This document is Jeffrey William Schultz's master's thesis project presented to California State Polytechnic University, Pomona in 2010. It investigates entropy generation during bubble separation in pool boiling through two different models. The first model derives an entropy generation rate equation using a pressure-volume approach and analyzes the resulting non-linear differential equation. The second model uses a net force approach to derive another entropy generation rate equation. While the derived equations do not support the initial hypothesis, one leads to a novel correlation that predicts experimental bubble departure radius data within 15%.
This document summarizes research on eddy current evaluation conducted by Ethan Gros. It includes calibration procedures for an eddy current probe and experiments to evaluate the effect of various factors on thickness measurements. The experiments measured film thicknesses on aluminum alloy samples with known thickness values to determine accuracy and repeatability. Results showed the probe could measure thickness within 5-15% error depending on the film thickness value. Further experiments evaluated how conductivity, proximity to edges, surface finish, and cable condition affected measurements.
Predicting lead poisoning levels in chicago neighborhoods capstoneCarlos Ardila
This capstone project examines health indicators and demographic data aggregated by the community from 2006 to 2013 and compares the percent of children with elevated blood lead levels (BLL) with building permits, code violations, and HUD-Section 8 subsidized housing data from the same period. The project uses various statistical techniques and was produced as part of the MS Predictive Analytics Capstone Requirement.
17 water qp_-_igcse_cie_chemistry_-_extended_theory_paperyasminexxy1
This document contains 6 chemistry exam questions about water and air. The questions cover topics like chemical tests for water, water treatment processes, the water cycle, ozone in the atmosphere, air pollution, and reactions of different oxides with acids and bases. Students are required to describe, explain, state, name and complete equations. The test is designed to assess students' understanding of key concepts regarding water and air composition, properties and industrial/domestic applications.
Heat and mass transfer from aerosol bound species, for application in the solar seeded reactor. Supervisors – Prof. Yinon Rudich, Prof. Jacob Karni
A method for measuring the sherwood number of aerosols was developed, utilizing an Aerosol mass spectrometer, a thermal denuder, and a differential mobility analyzer and a condensation particle counter. The goal is to use the measured sherwood number for predicting the nusselt number through the heat to mass analogy, as described in the text.
Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport practice questionsMrs Parker
This document contains a practice exam on the topics of diffusion, osmosis, and active transport for GCSE Biology students. It consists of 8 multiple choice and short answer questions covering these topics as they relate to cell structures, transport across membranes, experiments investigating rates of diffusion and osmosis, and human kidney function. The exam tests understanding of key terminology, processes, and applications of diffusion, osmosis and active transport. It provides data, diagrams, and questions requiring calculations, explanations, analyses, and drawings.
Assessment of Risk Perception Based Upon Prior Flood Occurrences in the Regio...Bill Bass
This research was done as part of my masters thesis work. It involves the use of cartographic visualization to determine how such methods and one\'s experiences with prior events influence accurate risk perception.
Reproduction practice questions - plant focusMrs Parker
The document discusses various aspects of plant reproduction through diagrams and descriptions. It addresses pollination methods in sugar cane and other wind-dispersed flowers. It also examines the variation in heights of groundsel plants that germinated in the same conditions and the roles of insect pollination. Seeds can form with or without insect visits through self-pollination. A diagram shows a bee transferring pollen between flowers and enabling fertilization and fruit and seed development, making the offspring similar but not identical.
This dissertation examines the use of biospectroscopy techniques for cervical cancer screening and treatment monitoring. Two projects are described. Project One uses infrared spectroscopy to track the impact of excisional treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. It analyzes patient characteristics like smoking and menstrual phase that may influence treatment outcomes. Project Two evaluates scanning near-field optical microscopy coupled to a free electron laser for infrared imaging of cervical tissue, as a potential alternative screening approach. The aims are to develop non-invasive methods for early cancer detection and improved treatment monitoring.
This document summarizes research on eddy current evaluation conducted by Ethan Gros. It includes calibration procedures for an eddy current probe and experiments to evaluate the effect of various factors on thickness measurements. The experiments measured film thicknesses on aluminum alloy samples with known thickness values to determine accuracy and repeatability. Results showed the probe could measure thickness within 5-15% error depending on the film thickness value. Further experiments evaluated how conductivity, proximity to edges, surface finish, and cable condition affected measurements.
Predicting lead poisoning levels in chicago neighborhoods capstoneCarlos Ardila
This capstone project examines health indicators and demographic data aggregated by the community from 2006 to 2013 and compares the percent of children with elevated blood lead levels (BLL) with building permits, code violations, and HUD-Section 8 subsidized housing data from the same period. The project uses various statistical techniques and was produced as part of the MS Predictive Analytics Capstone Requirement.
17 water qp_-_igcse_cie_chemistry_-_extended_theory_paperyasminexxy1
This document contains 6 chemistry exam questions about water and air. The questions cover topics like chemical tests for water, water treatment processes, the water cycle, ozone in the atmosphere, air pollution, and reactions of different oxides with acids and bases. Students are required to describe, explain, state, name and complete equations. The test is designed to assess students' understanding of key concepts regarding water and air composition, properties and industrial/domestic applications.
Heat and mass transfer from aerosol bound species, for application in the solar seeded reactor. Supervisors – Prof. Yinon Rudich, Prof. Jacob Karni
A method for measuring the sherwood number of aerosols was developed, utilizing an Aerosol mass spectrometer, a thermal denuder, and a differential mobility analyzer and a condensation particle counter. The goal is to use the measured sherwood number for predicting the nusselt number through the heat to mass analogy, as described in the text.
Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport practice questionsMrs Parker
This document contains a practice exam on the topics of diffusion, osmosis, and active transport for GCSE Biology students. It consists of 8 multiple choice and short answer questions covering these topics as they relate to cell structures, transport across membranes, experiments investigating rates of diffusion and osmosis, and human kidney function. The exam tests understanding of key terminology, processes, and applications of diffusion, osmosis and active transport. It provides data, diagrams, and questions requiring calculations, explanations, analyses, and drawings.
Assessment of Risk Perception Based Upon Prior Flood Occurrences in the Regio...Bill Bass
This research was done as part of my masters thesis work. It involves the use of cartographic visualization to determine how such methods and one\'s experiences with prior events influence accurate risk perception.
Reproduction practice questions - plant focusMrs Parker
The document discusses various aspects of plant reproduction through diagrams and descriptions. It addresses pollination methods in sugar cane and other wind-dispersed flowers. It also examines the variation in heights of groundsel plants that germinated in the same conditions and the roles of insect pollination. Seeds can form with or without insect visits through self-pollination. A diagram shows a bee transferring pollen between flowers and enabling fertilization and fruit and seed development, making the offspring similar but not identical.
This dissertation examines the use of biospectroscopy techniques for cervical cancer screening and treatment monitoring. Two projects are described. Project One uses infrared spectroscopy to track the impact of excisional treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. It analyzes patient characteristics like smoking and menstrual phase that may influence treatment outcomes. Project Two evaluates scanning near-field optical microscopy coupled to a free electron laser for infrared imaging of cervical tissue, as a potential alternative screening approach. The aims are to develop non-invasive methods for early cancer detection and improved treatment monitoring.
This review analyzed 7 randomized controlled trials involving 581 infants with mild to moderate acute viral bronchiolitis. The review found that nebulized 3% saline solution was associated with a shorter hospital stay compared to 0.9% saline. 3% saline also improved clinical severity scores over the first 3 days of treatment compared to 0.9% saline. No significant adverse events were reported with 3% saline.
