FAO (Food & Agricultural Organization) has published at five- to 10-
year intervals since 1946, seeks to provide a consistent and
comprehensive approach to describing the world’s forests and how
they are changing. The most recent 2015 edition of the FRA included
national-level statistics on more than 100 ecological and socio-
economic variables reported by 234 countries and territories.

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What is considered a “forest”?
Every five years, the FRA publishes a statistic on the total area of
forest land worldwide. Based on past assessments, it also indicates
whether global forest area is increasing or decreasing over time.
These area measurements are based on a standardized definition of
“forest” adopted by the FAO in 2000, which takes into account
biophysical and land use criteria. The biophysical criterion
establishes minimum thresholds for the height, canopy cover and
extent of trees. The land use criterion requires that land be officially
or legally designated for a “forest use,” such as conservation or
harvest. Land that contains trees but is designated for agricultural or
urban uses – for example, an oil palm plantation or a city park –
would not be considered a forest.

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On the other hand, land that is temporarily devoid of trees – for
example, recently logged or burned areas – would still be classified
as forest if the official land use stipulates that trees will be allowed
to regenerate in the future.
GFW monitors tree cover change in near-real-time using satellites,
which cannot discern intended land use. Thus, GFW’s monitoring
systems rely entirely on biophysical criteria (height, canopy cover
and extent of trees).

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Change in forest cover (Globally) over time:
•Deforestation in New Zealand over the last centuries
•Deforestation in Europe between 900 and 1900
Source: https://ourworldindata.org/forests

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Difference between Forest Cover and Forest Area
The data on forest cover & forest area is compiled by the Forest
Survey of India (FSI) in the biennial Indian State of Forests Report.
As per this report, ‘forest cover’ includes all the land in the country
where the density of tree canopy is greater than 10% projected
vertically on the horizontal ground within a minimum areal extent of
one hectare. It should be noted that no distinction is made here on the
grounds of land ownership, legal status and the origin of the tree
crops. In other words, only the green cover is recorded in the satellite
as forest cover; be it private plantations or dense foliage in private
abandoned land. It also does not take into consideration those
stretches of land that has been statutorily notified as forest by the
government but, does not have adequate green canopy.

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Forest area on the other hand is used to refer to those geographical
areas of land which come under the management of the forest
department such as reserved forests, protected forests and
unclassified forests as mentioned under the provisions of the Indian
Forest Act, 1927. This considers the legal status of the land. The
categorisation made by the government is based on various factors
in order to ease the governance.

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India ranks 10th in the world in terms of the forest and tree cover
In terms of forest & tree cover, India ranks 10th in the world with
24.39% of the country’s geographical area under forest & tree
cover. As per the government’s press release, this is despite India
accounting for only 2.4% of the global surface area. Further, the
press release states that the cover sustains the needs of 17% of
global human population in addition to 18% of the global livestock
population.

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https://factly.in/has-indias-forest-cover-increased-over-the-
years/#:~:text=The%20total%20forest%20cover%20of,phase%20from%202007%20to%202011.

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Deforestation in the context of tribal life
Deforestation
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous
forests and wood lands. The FAO ( Food and Agriculture
Organization of the UN) defines tropical deforestation as “
change of forest with depletion of tree crown cover more than
90%” depletion of forest tree crown cover less than 90% is
considered forest degradation.

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Causes of deforestation
• The destruction of the forests is occurring due to various reasons,
one of the main reasons being the short term economic benefits.
Given below are some more common causes of deforestation:
Agriculture: Conversion of forests to agricultural land to
feed growing numbers of people
•Commercial logging: (which supplies the world market with
woods such as teak, mahogany and ebony) destroys trees as well
as opening up forest for agriculture. Cutting of trees for fire wood
and building material, the heavy lopping of foliage for fodder and
heavy grazing of saplings by domestic animals like goals.

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Causes of deforestation
• Mining
• Increase in population: The needs also increase and utilize forests
resources.
•Urbanization & industrialization
•Mineral exploration
•Construction of dam reservoirs
•Infrastructure development
•Forest fires
•Human encroachment & exploitation

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Effect of deforestation on tribal people
One person out of every 20 on earth belongs to indigenous
cultures found in about 70 countries. Many of earth’s tribal people,
representing 5,000 cultures, are vanishing as their lands are taken
for economic development. Large dams are being constructed on
environmentally sensitive sites, as in the Himalayas, or in heavily
forested areas, and are creating more ecological problems in the
long term and displacing large tribal population. Silent valley and
Bedthi projects have already been given up by the Kerala and
Karnataka governments respectively due to anti-dam campaigns.

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29/08/2020
Sustainable land use management
The United Nations defines sustainable land management (SLM) as
“the use of land resources, including soils, water, animals and plants,
for the production of goods to meet changing human needs, while
simultaneously ensuring the long-term productive potential of these
resources and the maintenance of their environmental functions”.
SLM encompasses established approaches such as soil and water
conservation, natural resource management and integrated
landscape management (ILM). It involves a holistic approach to
achieving productive and healthy ecosystems by integrating social,
economic, physical and biological needs and values, and it
contributes to sustainable and rural development.

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SLM is based on four principles:
•targeted policy and institutional support, including the
development of incentive mechanisms for SLM adoption and
income generation at the local level;
•land-user-driven and participatory approaches;
•the integrated use of natural resources on farms and at the
ecosystem scale; and
•multilevel, multi-stakeholder involvement and partnerships at all
levels – land users, technical experts and policy-makers.

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Sustainable land management combines technologies, policies, and
activities aimed at integrating socioeconomic principles with
environmental concerns, so as to simultaneously:
•maintain and enhance production (productivity)
•reduce the level of production risk, and enhance soil capacity to
buffer against degradation processes (stability/resilience)
•protect the potential of natural resources and prevent degradation of
soil and water quality (protection)
•be economically viable (viability)
•be socially acceptable, and assure access to the benefits from
improved land management (acceptability/equity)

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CRITERIA FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT
Experiences gained from field projects in developing and developed
countries has identified a series of principles (lessons learned) for
sustainable land management, and these can be used as general
guidelines for development projects (Dumanski, 1994; 1997; World
Bank, 1997). The most useful of these are summarised below:
Global concerns for sustainability
Sustainability can be achieved only through the collective efforts of
those immediately responsible for managing resources. This requires
a policy environment that empowers farmers and other, local
decision makers, to reap benefits for good land use decisions, but
also to be held responsible for inappropriate land uses.