This document is Apple's memorandum in response to the proposed injunctions from the United States and state plaintiffs regarding two antitrust lawsuits against Apple and several major book publishers. Apple argues the proposed injunctions are overly broad, punitive, and unnecessary. The injunctions would inappropriately regulate Apple's businesses well beyond e-books and the conduct at issue in the lawsuits. They also impose an unprecedented 10-year external monitor over Apple, which is unjustified and would chill lawful competition. Apple proposes a more tailored alternative remedy.
This document provides an analysis of hazardous material spills in California between 2006 and 2014, with a focus on spills related to oil and gas production. It finds that while spill frequency remained constant, total spill volume increased 69% from 2013 to 2014. The analysis examines spill characteristics like location, materials spilled, containment, impacts on water bodies, injuries/fatalities, and cleanup services. Spatial analysis of spills in Kern County shows they decreased along with declining oil production. The document also seeks to determine if unconventional production methods like hydraulic fracturing are linked to more spills than conventional methods, but data limitations prevent a clear statistical analysis. Recommendations are provided to improve spill and well data collection and accessibility.
This document provides recommendations for the production, control, and regulation of human plasma for fractionation. It covers appropriate donor selection and screening, production methods, collection, separation, freezing and storage of plasma. The goal is to exclude infectious donations and ensure plasma is produced according to good manufacturing practices. Precautions are outlined to prevent transmission of pathogens from blood and plasma through proper donor screening, epidemiological surveillance, adherence to procedures, and testing and quality control of plasma units.
The engagement of civil society in the decennial safety reviews of the Fessenheim nuclear power plant in France involved the Local Information Commission of Fessenheim (CLI) commissioning external expert assessments of the reviews. This process was part of broader efforts in France from the 1980s to 2010s to open nuclear governance to civil society. The CLI participated in all three reviews from 1989 to 2012. A national process from 2009 further facilitated CLIs' involvement in reviews across France. Analysis found the process contributed to understanding of safety, defining safety as a public concern, and building some trust between actors.
This document is a thesis submitted by Aaron Outhwaite to Dalhousie University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Applied Sciences degree. The thesis characterizes the design and modeling of a building-integrated microalgae photobioreactor (BIMP) system. It discusses BIMP design fundamentals, including growth limiting factors like light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon. It also covers BIMP modeling fundamentals, growth rate expressions, and dynamics of light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon dioxide in the system. Several chapters then present mathematical models of light and temperature dynamics in a BIMP and results of the models.
This review evaluated the effects of vaccines against influenza in healthy adults. The review found that inactivated influenza vaccines were 30% effective at preventing influenza-like illness and 80% effective at preventing influenza when the vaccine strain matched the circulating strain. Vaccine effectiveness decreased to 50% when the strain did not match. Vaccination had a modest effect on reducing time off work but there was not enough evidence to determine the impact on hospitalizations or complications. Inactivated vaccines were generally well-tolerated though they could cause local reactions. Whole virus vaccines matching the pandemic strain provided high efficacy against the 1968-1969 pandemic. However, the review concluded that there is not enough evidence to determine whether routine influenza vaccination of healthy adults is effective.
This document presents a thesis investigating a new technique to determine the dynamic tensile behavior of brittle materials using a modified Kolsky bar setup. The thesis was prepared by Andrew Dean in partial fulfillment of an MS degree in Mechanical and Energy Engineering at the University of North Texas in May 2016. The thesis acknowledges funding and support from the Air Force Research Lab, Army Engineer Research and Development Center, and University of North Texas. It includes chapters reviewing literature on Kolsky bar testing, the spall technique, and the experimental setup developed which utilizes pulse shaping and laser/DIC measurements to achieve a controlled spall for validating tensile strength results.
This document appears to be an abridged translation of a book titled "A'MAALE QUR'AANI" by Hadhrat Moulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi (RA) that provides remedies and prescriptions from verses of the Holy Quran for various purposes and ailments. It contains over 110 entries listing Quranic verses or chapters along with their significance or effectiveness for issues like calamities, pardon, intercession, steadfastness, memory, marriage, children, sustenance, business, sickness, protection from harm and more. The remedies are suggested to be effective if the relevant verses are recited in various situations.
This review evaluated the effects of influenza vaccination for healthcare workers who work with the elderly. The review found:
1) Healthcare worker vaccination appears to reduce influenza-like illness in the elderly only when elderly patients are also vaccinated.
2) Vaccination showed no effect on reducing influenza when elderly patients were not vaccinated.
3) Vaccines were found to have no effect on influenza or respiratory infections but did find effects on reducing pneumonia deaths and overall deaths.
4) However, the findings have high selection bias so no credible conclusions can be drawn about the effects of healthcare worker vaccination on influenza complications in the elderly.
This document is a thesis submitted by Yishi Lee to Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering Physics. The thesis developed a new 3-D model of the high-latitude ionosphere to study the coupling between the ionosphere, magnetosphere, and neutral atmosphere. The model consists of equations describing the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy for six ionospheric constituents, as well as an electrostatic potential equation. The thesis was prepared under the direction of Dr. Matthew Zettergren and other committee members. It uses the 3-D model to examine ion heating, plasma structuring due to perpendicular transport, ion upflow, molecular ion generation, and neutral wave forcing in
The document discusses several challenges facing the development of solar-powered satellites, including:
1) Technical barriers such as low conversion efficiency, waste heat management, expensive access to space, and potential environmental damage
2) Vulnerabilities including damage from space debris, terrorism targeting ground infrastructure, and difficulties ensuring security of satellite beams
3) International challenges like the need for cooperation to avoid backlash, but also difficulties obtaining consensus given issues of military and economic advantage
This dissertation examines the psychological and physiological effects of light and colour on individuals. It includes a literature review on how light and colour can influence emotion and discusses established methods for measuring emotion, including physiological measures like heart rate, heart rate variability and skin conductance, as well as psychological measures like the Self Assessment Manikin scale. The study aims to investigate the emotional effects of different colours and light intensities using these objective and subjective measures. An experimental methodology is described that involves exposing participants to various light conditions and collecting physiological and psychological data. Preliminary results from the data analysis are also presented.
Citrus College - NASA SL Criticla Design ReviewJoseph Molina
This document is a Critical Design Review report for a student launch vehicle project. It summarizes the team and provides details on the design, manufacturing and testing of the launch vehicle and associated ground support equipment. The vehicle's subscale flight demonstrated stable flight within predicted parameters. The report describes the full-scale vehicle's design, components, integration procedures, safety analysis and predicted mission performance based on simulations. It also covers the design, manufacturing and testing of the payload and ground support equipment, along with safety analysis. Schedules and budgets are included.
The Prophet ﷺ said: “Whatever the disease, Allah has created a medication for it, regardless of the fact that some men may come to know what this medication is and others may not.”
This document provides an overview of petroleum exploration. It describes the life cycle of an oil and gas field, including the exploration, appraisal and development, production, and abandonment phases. The exploration process involves studying surface features like oil seeps and outcrops to identify potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. Subsurface data from techniques like seismic surveys is also used. Basin analysis examines sedimentary basins where source rocks may have generated hydrocarbons that migrated and were trapped in reservoir rocks. The goal is to identify "petroleum plays" with the highest probability of containing producible oil and gas to justify drilling exploratory wells. Subsurface data acquisition methods help map underground geology before drilling begins.
This document provides an overview and definitions related to environmental impact assessments and cumulative impact assessments. It discusses key components of cumulative impact assessments, including defining appropriate spatial and temporal boundaries, scoping analyses, and identifying impacts from past, present and future actions. A five-step procedure is outlined for assessing cumulative impacts that involves determining proximate effects of a proposal, investigating the affected environment resulting from past actions, and assessing the implications of a proposal given the current environmental condition.
This thesis examines lower carnassial teeth from musteloid fossils found at Guy Wilson Cave in Tennessee using geometric morphometrics. Landmark analysis was able to distinguish striped skunks from hooded skunks and American martens from fishers. Sexual dimorphism patterns and regional morphological variations were also identified. The analyses successfully identified the Guy Wilson Cave musteloid fossils and provided new insights into the taxonomic, sexual, and geographic diversity of late Pleistocene musteloids.
Remedies from the Holy Quran
By: Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi
The Quran has been revealed as a source of guidance for the entire of mankind, it contains the solutions to all our problems
This document provides a summary of the book "Behold a Pale Horse" by William Cooper. It contains 17 chapters that discuss topics such as secret societies controlling world events, the New World Order, government conspiracies, and cover-ups about UFOs, aliens, and secret technologies. The introduction vouches for Cooper's credibility and sincerity in exposing truths that powerful groups want kept secret. It warns readers they can no longer ignore or deny the disturbing realities Cooper aims to reveal through documented evidence and first-hand experiences.
This document provides links to resources on creating effective PowerPoint presentations, including tips for design, sample slides, tutorials for making a first presentation, and examples of presentation structure and content. The links include guides on meeting design, effective PowerPoint techniques, sample slides from a designer, tutorials for creating a first presentation in PowerPoint, and examples of presentation formats.
The document summarizes Charles William Johnson's analysis of a crop circle formation found in Wiltshire, England in May 2010. Johnson believes the pattern of dashes within the crop circle represent sequential natural numbers rather than ASCII code. He presents an alternative interpretation of the circle's sector divisions and argues the dashes follow an intelligent design of positioning numbers from 1 to 8 along the radii, rather than appearing random. Johnson aims to distinguish designs created by humans from possible non-human intelligent entities.
This review analyzed 7 randomized controlled trials involving 581 infants with mild to moderate acute viral bronchiolitis. The review found that nebulized 3% saline solution was associated with a shorter hospital stay compared to 0.9% saline. 3% saline also improved clinical severity scores over the first 3 days of treatment compared to 0.9% saline. No significant adverse events were reported with 3% saline.
This document is Apple's memorandum in response to the proposed injunctions from the United States and state plaintiffs regarding two antitrust lawsuits against Apple and several major book publishers. Apple argues the proposed injunctions are overly broad, punitive, and unnecessary. The injunctions would inappropriately regulate Apple's businesses well beyond e-books and the conduct at issue in the lawsuits. They also impose an unprecedented 10-year external monitor over Apple, which is unjustified and would chill lawful competition. Apple proposes a more tailored alternative remedy.
This document provides an analysis of hazardous material spills in California between 2006 and 2014, with a focus on spills related to oil and gas production. It finds that while spill frequency remained constant, total spill volume increased 69% from 2013 to 2014. The analysis examines spill characteristics like location, materials spilled, containment, impacts on water bodies, injuries/fatalities, and cleanup services. Spatial analysis of spills in Kern County shows they decreased along with declining oil production. The document also seeks to determine if unconventional production methods like hydraulic fracturing are linked to more spills than conventional methods, but data limitations prevent a clear statistical analysis. Recommendations are provided to improve spill and well data collection and accessibility.
This document provides recommendations for the production, control, and regulation of human plasma for fractionation. It covers appropriate donor selection and screening, production methods, collection, separation, freezing and storage of plasma. The goal is to exclude infectious donations and ensure plasma is produced according to good manufacturing practices. Precautions are outlined to prevent transmission of pathogens from blood and plasma through proper donor screening, epidemiological surveillance, adherence to procedures, and testing and quality control of plasma units.
The engagement of civil society in the decennial safety reviews of the Fessenheim nuclear power plant in France involved the Local Information Commission of Fessenheim (CLI) commissioning external expert assessments of the reviews. This process was part of broader efforts in France from the 1980s to 2010s to open nuclear governance to civil society. The CLI participated in all three reviews from 1989 to 2012. A national process from 2009 further facilitated CLIs' involvement in reviews across France. Analysis found the process contributed to understanding of safety, defining safety as a public concern, and building some trust between actors.
This document is a thesis submitted by Aaron Outhwaite to Dalhousie University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Applied Sciences degree. The thesis characterizes the design and modeling of a building-integrated microalgae photobioreactor (BIMP) system. It discusses BIMP design fundamentals, including growth limiting factors like light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon. It also covers BIMP modeling fundamentals, growth rate expressions, and dynamics of light, temperature, nutrients, and carbon dioxide in the system. Several chapters then present mathematical models of light and temperature dynamics in a BIMP and results of the models.
This review evaluated the effects of vaccines against influenza in healthy adults. The review found that inactivated influenza vaccines were 30% effective at preventing influenza-like illness and 80% effective at preventing influenza when the vaccine strain matched the circulating strain. Vaccine effectiveness decreased to 50% when the strain did not match. Vaccination had a modest effect on reducing time off work but there was not enough evidence to determine the impact on hospitalizations or complications. Inactivated vaccines were generally well-tolerated though they could cause local reactions. Whole virus vaccines matching the pandemic strain provided high efficacy against the 1968-1969 pandemic. However, the review concluded that there is not enough evidence to determine whether routine influenza vaccination of healthy adults is effective.
This document presents a thesis investigating a new technique to determine the dynamic tensile behavior of brittle materials using a modified Kolsky bar setup. The thesis was prepared by Andrew Dean in partial fulfillment of an MS degree in Mechanical and Energy Engineering at the University of North Texas in May 2016. The thesis acknowledges funding and support from the Air Force Research Lab, Army Engineer Research and Development Center, and University of North Texas. It includes chapters reviewing literature on Kolsky bar testing, the spall technique, and the experimental setup developed which utilizes pulse shaping and laser/DIC measurements to achieve a controlled spall for validating tensile strength results.
This document appears to be an abridged translation of a book titled "A'MAALE QUR'AANI" by Hadhrat Moulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi (RA) that provides remedies and prescriptions from verses of the Holy Quran for various purposes and ailments. It contains over 110 entries listing Quranic verses or chapters along with their significance or effectiveness for issues like calamities, pardon, intercession, steadfastness, memory, marriage, children, sustenance, business, sickness, protection from harm and more. The remedies are suggested to be effective if the relevant verses are recited in various situations.
This review evaluated the effects of influenza vaccination for healthcare workers who work with the elderly. The review found:
1) Healthcare worker vaccination appears to reduce influenza-like illness in the elderly only when elderly patients are also vaccinated.
2) Vaccination showed no effect on reducing influenza when elderly patients were not vaccinated.
3) Vaccines were found to have no effect on influenza or respiratory infections but did find effects on reducing pneumonia deaths and overall deaths.
4) However, the findings have high selection bias so no credible conclusions can be drawn about the effects of healthcare worker vaccination on influenza complications in the elderly.
This document is a thesis submitted by Yishi Lee to Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University for the degree of Master of Science in Engineering Physics. The thesis developed a new 3-D model of the high-latitude ionosphere to study the coupling between the ionosphere, magnetosphere, and neutral atmosphere. The model consists of equations describing the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy for six ionospheric constituents, as well as an electrostatic potential equation. The thesis was prepared under the direction of Dr. Matthew Zettergren and other committee members. It uses the 3-D model to examine ion heating, plasma structuring due to perpendicular transport, ion upflow, molecular ion generation, and neutral wave forcing in
The document discusses several challenges facing the development of solar-powered satellites, including:
1) Technical barriers such as low conversion efficiency, waste heat management, expensive access to space, and potential environmental damage
2) Vulnerabilities including damage from space debris, terrorism targeting ground infrastructure, and difficulties ensuring security of satellite beams
3) International challenges like the need for cooperation to avoid backlash, but also difficulties obtaining consensus given issues of military and economic advantage
This dissertation examines the psychological and physiological effects of light and colour on individuals. It includes a literature review on how light and colour can influence emotion and discusses established methods for measuring emotion, including physiological measures like heart rate, heart rate variability and skin conductance, as well as psychological measures like the Self Assessment Manikin scale. The study aims to investigate the emotional effects of different colours and light intensities using these objective and subjective measures. An experimental methodology is described that involves exposing participants to various light conditions and collecting physiological and psychological data. Preliminary results from the data analysis are also presented.