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Integration of economic and environmental interests in a
comprehensive manner is necessary to achieve the objectives of
sustainable land management. This requires that environmental
concerns be given equal importance to economic performance in
evaluating the impacts of development projects, and that reliable
indicators of environmental performance be developed.
There is urgent need to resolve the global challenge to produce
more food to feed rapidly rising global populations, while at the
same time preserving the biological production potential, resilience,
and environmental maintenance systems of the land. Sustainable
land management, if properly designed and implemented, will
ensure that agriculture becomes a part of the environmental
solution, rather than remaining an environmental problem.

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Sustainable Agriculture
More ecologically balanced land management can achieve both
economic and environmental benefits, and this must be the foundation
(linch pin) for further rural interventions (investments). Without good
land management, other investments in the rural sector are likely to be
disappointing. At the same time, arguing for the continued maintenance
of agriculture without reference to environmental sustainability is
increasingly difficult. Indicators of land quality are needed to guide us
along the way.
Agricultural intensification is often necessary to achieve more
sustainable systems. This requires shifts to higher value production, or
higher yields with more inputs per unit of production and higher
standards of management (more knowledge intensive). However,
sustainable agriculture has to work within the bounds of nature not
against them. Many yield improvements can be achieved by optimizing
efficiency of external inputs rather than trying to maximize yields.

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The importance of off-farm income should not be underestimated
because it i) supplements cash flow on the farm, ii) generates an
investment environment for improved land management, and
therefore iii) reduce production pressures on land.
Sharing responsibilities for sustainability
Farmers and land managers must expand their knowledge of
sustainable technologies and implement improved procedures of
land stewardship. The preferred option is not to tell the farmer what
to do (command and control legislation), but to create an enabling
environment through policy interventions where farmers are more
free to make the right choice. A policy environment where farmers
are more empowered, but also held accountable, for achieving the
objectives of sustainable land management is essential.

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However, sustainable land management is the responsibility of all
segments of society. Governments must ensure that their policies
and programs do not create negative environmental impacts, and
society needs to define requirements for land maintenance and
develop a "social" discount rate for future land use options that
encourages the most sustainable use.
Concerns for sustainable land management go beyond agriculture to
include the legitimate interests of other aspects of land stewardship,
including wildlife, waterfowl and biodiversity management. There is
increasing evidence that society is demanding that farmers become
stewards of rural landscapes, and that agriculture become more
than simply putting food on the table. Many of society's
environmental values may not represent economic gains for farmers,
however, and farmers cannot shoulder all the costs of environmental
maintenance.

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https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/sustainable_land_management
.htm

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31/08/2020
Traditional knowledge and biodiversity
conservation

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Biological diversity and cultural diversity
Biological diversity that is seen today is the result of millions of years
of evolutionary process. Diversity is measured in terms of genetic
diversity (diversity within the species), species diversity (diversity at
species level), and ecosystem diversity. Conservation of Biological
diversity is essential in order to sustain the life of human beings as
well as other forms of life. Human race has been dependent on plants
both for their material needs and emotional needs since its evolution.
All over the world people have developed intimate relationship with
the surrounding vegetation? Such a close interaction prevails among
various tribal communities throughout the world even today. The
interaction has enabled to evolve a unique system of knowledge on
the utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources.

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Cultural diversity in terms of ethnic groups gives us knowledge on the
value of plant resources. The knowledge of ethnic groups on the
cultural, spiritual, social and economic values of plants can be of
immense use to the entire humankind. It can provide many valuable
genes for developing the crop plants that are extensively cultivated
today. It can equip the humankind with several new chemicals for
combating many human ailments. We have examples from throughout
the world where the ethnic knowledge has contributed for the
betterment of the modern world. A modern drug has been developed
and marketed for retention of memory from the semi aquatic
herb Bacopa monnieri that has been traditionally used in India for
enhancing the memory power. Similarly several new drugs have been
developed from the plants used by the Amazon tribals (Schultes,
1991). All these examples clearly give a message that the cultural
diversity is the prime source of the utilitarian aspects of plants.

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The very existence of cultural diversity is directly dependent on
biological diversity. This traditional ecological knowledge of ethnic
groups is not confined to mere sustenance only since the tribal
communities depend upon biological resources for their spiritual,
religious and cultural needs too. The tribal communities understand
all these as life sustaining resources. There fore they not only utilize
them but also conserve them. Erosion of either of this diversity
would greatly affect the humankind. Hence, both the biological and
cultural diversity should be considered as a unit for a meaningful
conservation. In this paper, observations on the conservation and
sustainable utilization practices of few southern Indian tribal
communities namely Gonds, Kolams, Pardhans, Koyas, Naikpods,
Konda Reddys and Lambadis of Andhra Pradesh and Irulas, Kadars,
Malasar, Malaimalasar, Malayalis, Muthuvans,
Paliyars and Pulayars of Tamilnadu are discussed.

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This documentation has made an impact on the tribal communities
in the sense that the tribes particularly the younger generation could
re-realize their knowledge potential on the plants and helped in
starting joint ventures towards the conservation, sustainable
utilization and equitable sharing of the plant genetic resources.

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Traditional Knowledge of tribes on medicinal plants
Medicinal properties of plants have been recognized and practiced by
tribal communities as a tradition for thousands of years. Knowledge on
some common medicinal plants of their locality is available with all the
members of the community. However, the elderly members possess a
great deal of knowledge of medicinal plants as well as on medicines for
curing certain life threatening diseases. Tribal people use plants solely
or in combination. Same plant may be used for different disorders: for
example Calotropis gigantea is used as vermicide and for chest
pain, Centella asiatica used for gynecological problems and for
jaundice, Dodonaea viscosa used for headache, stomach pain and
piles, Wrightia tinctoria for treating mumps and as lactagogue. In
certain cases a combination of different plants are used in the treatment
for e.g. Albizia lebbec together with Cassia fistula and Euphorbia
hirta is used for urinary disorder. And Capparis
zeylanica with Pongamia pinnata, Cissus
quandrangularis and Toddalia asiatica is used for venereal disease.