Citrus College - NASA SL Criticla Design ReviewJoseph Molina
This document is a Critical Design Review report for a student launch vehicle project. It summarizes the team and provides details on the design, manufacturing and testing of the launch vehicle and associated ground support equipment. The vehicle's subscale flight demonstrated stable flight within predicted parameters. The report describes the full-scale vehicle's design, components, integration procedures, safety analysis and predicted mission performance based on simulations. It also covers the design, manufacturing and testing of the payload and ground support equipment, along with safety analysis. Schedules and budgets are included.
The Prophet ﷺ said: “Whatever the disease, Allah has created a medication for it, regardless of the fact that some men may come to know what this medication is and others may not.”
This document provides an overview of petroleum exploration. It describes the life cycle of an oil and gas field, including the exploration, appraisal and development, production, and abandonment phases. The exploration process involves studying surface features like oil seeps and outcrops to identify potential hydrocarbon reservoirs. Subsurface data from techniques like seismic surveys is also used. Basin analysis examines sedimentary basins where source rocks may have generated hydrocarbons that migrated and were trapped in reservoir rocks. The goal is to identify "petroleum plays" with the highest probability of containing producible oil and gas to justify drilling exploratory wells. Subsurface data acquisition methods help map underground geology before drilling begins.
This document provides an overview and definitions related to environmental impact assessments and cumulative impact assessments. It discusses key components of cumulative impact assessments, including defining appropriate spatial and temporal boundaries, scoping analyses, and identifying impacts from past, present and future actions. A five-step procedure is outlined for assessing cumulative impacts that involves determining proximate effects of a proposal, investigating the affected environment resulting from past actions, and assessing the implications of a proposal given the current environmental condition.
This thesis examines lower carnassial teeth from musteloid fossils found at Guy Wilson Cave in Tennessee using geometric morphometrics. Landmark analysis was able to distinguish striped skunks from hooded skunks and American martens from fishers. Sexual dimorphism patterns and regional morphological variations were also identified. The analyses successfully identified the Guy Wilson Cave musteloid fossils and provided new insights into the taxonomic, sexual, and geographic diversity of late Pleistocene musteloids.
Remedies from the Holy Quran
By: Maulana Ashraf Ali Thanwi
The Quran has been revealed as a source of guidance for the entire of mankind, it contains the solutions to all our problems
This document provides a summary of the book "Behold a Pale Horse" by William Cooper. It contains 17 chapters that discuss topics such as secret societies controlling world events, the New World Order, government conspiracies, and cover-ups about UFOs, aliens, and secret technologies. The introduction vouches for Cooper's credibility and sincerity in exposing truths that powerful groups want kept secret. It warns readers they can no longer ignore or deny the disturbing realities Cooper aims to reveal through documented evidence and first-hand experiences.
This document provides links to resources on creating effective PowerPoint presentations, including tips for design, sample slides, tutorials for making a first presentation, and examples of presentation structure and content. The links include guides on meeting design, effective PowerPoint techniques, sample slides from a designer, tutorials for creating a first presentation in PowerPoint, and examples of presentation formats.
The document summarizes Charles William Johnson's analysis of a crop circle formation found in Wiltshire, England in May 2010. Johnson believes the pattern of dashes within the crop circle represent sequential natural numbers rather than ASCII code. He presents an alternative interpretation of the circle's sector divisions and argues the dashes follow an intelligent design of positioning numbers from 1 to 8 along the radii, rather than appearing random. Johnson aims to distinguish designs created by humans from possible non-human intelligent entities.
Deze presentatie is gemaakt en gebruikt door Grooh Communicatie uit Roermond om ondernemers in de agrarische sector te helpen bij de eerste stapjes in de wereld van de sociale media.
The document provides information about Jubilant Foodworks, an Indian food services company. It discusses the company's operations, financial performance, and valuation. Key points:
- Jubilant Foodworks has exclusive rights to Domino's Pizza and Dunkin' Donuts in India and surrounding countries, operating over 750 Domino's and 29 Dunkin' stores.
- The company's sales growth has slowed from 50% in 2011 to 22% in 2013, and same-store sales declined in 2014. Margins have also contracted due to higher promotions and costs.
- Valuation analyses using free cash flow, residual earnings, residual operating income, and P/E multiples estimate the company's equity value between Rs.
The document provides guidelines for accreditation of Ayurvedic and Panchakarma centers in Germany. It outlines minimum requirements for infrastructure, staff, treatment procedures, safety, and quality control. Centers must be inspected and certified by a control commission authorized by the governing board to receive Silver Leaf or Gold Leaf accreditation certificates depending on their facilities. The guidelines aim to standardize and ensure authentic practice of Ayurvedic therapies.
This document discusses strategies for tapping into global markets, including evaluating potential markets, ways to enter new markets, adapting or inventing new products for different cultures, setting prices, distribution methods, and managing perceptions of where a company and its products originate from. It provides advice on waterfall and sprinkler approaches, targeting developed vs developing countries, using global websites, licensing, franchising, segmentation, and communications strategies.
This summary provides the key details from the document in 3 sentences:
The document discusses a collection of books about ufology, which is the study of reports and phenomena related to unidentified flying objects (UFOs). It lists the website www.UfologyBooks.com and provides bibliographic information for several books and papers on topics related to UFO sightings and investigations. The document aims to inform readers about resources for learning more about the field of ufology and perspectives on unexplained aerial phenomena.
This document provides links to resources on creating effective PowerPoint presentations, including tips for design, sample slides, tutorials for making a first presentation, and examples of presentation structure and content. The links include guides on meeting design, effective PowerPoint techniques, sample slides from a designer, tutorials for creating a first presentation in PowerPoint, and examples of presentation formats.
A presentation by Intellerati, the recruitment research division of The Good Search, LLC, on why recruiting needs to be investigative. It isn't that there are too few candidates. It is that there are too many.
Ayurveda is an ancient Indian medical system that focuses on treating the whole person to achieve physical, mental, and spiritual harmony. It views health as a balance between the three doshas (biological humors) - vata, pitta, and kapha - which combine with the five elements. When doshas are imbalanced, disease occurs. Ayurveda uses herbal medicines, yoga, diet, and lifestyle changes tailored to each person's constitution to restore balance and support the evolution of consciousness. Its goal is to help people experience themselves and the world with joy by addressing physical, mental, and spiritual well-being.
El documento describe la experiencia de un médico voluntario que atendió a refugiados sirios en la isla griega de Lesvos en diciembre de 2015. Incluye secciones sobre la ruta que tomaron los refugiados para llegar a Grecia, su llegada a la isla, la espera por ayuda, la ayuda que recibieron de organizaciones, el tiempo que pasaban en familia y jugando, y su deseo de continuar el viaje.
The document discusses several reported UFO sightings and incidents involving unidentified flying objects, including:
- A 1953 sighting over South Dakota where an F-84 jet intercepted and chased a UFO for over 120 miles on radar.
- Two incidents in 1975 where UFOs were observed near nuclear weapons storage areas at Loring Air Force Base in Maine and near underground missile silos at Malmstrom Air Force Base in Montana. Fighter support was denied during the Loring incident.
- Several other notable UFO sightings and cases are briefly mentioned as well. The document examines reports of UFOs and the potential for cover-ups of UFO activity by governments and military organizations.
This document discusses factors that influence the prices of botanicals in India. It finds that prices are lower in markets located near production areas compared to markets farther away. Quality and purity also impact prices, with higher grades commanding higher prices. Seasonality of production causes prices to decrease when large quantities arrive after harvest. Locational effects, quality, purity, and seasonality are the main factors analyzed in the document.
This masters project report describes molecular dynamics simulations performed to study liquid crystals and their potential use in biosensors. Over 50 nanoseconds of simulations were carried out using different atomistic force fields to model the liquid crystal 5CB. The force fields were characterized and compared to experimental data on the phase behavior and properties of bulk 5CB. Simulations were also conducted to study 5CB interactions across water interfaces and observe conformational changes in polypeptides to assess the ability to predict protein structure changes relevant for biosensor applications. Issues encountered are discussed. The work aims to further understanding of liquid crystals at the molecular level to aid the development of liquid crystal-based biosensing technologies.
This document presents a study on extracting a heartbeat signal from speckle pattern analysis of light scattering off moving red blood cells. The author F.J. Brull conducted a thesis project using simulations of light scattering performed by previous students. Brull analyzed time series of properties like fractality, correlations, and speckle contrast of simulated speckle patterns to retrieve an artificially introduced periodicity meant to mimic a heartbeat. The analysis was done both in the time and frequency domains using techniques like the discrete Fourier transform. While the results did not allow direct retrieval of the heartbeat frequency due to limitations of the simulation, Brull concluded that with adjustments to parameters like camera size and particle density, retrieval may be possible based on previous experimental
This thesis introduces the concept of absolute irreversibility to provide a unified framework for deriving nonequilibrium equalities that are applicable to irreversible processes where conventional equalities break down. Absolute irreversibility corresponds to situations where time-reversed paths have no corresponding original paths, causing entropy production to diverge. Mathematically, it is characterized as the singular part of a probability measure under time reversal. The thesis derives new nonequilibrium equalities based on separating the absolutely irreversible part from the ordinary irreversible part using measure theory. These equalities give stronger restrictions than conventional ones. A new resolution of Gibbs' paradox is also presented from the viewpoint of absolute irreversibility.
Masters Thesis: Design and Testing of a New Conical Beam Precession System fo...Rick Giuly
Thesis: Master of Science in Bioengineering
University of California, San Diego, 2008
In this work, a new conical electron beam control system was designed and tested
on the following 3D imaging applications: high speed tomographic data acquisition
without need for specimen tilt, enhancement of single axis tilt tomography with
additional beam tilting, and object precession. Since tilting the beam requires only
modification of current to deflection coils, the speed of beam tilt far exceeds
mechanical tilting. Beam deflection also gives higher precision of changes in angle
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Similar to Entropy generatioin study for bubble separation in pool boiling (20)
Entropy generatioin study for bubble separation in pool boiling
1.
2. ENTROPY GENERATION STUDY FOR BUBBLE SEPARATION
IN POOL BOILING
A Project
Presented to the
Faculty of
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
In
Mechanical Engineering
By
Jeffrey William Schultz
2010
3.
4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to start by thanking Dr. Hamed Khalkhali for his continued
support throughout the investigation. This work would not have been possible
without his suggestion of the problem statement. His advice and push to look at
the problem in a different light has been greatly appreciated and helped drive this
investigation to a successful conclusion.
To my wife Melissa goes my greatest appreciation for her continued
support throughout my work towards a Master of Science degree and especially
during my work on this investigation. She has helped make an extremely busy
schedule over the last two years manageable and enjoyable.
Additionally I would like to thank my parents Nancy and Charlie, sister
Kristen, mother and father in-law Peggy and Ed, sister in-law Margaret, and
brother in-law Mark for their continued support and motivation.
I would also like to thank Dr Rajesh Pendekanti and Dr Keshava Datta for
providing me with the initial motivation to pursue a Master of Science degree in
Mechanical Engineering. Throughout my progress in the program at California
State Polytechnic University, Pomona, they have provided me with advice,
support, and flexibility at work to allow me to pursue this degree.
iii
5. ABSTRACT
The current entropy generation rate study of spherical bubbles undergoing
growth in nucleate pool boiling produces a novel correlation for predicting bubble
departure radii. Two models for entropy generation rate in spherical bubbles are
developed by modeling the work performed by a bubble as that of a
thermodynamic system, and as a function of the net force acting on the bubble
and the rate of bubble grow. While the derived entropy generation rate equations
fail to support the hypothesis presented in this paper, one of the two models
leads to a novel correlation which predicts published experimental data within
15%.
iv
6. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Signature Page ...................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. iii
Abstract ................................................................................................................ iv
Table of Contents ................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures ....................................................................................................... ix
Nomenclature ....................................................................................................... xi
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Previous Work ........................................................................................ 1
Problem Statement ................................................................................. 6
Methodology ........................................................................................... 6
General Assumptions ............................................................................. 8
Entropy Generation Rate Study (Pressure-Volume Method) .............................. 10
Derivation of Heat Transfer Rate .......................................................... 10
Derivation of Entropy Generation Rate ................................................. 16
Analysis of Second Order, Non-Linear Differential Equation ................ 19
Confirmation of Correlation ................................................................... 60
Summary .............................................................................................. 64
v
7. Entropy Generation Rate Study (Net Force Method) .......................................... 67
Derivation of Heat Transfer Rate .......................................................... 67
Derivation of Entropy Generation Rate ................................................. 74
Analysis of Net Force Correlation ......................................................... 80
Summary .............................................................................................. 85
Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 86
Bibliography ........................................................................................................ 90
Appendix A: Derivation of Entropy Generation Rate (Pressure Method) ............ 94
Appendix B: Defining the General Solution ...................................................... 109
Appendix C: Derivation of Entropy Generatoin Rate (Net Force Method) ........ 114
Appendix D: MatLab Programs......................................................................... 128
vi
8. LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Departure Diameter Correlations .................................................... 1
Table 2. Forces acting on a bubble prior to separation. ................................ 5
Table 3. Values of C for the General Solution Derived from Rayleigh
Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole,
Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ................................................................ 24
Table 4. Values of D for the General Solution Derived from Rayleigh
Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole,
Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ................................................................ 25
Table 5. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on
Rayleigh Based General Solution. ................................................ 26
Table 6. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on
Rayleigh Based Modified General Solution. .................................. 30
Table 7. Values of C for the General Solution Derived Using Plesset-
Zwick Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen,
Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ....................................................... 37
Table 8. Values of D for the General Solution Derived Using Plesset-
Zwick Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen,
Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ....................................................... 38
Table 9. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on
Plesset-Zwick Based General Solution. ........................................ 39
Table 10. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on
Plesset-Zwick Based Modified General Solution. .......................... 43
Table 11. Values of C for the General Solution Derived Using MRG
Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole,
Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ................................................................ 51
Table 12. Values of D for the General Solution Derived Using MRG
Equation with Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole,
Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). ................................................................ 52