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Each tribe has its own method of collecting the plants as well
as the preparation of medicines. Dosage and duration of
medication depends on the age of the patient and the
intensity of disease. The tribes collect the plant part used for
medicine at a particular time like, either before flowering or
fruiting, or in a particular season.
Traditional agricultural practices of tribal communities
The knowledge of tribal people in traditional agriculture is
invaluable. Their farming practices are truly sustainable in
many ways. Tribal communities
namely Irulas, Malayalis and Muthuvas inhabiting Tamil
Nadu have been cultivating the traditional
cultivars viz. paddy, millets, pulses and vegetable crops.

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Their subsistence life style, local diet habits and dependence on rain
fed irrigation have influenced them to cultivate and conserve the
traditional cultivars or land races. Many crops such as Panicum
miliaceum, Echinocloa colona, Paspalum scrobiculatum and Setaria
italica are now cultivated and conserved only by the tribal people in
many parts of southern India. By selecting and conserving the seeds
from one season to the next, they have been able to sustain and
continue to be self-reliant. For e.g. healthy cobs are left in the field so
as to allow it to dry to the maximum days to make sure that no
moisture is left in the seeds. The selection of large and healthy seeds
and also the selection based on the color of the seeds (e.g. in case of
Castor seeds) have also helped them select more viable seeds. The
tribal communities prefer to continue the cultivation of traditional
cultivars, as these are ecologically suitable and economically viable
and valuable. The traditional cultivars and land races cultivated by
tribes are also drought and pest tolerant and disease resistant.

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The tribes also have practical reason for cultivating these
cultivars, which satisfy their high calorie requirements that are
required for their hard life. Pesticides and fertilizers are not
required.
The tribal communities practice a unique method of farming
namely mixed cropping system (MCS). The MCS enables them
to cultivate cereals, leafy vegetables, pulses and oil crops together
in limited area depending on monsoon rain. The practice is such
that the seeds of common millet, finger millet, grain and leaf
amaranth, pulses and castor are mixed together and broadcasted.
Initially the common millet is harvested followed by finger
millet. Edible leaves of Amaranth and seeds and pods of pulses
are used for daily consumption. Edible grains of amaranth are
harvested and stored for future use. Castor seeds are harvested
and used both for domestic consumption and for selling in the
market.

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The MCS not only helps in utilizing the seasonal rainfall but also
in keeping the soil unexposed thereby preventing topsoil erosion.
The combination of crops with legumes helps in nitrogen
fixation, thus maintaining the soil fertility. This not alone helps
them derive maximum benefits from their small land holdings but
also takes care of their food and economic requirements
throughout the year. Hence, this concept of MCS can be adopted
and introduced in places where rain fed agriculture is in practice.
Community co-operation and participation prevailing particularly
in Malayali tribal community has helped them in conserving the
traditional land races.

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The practice is such that every family in the community will
contribute a stipulated amount of their harvest to the community
granary maintained and managed by the chieftain of the hamlet.
During important occasions like marriages, social events and
festivals and also as and when some one needs for regular
consumption, grains can be borrowed on loan and paid back. This
system has enabled the tribals to conserve the seed material even
if the produce in a particular season is less or if the grains stored
for domestic consumption are exhausted. Contributions of the
above type of traditional knowledge enhance the sustainability of
their livelihoods.

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Traditional methods of storing seeds
Seed material for sowing and the grains for consumption, are
preserved in traditional granaries. These granaries are made of
bamboo and coated with red soil. The roof is conical which is
thatched with local grass. There is a free flow of air in the
granaries, which may be one of the reasons that the seeds could
remain viable till it is used next time. Another method of storing
is that the seeds are stored in earthen pots covered with a cotton
cloth. This indigenous practice has saved many varieties of
cereals, millets and legumes over many generations in Tamil
Nadu. This practice has enabled them to maintain, preserve and
conserve the genetic strains from extinction. Leaves of Neem
(Azadirachta indica) and Vitex (Vitex negundo) are used in the
granaries as insect and pest repellents.
http://www.legalserviceindia.com/article/l266-Biodiversity-and-Traditional-
Knowledge.html#:~:text=Biodiversity%20encompasses%20all%20species%20of,which%20they%20form%20a%20part.&text=Traditional%
20knowledge%20(TK)%20associated%20with,component%20of%20the%20resource%20itself.

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In India these systems can be classified in several ways:
# Religious traditions: temple forests, monastery forests, sanctified
and deified trees
# Traditional tribal traditions: sacred forests, sacred groves and
sacred trees
# Royal traditions: royal hunting preserves, elephant forests, royal
gardens etc.
# Livelihood traditions: forests and groves serving as cultural and
social space and source of livelihood products and services.
The traditions are also reflected in a variety of practices
regarding the use and management of trees, forests and water.
These include:
# Collection and management of wood and non-wood forest products.
# Traditional ethics, norms and practices for restraint use of forests,
water and other resources.

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# Traditional practices on protection, production and regeneration of
forests.
# Cultivation of useful trees in cultural landscapes and agro-forestry
systems
# Creation and maintenance of traditional water harvesting systems
such as tanks along with plantation of the tree groves in the proximity.
These systems support biodiversity, which is although less than
natural ecosystems but it helps reduce the harvest pressure. For
instance, there are 15 types of resource management practices that
result in biodiversity conservation and contribute to landscape
heterogeneity in arid ecosystems of Rajasthan. Environmental ethics
of Bisnoi community suggest compassion to wildlife, and forbid
felling of Prosopis cineraria trees found in the region. Bisnoi
teachings proclaim: "If one has to lose head (life) for saving a tree,
know that the bargain is inexpensive".

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You tube video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUhg3qxlgsQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGEhCG2eFrc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8esP2p6Xg60

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1/09/2020
Developmental projects, including Government initiatives and
their impact on biodiversity conservation
India is signatory to several major international conventions relating to
conservation and management of wildlife. Some of these are
Convention on Biological Diversity, Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) etc.
India is one among the 17 mega diverse countries of the world. But
many plants and animals are facing threat of extinction. To protect the
critically endangered and other threatened animal and plant species,
Government of India has adopted many steps, laws and policy
initiatives.
India is one among the 17 mega diverse countries of the world. But
many plants and animals are facing threat of extinction. To protect the
critically endangered and other threatened animal and plant species,
Government of India has adopted many steps, laws and policy
initiatives.