Table 13. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on MRG
Based General Solution. ............................................................... 53
vii
9. Table 14. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on MRG
Based Modified General Solution. ................................................. 58
Table 15. Comparison of Derived Equation with Experimental Data of
(Cole & Shulman, 1966b) .............................................................. 61
Table 16. Comparison of Derived Equation with Experimental Data of
(Ellion, 1954). ................................................................................ 63
Table 17. Alternative dimensionless scaling factors calculated from
bubble departure correlations. ...................................................... 70
Table 18. Net Force Derivatives.................................................................... 78
Table 19. Vapor Pressure Derivatives .......................................................... 80
Table 20. MRG Equation Derivatives. ........................................................... 81
viii
10. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Forces Acting on a Bubble. ............................................................. 3
Figure 2. Forces Acting on Bubble. (A) Buoyancy Force, (B) Excess
Pressure Force, (C) Inertia Force, (D) Surface Tension
Force), (E) Drag Force. ................................................................... 4
Figure 3. Balance of Energy for First Law of Thermodynamics ...................... 7
Figure 5. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Rayleigh
Based Equation and Experimental Departure Radii. ..................... 27
Figure 6. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii from Rayleigh Based
Equation. ....................................................................................... 28
Figure 7. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Modified
Rayleigh Based Equation with Experimental Departure Radii. ...... 31
Figure 8. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using Rayleigh
Based Modified Equation. ............................................................. 32
Figure 9. Entropy Generation Rate vs. Bubble Radius for Experimental
Data Obtained from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal,
1975) (A=1.924969, B=0.267915). ................................................ 35
Figure 10. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Plesset-
Zwick Based Equation with Experimental Departure Radii. .......... 40
Figure 11. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using Plesset-Zwick
Based Equation. ............................................................................ 41
Figure 12. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Modified
Plesset-Zwick Based Equation with Experimental Departure
Radii. ............................................................................................. 44
Figure 13. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using Plesset-Zwick
Based Modified Equation. ............................................................. 45
Figure 14. Residual Value vs. Time for Experimental Data Obtained
from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975)
(A=1.924969, B=0.267915). .......................................................... 48
Figure 15. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from MRG Based
Equation with Experimental Departure Radii. ................................ 54
ix
11. Figure 16. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using MRG Based
Equation ........................................................................................ 55
Figure 17. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Modified
MRG Based Equation with Experimental Departure Radii. ........... 59
Figure 18. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using MRG Based
Modified Equation ......................................................................... 59
Figure 19. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii with Experimental
Data of (Cole & Shulman, 1966b). ................................................ 62
Figure 20. Comparison of Predicted Maximum Radii with Experimental
Data of (Ellion, 1954). ................................................................... 64
Figure 21. Bubble Dimensions. ...................................................................... 69
Figure 22. Entropy Generation Rate vs. Bubble Radius for Experimental
Data Obtained from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal,
1975) (A=1.924969, B=0.267915). ................................................ 83
x
12. NOMENCLATURE
General Symbols
������ parameter for Rayleigh Equation
������������ Archimedes number
������ constant for Plesset-Zwick Equation
������ parameter for Plesset-Zwick Equation
������������ specific heat at constant pressure [J/kg-K]
������ constant of general solution
������ diameter [m]
������ diameter [m] or constant of general solution
������ internal energy per unit mass [J/kg]
������ internal energy [J]
������ energy change rage [W]
������ force [N]
������������ buoyant force [N]
������������ drag force [N]
������������ inertia force [N]
������������������������ net force[N]
������������ excess pressure force [N]
������������ surface tension force [N]
������ gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
������ enthalpy [J/kg]
xi
13. ������������������ latent heat of vaporization [J/kg]
������ enthalpy [J]
������������ Jakob number
������ thermal conductivity [W/m-K]
������ bubble mass [kg]
������ mass flow rate [kg/s]
������ pressure [Pa]
������∞ system pressure [Pa]
������������ Prandtl number
������" heat transfer per area [W/m2]
������ heat transfer [J]
������ heat transfer rate [W]
������ bubble radius [m]
������ bubble growth rate [m/s]
������ radial acceleration of bubble [m/s2]
������ entropy [J/kg-K]
������ entropy change rate [W/K]
������������������������ entropy generation rate [W/K]
������������ dimensionless scaling factor for surface tension force
������ temperature [K]
������∞ uniform system temperature [K]
������������������������ (������∞ ) saturation temperature at ������∞ [K]
xii
14. ∆������ superheat [K]
������ time [s]
������ specific volume of liquid [m3/kg]
������ bubble volume [m3]
������ work [J]
������ rate of work [W]
Greek Symbols
������ thermal diffusivity of liquid
������ contact angle
������ viscosity
������ density of liquid [kg/ m3]
������ subcooling factor
������ surface tension [N/m]
Subscripts
������ base
������������������������ departure
������ interface
������ liquid
������ vapor
������ wait
������������������������ wall
xiii
16. INTRODUCTION
Previous Work
Bubble departure diameters in nucleate pool boiling have been studied
extensively both analytically and experimentally. In 1935, Fritz developed a
correlation for bubble departure diameter in nucleate boiling by balancing
buoyancy and surface tension forces for a static bubble (Fritz, 1935). This
equation has since been expanded by other investigators. Bubble growth rate
was included in a correlation by (Staniszewski, 1959) after observing that bubble
departure diameter is dependent on the rate at which the bubble grows. Others
have expanded the range of the Fritz correlation to low pressure systems such
as (Cole & Rohsenow, 1969), while (Kocamustafaogullari, 1983) have expanded
it to fit high pressure systems. More recently, (Gorenflo, Knabe, & Bieling, 1986)
established an improved correlation for bubble departure at high heat fluxes. A
summary of bubble departure correlations is provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Departure Diameter Correlations
Source Departure Diameter Model Comments
(Fritz, 1935) ������ 1 2 Correlation balances
������������������������������ = 0.0208������ buoyancy force with
������(������������ − ������������ )
surface tension force
(Staniszewski, 1959) ������ 1/2 ������������ Correlation includes
������������������������������ = 0.0071������ 1 + 0.435 affect of bubble growth
������(������������ − ������������ ) ������������
rate
(Zuber, 1959) 1/3
������ 1 3 6������������ ������������������������������ − ������������������������ ������∞
������������������������������ =
������(������������ − ������������ ) ������"
1
18. Source Departure Diameter Model Comments
Gogonin, 1980)
(Gorenflo, Knabe, & 1 3 1 2 4 3 Correlation for high
������������4 ������������ 2 2������
Bieling, 1986) ������������������������������ = ������1 1+ 1+ heat fluxes
������ 3������������
(Stephan, 1992) 2 1 2 Correlation valid for
������ 1 2 ������������ 1
������������������������������ = 0.25 1+ 2
������(������������ − ������������ ) ������������������ ������������ ������������ 1
5������10−7 ≤
������������������ ������������
≤ 0.1
(Kim & Kim, 2006) ������ 1 2 Correlation valid for
������������������������������ = 0.1649������������0.7 high and low Jakob
������(������������ − ������������ )
numbers
An evaluation of forces acting on bubbles forming
������������ + ������������
in normal and reduced gravitational fields was performed
by (Keshock & Siegel, 1964). Five forces acting on
bubbles during growth while attached to a wall were
identified as buoyancy, excess pressure, inertia, surface
tension and drag forces; each of which acts to keep the
bubble attached to the wall or to promote separation. The ������������ + ������������ + ������������
buoyancy force accounts for the difference in liquid and Figure 1. Forces
Acting on a Bubble.
vapor densities. Density differences between the vapor in the bubble and liquid
of the fluid pool promote bubble departure. Buoyancy is aided by the excess
pressure force which accounts for the vapor pressure acting on the region of wall
within the bubble base diameter. This force aids in pushing the liquid vapor
interface away from the wall. The resulting equation for this force takes the same
form as that for surface tension.
Inertia, surface tension and drag forces work to limit bubble separation.
The inertia force is exerted as the surrounding fluid pool is forced to flow in a
3
19. radial direction away from the bubble boundary due to bubble growth. As the
fluid is displaced, its viscosity creates resistance to bubble growth. It can be
seen in the equations in Table 2 that the inertia force is scaled by a factor of
11/16. The scaling factor was proposed by (Han & Griffith, 1962) to approximate
mass of affected fluid around the outer surface of the bubble. The surface
tension force accounts for the force of the liquid vapor interface with the wall and
the drag force accounts for the motion of the growing bubble through the
surrounding liquid. These forces can be seen graphically in Figure 2 along wither
a list of their corresponding equations in Table 2.