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Conservation of Biodiversity in India:
Project Tiger: Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India with the support of
WWF-International in 1973 and was the first such initiative aimed at protecting this key
species and all its habitats.
Crocodile Conservation: Crocodiles have been threatened as their skin is used for making
leather articles. This led to the near extinction of crocodiles in the wild in the 1960s in India. A
Crocodile Breeding and Conservation Program was initiated in 1975 to protect the remaining
population of crocodilians in their natural habitat and by creating breeding centers. It is
perhaps one of the most successful ex situ conservation breeding projects in the country.
Project Elephant: Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to ensure the long-term survival of a
viable population of elephants in their natural habitats in north and northeastern India and
south India. It is being implemented in 12 States.
Orissa – Olive Ridley Turtles: Every year at Gahirmatha and two other sites on the Orissa
coast, hundreds of thousands of Olive Ridley turtles congregate on the beach, between
December and April, for mass nesting. This was the largest nesting site for the Olive Ridleys in
the world. In 1999 by the end of March it was estimated that around 200,000 turtles had
nested at the Gahirmatha beach. Marine biologists believe that only one out of every 1000
eggs actually matures into an adult. There are severe threats to these nesting sites. Shrinking
nesting sites, construction of roads and buildings close to these rookeries, and other
infrastructure development projects hamper nesting.

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Trawler fishing is another large threat to the turtles. After its
‘discovery’ in 1974, the beach was notified as a Sanctuary (the
Bhitarkanaika Sanctuary) and was closed for hunting. Recognising the
threats to turtles from fishing by large trawlers, the Orissa Marine
Fisheries Regulation Act was passed in 1982. This Act prohibits
trawling within 10 km of the coastline throughout the state and makes
it mandatory for all trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs). In
2001, the State Government of Orissa declared that a five month period
between January to May should constitute a no-fishing season for a
distance of 20 km from the coastline. Apart form these initiatives;
Operation Kachhapa is being coordinated by the Wildlife Protection
Society of India, Delhi and Wildlife Society of Orissa with many
local NGOs as partners. The Orissa Forest Department, WII, Dehra
Dun and the Coast Guard are also involved in the Project.

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Ex-Situ Conservation: There are situations in which an endangered
species is so close to extinction that unless alternate methods are
instituted, the species may be rapidly driven to extinction. This strategy
is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e. outside its natural habitat in a
carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or a
zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the
species under artificially managed conditions.
There is also another form of preserving a plant by preserving its germ
plasm in a gene bank so that it can be used if needed in future. This is
even more expensive.
In India, successful ex situ conservation programs have been done for
all our three species of crocodiles. This has been highly successful.
Another recent success has been the breeding of the very rare pygmy
hog in Guwahati zoo. Delhi zoo has successfully bred the rare Manipur
brow antlered deer.

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Important Indian Acts passed related to Environment and Bio Diversity
Fisheries Act 1897
Indian Forests Act 1927
Mining and Mineral Development Regulation Act 1957
Prevention of cruelty to animals 1960
Wildlife protection act 1972
Water (prevention and control of pollution) act 1974
Forest Conservation Act 1980
Air (prevention and control of pollution) act 1981
Environment Protection Act 1986
Biological Diversity Act 2002
Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (recognition of rights) act 2006.
https://www.jagranjosh.com/general-knowledge/conservation-of-biodiversity-in-india-
1440678523-1

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http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/National_Biodiversity_Action_Plan.pdf

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Note:
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, encompasses the variety of all life
on earth. Biodiversity manifests itself at three levels: species
diversity which refers to the numbers and kinds of living organisms;
genetic diversity which refers to genetic variation within species; and
ecosystem diversity which denotes the variety of habitats, biological
communities and ecological processes.

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02/09/2020
• conservation
http://rvskvv.net/images/Environmental-
Science_23.04.2020.pdf

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Conservation:
CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT
By now, all of us have realized how important it is to protect the
environment for our own survival. The term ‘conservation’ of
environment relates to activities which can provide individual or
commercial benefits, but at the same time, prevent excessive use
leading to environmental damage.
Conservation may be distinguished from preservation, which is
considered to be “maintaining of nature as it is, or might have been
before the intervention of either human beings or natural forces.”
We know that natural resources are getting depleted and
environmental problems are increasing.
It is, therefore, necessary to conserve and protect our environment.

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Following practices help in protecting our environment:
1. Rotation of crops.
2. Judicious use of fertilizers, intensive cropping, proper drainage and
irrigation.
3. Treatment of sewage, so that it does not pollute the rivers and other
water bodies.
4. Composting organic solid waste for use as manure.
5. Planting trees in place of those removed for various purposes.
6. National parks and conservation forests should be established by the
government.
7. Harvesting of rain water.

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Some action points to protect or improve the environment:
(i) Dispose the waste after separating them into biodegradable and
non-biodegradable waste material.
(ii) Start a compost heap or use a compost bin. This can be used to
recycle waste food and other biodegradable materials.
(iii) Avoid unnecessary or wasteful packaging of products.
(iv) Reusable bags.
(v) Plant trees. They will help to absorb excess carbon dioxide.
(vi) Observe World Environment Day on 5th June.
(vii) Never put any leftover chemicals, used oils down the drain, toilet
or dump them on the ground or in water or burn them in the garden. If
you do so, it will cause pollution.
(viii) Don’t burn any waste, especially plastics, for the smoke may
contain polluting gases.

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Some action points to protect or improve the environment:
(ix) Use unleaded petrol and alternate sources of energy, and keep the
engine properly tuned and serviced and the tyres inflated to the right
pressure, so that vehicle runs efficiently.
(x) Avoid fast starts and sudden braking of automobiles.
(xi) Walk or cycle where it is safe to do so – walking is free; cycling
can help to keep you fit.
(xii) Use public transport wherever you can, or form a car pool for
everyday travel.
(xiii) Send your waste oil, old batteries and used tyres to a garage for
recycling or safe disposal; all these can cause serious pollution.

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CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Human beings have been directly or indirectly dependent on
biodiversity for sustenance to a considerable extent. However,
increasing population pressure and developmental activities have led
to large scale depletion of the natural resources. Conservation is the
protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and
natural resources such as forests and water. Through the conservation
of biodiversity and the survival of many species and habitats which
are threatened due to human activities can be ensured. There is an
urgent need, not only to manage and conserve the biotic wealth, but
also restore the degraded ecosystems.
Types of Conservation Conservation can broadly be divided into two
types:
1. In-situ conservation
2. Ex-situ conservation

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In-situ Conservation: In-situ conservation is on site
conservation or the conservation of genetic resources in
natural populations of plant or animal species, such as
forest genetic resources in natural populations of tree
species. It is the process of protecting an endangered
plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by
protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by
defending the species from predators. It is applied to
conservation of agricultural biodiversity in agro forestry
by farmers, especially those using unconventional
farming practices. In-situ conservation is being done by
declaring area as protected area.

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In India following types of natural habitats are being
maintained:
1. National Parks
INDIA has over 600 protected areas, which includes over 90 national
parks, over 500 animal sanctuaries and 15 biosphere reserves. A
national park is an area which is strictly reserved for the betterment
of the wildlife and where activities like forestry, grazing on
cultivation are not permitted. In these parks, even private ownership
rights are not allowed.
Their boundaries are well marked and circumscribed. They are
usually small reserves spreading in an area of 100 Sq. km. to 500 sq.
km. In national parks, the emphasis is on the preservation of a single
plant or animal species.

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2. Wildlife Sanctuaries:
A sanctuary is a protected area which is reserved for the
conservation of only animals and human activities like harvesting
of timber, collecting minor forest products and private ownership
rights are allowed as long as they do not interfere with well-being
of animals. Boundaries of sanctuaries are not well defined and
controlled biotic interference is permitted, e.g., tourist activity.

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3. Biosphere Reserves
It is a special category of protected areas where human population
also forms a part of the system. They are large protected area of
usually more than 5000 sq.km. A biosphere reserves has 3 parts-
core, buffer and transition zone.
1. Core zone is the inner zone; this is undisturbed and legally
protected area.
2. Buffer zone lies between the core and transition zone. Some
research and educational activities are permitted here.
3. Transition zone is the outermost part of biosphere reserves. Here
cropping, forestry, recreation, fishery and other activities are
allowed.

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The main functions of biodiversity reserves:
1. Conservation To ensure the conservation of ecosystem, species
and genetic resources.
2. Development To promote economic development, while
maintaining cultural, social and ecological identity.
3. Scientific Research To provide support for research related to
monitoring and education, local, national and global issues.
Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as ‘living laboratories’ for
testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water
and biodiversity.

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Advantages of in-situ conservation
1. The flora and fauna live in natural habitats without human
interference.
2. The life cycles of the organisms and their evolution progresses in a
natural way
3. In-situ conservation provides the required green cover and its
associated benefits to our environment.
4. It is less expensive and easy to manage.
5. The interests of the indigenous people are also protected.

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Ex-Situ Conservation
Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological
diversity outside their natural habitats. This involves conservation of
genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated or species, and
draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Such strategies
include establishment of botanical gardens, zoos, conservation
strands and gene, pollen seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA
banks.
i. Seed gene bank
These are cold storages where seeds are kept under controlled
temperature and humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store
the germ plasma of plants at low temperature. Seeds preserved under
controlled conditions (minus temperature) remain viable for long
durations of time.

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ii. Gene bank
Genetic variability also is preserved by gene bank under normal
growing conditions. These are cold storages where germ plam are
kept under controlled temperature and humidity for storage; this is an
important way of preserving the genetic resources.
iii. Cryopreservation
This is the newest application of technology for preservation of biotic
parts. This type of conservation is done at very low temperature (-
196°C) in liquid nitrogen. The metabolic activities of the organisms
are suspended under low temperature, which are later used for
research purposes.
iv. Tissue culture bank
Cryopreservation of disease free meristems is very helpful. Long
term culture of excised roots and shoots are maintained. Meristem
culture is very popular in plant propagation as it’s a virus and disease
free method of multiplication.

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v. Long term captive breeding
The method involves capture, maintenance and captive breeding on
long term basis of individuals of the endangered species which have
lost their habitat permanently or certain highly unfavourable
conditions are present in their habitat.
vi. Botanical gardens
A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables
are grown. The botanical gardens provide beauty and calm
environment. Most of them have started keeping exotic plants for
educational and research purposes.
vii. Animal Translocation
Release of animals in a new locality which come from anywhere
else. Translocation is carried in following cases
1. When a species on which an animal is dependent becomes rare.
2. When a species is endemic or restricted to a particular area.
3. Due to habit destruction and unfavourable environment
conditions.
4. Increase in population in an area.

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viii. Zoological Gardens
In zoos wild animals are maintained in captivity and conservation of
wild animals (rare, endangered species). The oldest zoo, the
Schonbrumm zoo which exists today also, was established in
VIENNA in 1759. In India, the 1st zoo came into existence at
BARRACKPORE in 1800. In world there are about 800 zoos.
Such zoos have about 3000 species of vertebrates. Some zoos
have undertaken captive breeding programmes.
Advantages of ex-situ preservation
1. It is useful for declining population of species.
2. Endangered animals on the verge of extinction are successfully
breeded.
3. Threatened species are breeded in captivity and then released in
the natural habitats.
4. Ex-situ centres offer the possibilities of observing wild animals,
which is otherwise not possible.
5. It is extremely useful for conducting research and scientific work
on different species.

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03/09/2020
• Issues involved in enforcement of environment legislations

10/16/2020 69
In pursuance of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act.
1974, the Central Government set up a Central Board for the
Prevention and Control of Water Pollution. Similar Boards were set
up in various States at different points of time when the Act was
adopted by the State Legislatures. Subsequently, the responsibility
for enforcement of the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act,
1981 was also entrusted with these organisations which were
renamed as the Central and State Pollution Control Boards. With
the enactment of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which is
an umbrella legislation, the Central Government assumed the
overall responsibility of “environmental protection and
improvement”.
Although the Act empowered the government to designate
Authorities for specific tasks, separate machinery for enforcement
of the Act was not set up or designated except the Central Ground
Water Board which was designated as the Central Ground Water
Authority.