������������ ������������
������∞ ������∞
������������ ������������
������
������ ������������
������������ (A) ( (B) ( ������������
������∞ ������∞
A) B)
������������������������������ ������������������
������
������������ ������������ ������������ ������������
������ ������
(C) ( (D) ( (E) (
Figure 2. Forces Acting on Bubble. (A) Buoyancy Force, (B) Excess Pressure Force, (C)
C) D)
Inertia Force, (D) Surface Tension Force), (E) Drag Force.
E)
4
20. Table 2. Forces acting on a bubble prior to separation.
Force Equation
Buoyancy Force 4������������3
������������ = ������������ − ������������ ������
3
Excess Pressure Force ������������ = ������������������ ������ sin ������
Inertia Force ������ ������������ ������ 11 4������������3 ������������
������������ = ������ ≅ ������
������������ ������������ ������������ 16 3 ������������
Surface Tension Force ������������ = 2������������������ ������ sin ������
Drag Force ������ ������������
������������ = ������������ ������ , ������ = 45
4 ������ ������������
Bubble separation occurs when buoyancy and excess pressure forces
exceed the net affects of the inertia, surface tension, and drag forces. The work
of (Keshock & Siegel, 1964) demonstrated that varying system conditions
produce varying levels of influence for each of the forces associated with bubble
departure.
While extensive research has led to the development a number of
correlations for bubble departure diameter, a universal correlation is lacking. It
can be seen by analysis of the correlations provided in the Table 1 that bubble
departure is a function of many variables including contact angle, bubble growth
rate, Jakob number, thermal diffusivity, system temperatures, pressures, and a
number of others. Additionally, while most correlations are proportionate to
������−1 2 , it can be seen that departure diameters determined by the correlations of
(Zuber, 1959) and (Gorenflo, Knabe, & Bieling, 1986) are proportionate to ������−1 3 .
Development of a universal correlation will require a function of multiple system
and fluid properties which can be utilized to model a wide range of system
conditions.
5
21. Problem Statement
Is it possible to develop a correlation for bubble departure radius or
diameter in nucleate pool boiling by analyzing entropy generation rate during
bubble growth?
It is suspected that the rate entropy generation reaches a maximum value
at the point at which a bubble departs from a wall during nucleate pool boiling.
As demonstrated later in this paper, the entropy generation rate for a spherical
bubble in nucleate pool boiling is defined by the equation below.
1 ������
������������������������ = − ������ + ������ − ������������
������������������������������ ������������
As the entropy generation rate reaches a maximum value, the sum of rate
of work performed by the bubble on its surroundings and the rate of change of
internal energy minus the rate of energy transfer to the bubble reaches a
minimum. It is believed that at this point, the bubble reaches a state of
equilibrium which results in departure or collapse in the case of sub-cooled
boiling. If this suspicion is correct, an entropy generation analysis of bubble
growth using the second law of thermodynamics may lead to a novel correlation
for determination of bubble departure radius.
Methodology
The maximum rate of entropy generation can be determined by taking the
derivative of entropy generation rate with respect to bubble radius and setting it
equal to zero. This method requires that the net heat transfer rate for the bubble
be substituted into the entropy generation equation. The proposed method is
6
22. accomplished by evaluation of the bubble using the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics ������
states that energy must be conserved. By
analyzing the bubble using the first law of
d
thermodynamics, it is possible to determine ������ ������������
dt
������������
the rate of heat transfer. Heat transferred
to the bubble must result in changes to the
������
accumulated energy of the bubble, work
Figure 3. Balance of Energy for
First Law of Thermodynamics
performed on the bubble boundary, and
energy flow at the bubble boundary. In the case of a bubble undergoing growth
at a wall, the net energy flows into the bubble. Energy flow out of the bubble is
therefore ignored. The resulting first law equation for a bubble reduces to the
following equation which can be seen graphically in Error! Reference source
not found..
������
������ = ������ + ������ − ������������
������������
������������
It is possible to determine the rate of heat transfer by determining the rate
of work performed, the change rate for the accumulated energy, and the rate of
net energy flow into the bubble. Given this value, it is then possible to solve for
entropy generation rate using the second law of thermodynamics.
7
23. Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is a statement to the irreversibility of a
system. It states that entropy of a system not at equilibrium will increase with
time. For a system with open boundaries such as a bubble, entropy generation
rate is a function of the rate of entropy accumulation inside a control volume, the
entropy transfer rate, and net entropy flow rate at the boundaries of the control
volume. The second law of thermodynamics can be written as follows:
������������ d
������������������������ = ������ − − ������������
������������ dt
������ ������������
Given the heat transfer rate determined by the first law of
thermodynamics, it is possible to determine entropy generation rate using the
second law of thermodynamics.
General Assumptions
The following chapters cover the derivation of two novel correlations for
bubble departure radius in nucleate pool boiling. These derivations will be made
based on the assumptions listed below.
Bubble maintains spherical shape during growth.
State of vapor flowing into the bubble is at the same state as vapor
accumulated within the bubble.
The state of the fluid pool is constant and uniform with no thermal
boundary layer around bubble surface or wall.
8
24. Bubble radius can be accurately modeled by the (Mikic, Rohsenow, &
Griffith, 1970) (MRG) correlation during both inertia and heat-diffuse
stages of bubble growth.
Quasi equilibrium
Additional assumptions will be introduced throughout the derivation of the
correlations for the purpose of simplifying equations.
Vapor pressure is constant and equal to the saturation pressure of the
bulk liquid pool.
9
25. ENTROPY GENERATION RATE STUDY (PRESSURE-VOLUME METHOD)
A novel correlation is derived for bubble departure radius using the second
law of thermodynamics. In this chapter, work performed by the bubble is
modeled as the integral of the system pressure multiplied by the rate of change
in bubble volume. All steps of the following work are shown in Appendix A.
Derivation of Heat Transfer Rate
Solution of the second law of thermodynamics requires an understanding
of the heat transfer rate for the system. This is accomplished by solving the first
law of thermodynamics. Equations will be derived for the rate of work performed
by a bubble, the energy change rate, and the energy transfer rate.
Rate or Work
In this chapter, the rate of work performed by a bubble is modeled using
the equation for work done by a thermodynamic system. This equation is a
function of the driving pressure and the change in system volume.
������2
������ = ������������������
������1
For a bubble undergoing growth in a pool, the driving pressure is
equivalent to the difference between vapor pressure within the bubble and the
interface pressure of the fluid surrounding the bubble. For the purposes of this
investigation, the interface pressure is assumed equivalent to the bulk fluid
pressure. Furthermore, the bubble is assumed to maintain a spherical shape
10
26. which allows for the change in volume to be replaced by the following
relationship.
������������ = 4������������2 ������������
Application of these relationships leads to the following equation for work
performed by the bubble on the surrounding fluid.
������
������ = 4������ ������
������������ − ������∞ ������2 ������������ .
In the above equation, vapor pressure is a function of bubble radius.
Successive integration by parts is therefore required to solve for the work done
by a bubble on its surroundings. The resulting equation is shown below.
4������ 3 1 ������������������ 1 ������ 2 ������������ 2 1 ������ 3 ������������ 3
������ = ������ ������������ − ������∞ − ������ + ������ − ������ + ⋯
3 4 ������������ 20 ������������ 2 120 ������������ 3
The rate at which work is done by a bubble on its surrounding is
determined by taking the derivative of the above equation with respect to time.
Doing so results in the following relationship.
4������������2
������ = 3 ������������ − ������∞ ������
3
������������������ 1 ������2 ������������ 2 1 ������3 ������������ 3 1 ������4 ������������ 4
+ ������ − 1 − ������ + ������ − ������ + ������ + ⋯
������������ 4 ������������ 2 20 ������������ 3 120 ������������ 4
It can be seen in the equation above that the rate of work performed by a
spherical bubble is a function of the rate of bubble growth and the rate at which
vapor pressure changes. It is possible to reduce this equation to a function of
constant fluid properties and bubble growth rate by utilization of the Young-
Laplace equation or the equation of motion for a spherical bubble.