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It is only in recent times, empowered Authorities have been
constituted for specific assignments which include the following:
(1) Environment Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority for
National Capital Region set up in January, 1998;
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(2) Loss of Ecology (Prevention of Pollution and Payment of
Compensation) Authority, Tamil Nadu.
(3) Coastal Zone Authority.
(4) Dahanu Taluka Environment (Protection) Authority,
Maharashtra.
(5) National Environment Appellate Authority.
(6) Taj Trapezium Zone Pollution (Prevention & Control) Authority.

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The powers of the Environment (Protection) Act have been
exercised by the Central Government through the Ministry of
Environment & Forests. However, the monitoring mechanism for
implementation of the Act is still undefined although for the various
regulations enforcement institutions have been enlisted. Also, in
several areas of environmental concern such as vehicular- pollution
control, the Ministry of Environment & Forests has no decisive role
since it is implemented by a separate Ministry through the Motor
Vehicles Act.

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Legal Loopholes:
It is often argued that our enforcement mechanism is very weak
although the laws are very well drawn up. But, a careful analysis of
the laws may reveal their inherent deficiencies which are closely
linked to lapses in enforcement. To make clear this issue, let us
refer to the Water Act, 1974.
The key person for enforcement of this Act is the Chairman of the
State Pollution Control Board who should be professionally
qualified and appointed on a full time basis. However, the Act does
not stipulate such requirement. Several State Pollution Control
Boards are headed by part-time Chairmen without requisite
qualifications and experience. Also, the Member Secretaries of the
Pollution Control Boards are often drawn either from
administrative service or even forest service who do not have the
requisite technical background in pollution control. As a result, it
becomes difficult for them to provide proper leadership and
guidance to their sub-ordinates.

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Besides the Chairman and Member Secretary, as per provisions of
the Act, the State Pollution Control Board is supposed to have 15
member’s nominated by the Government. Most of these part-time
members are drawn from Government Departments and local civic
authorities.
Many of these members, as pre-occupied as they are with their jobs,
find very little time for making any constructive contribution
towards effective functioning of the State Pollution Control Boards.
On the contrary, the State Pollution Control Boards are faced with
un-enviable situation of having such members who represent the
polluting public sector units and civic services. The enforcement
action in such situation is understandably weak.
Now, let us examine the legal provision for penal action against the
polluters. In accordance with the Act, the State Pollution Control
Board has to file a case before the lower court for action against a
polluting unit and the “onus of proof is vested with the Board. Unlike
the Public Interest Litigations (PILs) where the Supreme Court and

10/16/2020 74
the Green Benches of the High Courts have been paying special
attention in recent years, the lower courts are too busy to devote
enough time for environment related litigations.
As a result, thousands of cases filed by the State Pollution Control
Boards are still pending for years together. In a good number of
cases where decisions are taken, the polluters have been given the
benefit of doubt because of technical reasons as the Boards could
not adequately meet the “onus of proof. Also, there are cases where
the polluters even after conviction escaped deterrent penalties
through legal wrangles. More often than not, polluters hire highly
paid advocates to plead their cases whereas the State Boards are
unable to do so because of financial constraints.
No wonder why the State Pollution Control Boards are disenchanted
with the legal procedures which cause more harassment to the
Boards than to the polluters. This is also the reason why the Boards
prefer to take direct action (such as under Section 33A of the Water
Act) rather than moving to the Court although even in such cases

10/16/2020 75
the polluters can delay the action by seeking “stay order” from the
Court.
Yet another legal lacunae faced by the Pollution Control Boards
relates to prosecution against public servants. According to the
provisions of Sec. 197 of the Cr. P.C., permission from the
Government is required for prosecution of such persons and more
often than not it becomes difficult for the Boards to take legal action
against them.
Perhaps, the most serious lacunae in the Act is the over-dependence
on the legal system. In several countries, the pollution control
authorities are empowered to impose fines depending on the nature
and. extent of pollution caused. However, in India, the Pollution
Control Boards have to approach the judiciary for this purpose.
There are various provisions of the Act, though well-intentioned, are
difficult to enforce. For instance, according to Section 18 of the Act,
the Central Pollution Control Board can issue directions to the State

10/16/2020 76
Boards, which are binding on them. However, at the same time, the
Act makes it obligatory for the Boards to comply with the directions
of the concerned State Governments.
There are occasions when the directions of two authorities are not
mutually complementary and, at times, totally contradictory. The Act
also provides that in the event of failures on the part of the State
Boards, the Central Board can take over such functions of; the State
Boards with the approval of the Central Government. But, in reality,
it is impractical to enforce such provision of the Act.
Institutional infirmities:
Over the years, the Pollution Control Boards have been assigned the
responsibilities for enforcement of various environmental
regulations in addition to the Acts relating to water and air pollution
control.
Also, in a number of cases, the Boards are called upon to deal with
the issue such as municipal wastes, safety measures in factory
premises, vehicular pollution and traffic management although the

10/16/2020 77
agencies like Municipal Corporation, Factories Inspectorate and
Transport Authorities are responsible for enforcement of
regulations in their respective areas of work. With the increasing
expectations from general public and judiciary, as reflected through
plethora of Public Interest Litigations (PlLs), the Pollution Control
Boards are required to play a lead role through investigations,
suggestions for remedial measures and monitoring their
implementation.
The Pollution Control Boards are hardly equipped with the
necessary wherewithal to cope up with these daunting tasks.
Professional manpower and laboratory infrastructure for pollution
monitoring are the basic requirements for effective functioning of
the pollution control machinery. But, the Boards are dismally short
of such facilities because of dwindling budgetary support and
restrictions imposed on recruitment of personnel besides lack of
training and career opportunities for the existing staff.

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Planning and enforcement of anti-pollution measures require
sustained and cohesive team initiatives. But, the manner in which
the Boards are constituted and the time given to the Boards are not
in favour of such initiatives. As per provisions of the Act, the Boards
are constituted for a period of 3 years and even within this limited
period, the memberships of the Boards including the Chairmen and
Member Secretaries are frequently changed.
The Pollution Control Boards are expected to function as statutory
autonomous bodies. But, in reality, the Boards cannot function in
such a manner for various reasons including over-dependence on
the Government for their existence. For effective functioning, the
Pollution Control Boards should have the autonomy and over-
ridding powers to enforce the laws.
The Pollution Control Boards are expected to receive funds from the
Government exchequer for their Plan and Non-plan expenditure.
But, several State Governments have curbed and even totally
stopped the “grants-in-aid” to the Boards.

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As a result, the Boards have to meet their expenditure from the
reimbursement of the Cess collected through the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977 and the fees received for
processing the applications seeking ‘consent’ to discharge the
effluents.
The primary objective of the Water Cess Act were to augment the
resources of the Boards and to provide economic incentives by way
of giving rebate on Cess charges for installation and satisfactory
operation of effluent treatment plants. In the absence of
Government funding, the Boards have clutched on to Cess
collection as their major source of existence which is not obviously
serving the objectives of the Act.

10/16/2020 80
08/09/2020
•Role of media and ecotourism in creating environmental awareness
• Role of local bodies in environmental management
• Shifting cultivation and its impact on environment

10/16/2020 81
Role of media and ecotourism in creating environmental awareness:
One of the most effective way of getting the message across to
the largest possible audience in a country as vast and diverse like
India is through mass media, including television and the
English and vernacular/local press.
Both these media have the potential of being extremely
effective tools for environmental communication, but have not
been sufficiently exploited for this purpose so far. Most
environmental documentaries shown on TV today attract few
viewers because of the academic or pedantic manner in which
they are presented. Similarly, although many English
newspapers are now carrying more and more features on
environmental issues, they are usually superficially researched
and poorly written. Vernacular papers still carry very little or no
environmental news.

10/16/2020 82
From the issues like pollution to the climate change, the media
had been playing a vital role in creating awareness and raise
issues to the pertaining topic of environment. The media has
been pivotal in covering the entire country of India in raising
environment issues like drought in Gujarat, Air pollution in
Delhi, Ground water level depletion in Chennai and pollution
from coal mines in Jharia, west Bengal. It is still to be confirmed
that the role of mass media is one of the most important factors
underlying the knowledge of environmental problems: This can
only be true on the conditions that first, mass media are
accessible to large proportions of the population, second, are
spending some time on environmental issues and third, people
are interested in information on ecological issues provided by
the media so that they view or listen to the corresponding
programs as well as read newspaper articles or other written
publications dealing with environmental issues.
https://climatetrack.wordpress.com/2011/06/06/role-of-media-in-creating-environmental-awareness-or-issues-towards-climate-change/

10/16/2020 83
As far as the environmental issues are concerned, media either as a
risk communicator, or as a promoter of data, information and good
practices of any kind, should smooth the progress of people to
become more environmentally responsible and cultivate an
environmental awareness. Additionally, media could help people
associate reasons and effects, thus to get informed and to reflect
upon the given information, in order to understand the origins and
the causes of the major environmental problems. Generating public
awareness and environmental friendly behaviors is a complex and
multidimensional task. To achieve this, different kind of information
and ways of presentation should be exploited. There is a need to use
low cost and environmental friendly technologies in order to
cultivate ecological attitudes. All the aforementioned could be
accomplished by the use of digital media, and especially the
Internet. Firstly, the blending of text and multimedia contributes to
the presentation and decoding of complicated situations and events,

10/16/2020 84
and secondly, the proper choice of internet-based approach could
be low cost and “green”. Some Internet usages to raise the
environmental awareness are the following: Documentaries and
amateur videos: as mentioned before, exposing an environmental
situation or hazard could be a difficult endeavor. The power of
pictures and videos to illustrate, captivates or shock, is undoubtedly,
linked to understanding. Via the Internet, people have an instant,
cost free and unlimited access to a great number of environmental
documentaries or professional and amateur videos regarding nature
and its protection via apposite websites, like www.youtube.com or
similar.
Blogs, Wikis, Forums and educational portals : such websites, on the
one hand give access to an vast amount of information regarding the
planets and its protection, without any consumption of paper and
ink, and on the other hand, provide a virtual space of
communication and exchanging of information and ideas, without
the burden of traveling.

10/16/2020 85
Virtual environments and e-museums: which represent an attractive
alternative for the enhancement of the environmental awareness, as
the user has the opportunity to navigate and sometimes interact
with the presented environment. e-Learning : such educational
practice has a double impact on the enhancement of environmental
awareness. Firstly, it is an effective way for organizations and
academic institutes to reduce their carbon footprint, with the
elimination of face-to-face presence, and the paper and ink usage.
Secondly, over the Internet there are many available courses
regarding the nature, the environmental problems, the use of green
technologies, the ecological friendly agriculture, the ecotourism, etc.

10/16/2020 86
Ecotourism: Benefits in creating awareness and Preserving
Environment
Exploitation of Mother Nature in our quest for material wealth has
resulted in global warming and massive pollution of our
environment. There has been massive destruction of forest habitats
in the name of development and tourism. Fortunately, ecotourism is
emerging as one such responsible endeavor in India in order to undo
some of this damage.
Ecotourism can be defined as the travel of natural areas, which can
conserve the environment and can also improve the well being of
the local people. People are today more conscious about
undertaking ecotourism and their main aim is to ensure
environmental safety. This type of tourism involves different forms of
visiting natural areas, located in a rural environment or remote
wilderness. There are some major characteristics that should be the
main areas of concern in terms of eco travel zone.

10/16/2020 87
There are several significant characteristics, which are to be
considered in order to ensure the positive impact of ecotourism. This
field of eco travel involves traveling in ecologically sensitive zones,
which might result in minimizing the impact on the native people.
Moreover, you can also create environmental awareness to help
people realize the importance of the environment and natural
products and also the ways to preserve such natural treasures. You
can also provide direct financial benefits of ecotourism, under the
zone of conservation, which will empower and provide economic
benefits for the local people.
Being sensitive to local culture
Apart from the points mentioned above, there are some other
significant options, which are to be focused at, when the main area
of concern is related under the notion of eco travel. With proper
services, you will learn to respect the local culture and the
indigenous people, as well. Moreover, you will also support the
human rights and the movements, under the democratic rule in
order to protect the natural treasure of the world.