2������������
������������ = ������������ +
������
11
27. 2
2������������ 3 ������������ ������ 2 ������
������������ = ������∞ + + ������������ + ������
������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2
For the purposes of this derivation, the rate of work performed by a bubble
will be maintained as a function of the rate of bubble growth and rate of vapor
pressure change.
If vapor pressure is assumed constant and equivalent to the saturation
pressure of the bulk liquid pool through the life of the bubble, the equation can be
reduced to the following.
������ ≅ 4������ ������������������������ ������∞ − ������∞ ������������2
This assumption will not accurately model the rate of work performed by a
bubble growth within the inertia controlled region as this region is characterized
by rapidly changing vapor pressures. However, it is believed to be an acceptable
model for bubbles undergoing growth in the heat diffuse region in which the rate
of vapor pressure change is minimal.
Energy Change Rate
The Internal energy of a system is a measure of its total kinetic and
potential energy. In the case of a bubble, internal energy can be determined by
multiplying bubble vapor mass by the energy per unit mass at a given state.
R R
������ = ������������ ������������ = ������������ ������������ = 4π ������������ ������������ ������2 ������������
0 0
As all variables in the equation above are functions of bubble radius,
integration must be completed using successive integration by parts. Doing so
leads to the following series for internal energy.
12
28. 4������������3 1 ������������������ ������������������ 1 ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������������������ ������ 2 ������������ 2
������ = ������������ ������������ − ������������ + ������������ ������ + ������ +2 + ������������ ������
3 4 ������������ ������������ 20 ������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ ������������ 2
1 ������ 3 ������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������ 2 ������������ ������3 ������������ 3
− ������������ +3 +3 + ������������ ������ + ⋯
120 ������������ 3 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ 3
The rate at which the internal energy of a system changes can be
determined by taking the derivative of the internal energy with respect to time.
4������������2
������ = 3������������ ������������ ������
3
������������������ ������������������
+ ������ − 1 − ������������ + ������������ ������
������������ ������������
1 ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ 2
+ ������������ +2 + ������������ ������
4 ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ ������������ 2
1 ������3 ������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ ������3 ������������ 3
− ������ +3 +3 + ������������ ������
20 ������ ������������ 3 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ 3
1 ������4 ������������ ������������������ ������3 ������������ ������2 ������������ ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������3 ������������
+ ������������ +4 +6 2 +4
120 ������������ 4 ������������ ������������ 3 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ 3
������ 4 ������������ 4
+ ������������ ������ + ⋯
������������ 4
If the state of the vapor within the bubble is again assumed constant and
equal to the saturation pressure of the bulk liquid pool, the above equation is
simplified to the following form.
������ = 4������������������ ������������ ������2 ������
Energy Transfer Rate
The energy transfer across the bubble boundary is defined as derivative
with respect to time of the total vapor mass flowing across the boundary
13
29. multiplied by the enthalpy per unit mass of the transferred vapor. For the
purposes of this analysis, the state of the vapor entering the bubble is assumed
to equivalent to that of the vapor within the bubble. This implies that enthalpy of
the vapor flowing in is the same as the enthalpy of the vapor in the bubble.
R
������
������������������������
������������ 0
By performing successive integration by parts and taking the derivative of
the resulting series, the following equation for energy transfer rate is derived.
������ 4������������2
������������������������ = 3������������ ������������ ������
������������ 3
������������������ ������������������
+ ������ − 1 − ������������ + ������������ ������
������������ ������������
1 ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ 2
+ ������������ +2 + ������������ ������
4 ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ ������������ 2
1 ������3 ������������ ������������������ ������ 2 ������������ ������������������ ������2 ������������ ������ 3 ������������ 3
− ������ +3 +3 + ������������ ������
20 ������ ������������ 3 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ 3
1 ������4 ������������ ������������������ ������ 3 ������������ ������2 ������������ ������2 ������������ ������������������ ������3 ������������
+ ������������ +4 +6 2 +4
120 ������������ 4 ������������ ������������ 3 ������������ ������������ 2 ������������ ������������ 3
������ 4 ������������ 4
+ ������������ ������ + ⋯
������������ 4
If the state of the vapor is assumed constant and equal to the saturation
pressure of the bulk liquid pool, the energy transfer rate reduces to a function of
bubble growth rate.
������
������������������������ = 4������������������ ������������ ������2 ������
������������
Heat Transfer
14
30. Substitution of the equations derived above into the first law of
thermodynamics produce the following equation for heat transfer rate.
4������������2
������ = 3 ������������ − ������∞ ������ + 3������������ ������������ − ������������ ������
3
������������������ 1 ������ 2 ������������ 2 1 ������3 ������������ 3 1 ������4 ������������ 4
+ ������ − 1 − ������ + ������ − ������ + ������
������������ 4 ������������ 2 20 ������������ 3 120 ������������ 4
������������������ 1 ������2 ������������ 2 1 ������3 ������������ 3 1 ������4 ������������ 4
+ − ������ + ������ − ������ + ������ ������������ − ������������
������������ 4 ������������ 2 20 ������������ 3 120 ������������ 4
1 ������������������ 2 3 ������2 ������������ 3 1 ������3 ������������ 4 ������������������ ������������������
+ −������������ ������ + ������ − ������ + ������ −
2 ������������ 20 ������������ 2 30 ������������ 3 ������������ ������������
1 3 ������������������ 3 1 ������2 ������������ 4 ������2 ������������ ������ 2 ������������
+ ������������ ������2 − ������ + ������ −
4 20 ������������ 20 ������������ 2 ������������ 2 ������������ 2
1 1 ������������������ 4 ������3 ������������ ������3 ������������
+ − ������������ ������3 + ������ −
20 30 ������������ ������������ 3 ������������ 3
1 ������4 ������������ ������4 ������������
+ ������ ������4 − +⋯
120 ������ ������������ 4 ������������ 4
This equation can be further reduced application of the definition of
enthalpy.
������������
������������ − ������������ = −������������ ������������ = −
������������
Substitution of the above equation and its derivatives allows the heat
transfer rate equation for a spherical bubble to be reduced.
������ = −4������������∞ ������2 ������
It is noted that this solution is identical to the solution derived by applying
the assumption of constant vapor pressure. The rate of heat transfer for a
spherical bubble is a function of bulk pressure and radial growth behavior of the
15
31. bubble. The assumption that vapor pressure is constant is acceptable for
determination of heat transfer rate. However, the rate at which vapor pressure
changes may still have a significant influence on the rate of work, rate of
accumulated energy, and rate of energy transfer for a spherical bubble
undergoing growth in the inertia controlled region.
Derivation of Entropy Generation Rate
With heat transfer rate defined, it is possible to determine the rate of
entropy generation. Like determination of heat transfer rate, this requires
relationships for the rate of entropy accumulation, entropy transfer rate, and the
net entropy flow rate.
Entropy Accumulation Rate
Entropy accumulation rate within the bubble is determined by taking the
derivative of the total entropy accumulated with respect to time.
R R
������ ������ ������
������ = ������������ = ������������ ������������ = 4π ������������ ������������ ������2 ������������
������������ ������������ 0 ������������ 0
The total entropy accumulated can be solved for by successive integration
by parts of the entropy per unit mass multiplied by the rate of mass change.
4������ 3 1 ������ ������������ ������������ 1 ������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2 1 ������3 ������������ ������������ 3
������������ = ������ ������������ ������������ − ������ + ������ − ������ + ⋯
3 4 ������������ 20 ������������ 2 120 ������������ 3
Taking the derivative with respect to time of the total accumulated entropy
leads to the following equation.
16
32. 4������