10/16/2020 88
You can start conserving the biological diversity area along with
cultural zones, under ecosystem protection. Moreover, you can even
take some time out from your busy schedule and enjoy the
promotion of the sustainable use, related with the zone of
biodiversity. This can take place by providing local jobs to the natives.
Empower the local communities
It has also been found out that sharing of some of the best social,
economic benefits can empower the local communities. This can also
help the indigenous people through informed consent and also
participation in the zone of ecotourism management enterprise. On
the other hand, you can also try and look for unspoiled natural
resources, which can easily give rise to minimal impact, related with
the environment, as this is the main concerned region. You can even
try and minimize the environmental impact due to tourism allotted
under the same zone.

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Minimize the environmental impact
It is also an inevitable truth that with proper eco travel services, the
adverse impact on the environment is going to lessen, as the people
are going to look for different ways to a safe environment. Moreover,
the main aim of such tour is to help in preserving the natural
environment from any natural and manmade calamity and also lack
of any waste due to extravagant lifestyle.
Preserve endangered animals
There is another major reason behind the growing popularity of the
eco travel zone. The wild animals are becoming extinct due to human
intervention and habitat destruction. Forests are lost forever and
wild animals are losing their habitat. By preserving wildlife
sanctuaries and enabling ecotourism, we can help prevent the death
of endangered animals and safeguarding them for future
generations.
https://www.caleidoscope.in/offbeat-travel/benefits-of-
ecotourism#:~:text=This%20type%20of%20tourism%20involves,rural%20environment%20or%20remote%20wilderness.&text=Moreover%2C%20you%20can%20also
%20create,to%20preserve%20such%20natural%20treasures.

10/16/2020 90
A Non-Governmental Organization is a social service organization
working towards a better society. Our mission is to address issues like
poverty and ignorance that are threatening and weakening our
country’s progress. The NGO’s constitute a worldwide net work
interacting with Governments and Internal intergovernmental
organization in shaping international environmental policies
1. Creating awareness among the public on current environmental
issues and solutions
2. Facilitating the participation of various categories of stakeholders
in the discussion on environmental issues.
3. Conducting participatory rural appraisal.
4. Being involved in the protection of human rights to have a clean
environment.
5. Protecting the natural resources and entrusting the equitable use
of resources.

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6. Data generation on natural resources, time line history of villages.
7. Analysis and monitoring of environmental quality.
8. Transferring information through newsletters, brochures, articles,
audio visuals, etc.
9. Organizing seminars, lectures and group discussion for promotion
of environmental awareness.
10. Helping the villages’ administrative officials in preparation,
application and execution of projects on environmental protection.

10/16/2020 92
Shifting cultivation and its impact on environment:
Shifting cultivation or Jhum cultivation (in Bangladesh)is a farming system where farmers
move on from one place to another when the land becomes exhausted. Shifting Cultivation
is often practiced by primitive tribes in the forested highlands of the Amazon Basin, Congo
Basin, etc. The most common form is slash-and-burn.
Shifting cultivation is an important form of primitive agricultural land use. In this system
forest area is cleared by slash and burn techniques. Till 1950’s shifting cultivation, under its
diverse forms of slash-and-burn system was a traditional method of cultivating tropical
highland and mountain soils, mostly for providing a minimum subsistence to the peasantry
(Jasbir Singh, 1997). For primitive cultures, the cultivation was a remarkable innovation
which is based on the revolutionary transition from forest based food gathering to
agriculture based food production. The cycle of rotation was also long having enough time
to regenerate the soil. This is how a nomadic cropping system for self-sufficient subsistence
economy developed with labour efficient systems. In course of time, various adverse
effects arise due to cultivation of Jhum. With the increasing population, more pressure on
land increased with shorter Jhum cycles. Short fallow periods are no longer adequate to
restore the soil productive capacity therefore, decline in crops yield arise. With the increase
in population pressure on the land and the Jhum cycle decreased. The main reason behind
the persistency of this system of cultivation lies in its compatibility with the physical
environment.

10/16/2020 93
The sparse population, steep and undulating topography, community land tenure system
and other aspects of socio-economy and cultural factors are some of the reasons that went
in its favours, in Northeast region where shifting cultivation is practiced by most of the hilly
people. There are various effects of shifting cultivation with large scale deforestation due to
this cultivation it occurs undesirable ecological imbalances. Since, the hill tops particularly
the catchments areas are the source of water, deforestation in the hills that lead to
elimination of the sources of water which increased the run-off due to consequent inability
of the soil to retain the water. The clearance of forest causes deforestation which
accelerates soil erosion and accentuates the variability in rainfall distribution. Burning of
Jhum land can be considered as one of the worst impact on climate because it gives scope
in high rate of soil erosion and soil erosion structural stability by runoff and winds. The
availability of water in the soil for the crop production also decreases which is vulnerable to
climatic variation. As the farmers cultivate the same plot of land for two years in some
village, fertility of the soil decreases with its debilitating impact of crop production. The
fragmentation of natural habitat loss native species and invasion of more exotic weeds
arise and burning down of sun-dried vegetation pollutes the air with carbon- monoxide,
nitrous oxide and many other harmful gases are some of the consequences of shifting
cultivation on environment.

10/16/2020 94
Impacts on environment:
1. Shifting cultivation has become non-sustainable.
2. Increase in population and pressure on agricultural land has brought huge forest under
shifting cultivation.
3. Mass destruction of forest cover leads to deforestation and loss of biodiversity on
environment.
4. Burning of Jhum is one of the worst impacts on climate as it produce huge junks of
smoke and released into the atmosphere.
5. Rising of a temperature by a few degrees Celsius.
6. Decline in soil fertility with low yield is common in all the ranges.
7. Late monsoon and warm climate.
8. Land degradation

10/16/2020 95
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/1
0603/48775/11/11%20chapter%204.pdf

10/16/2020 96
http://www.uniindia.com/shifting-cultivation-and-its-impact-on-
environment/east/news/1633299.html

Env edu 216 unit 2

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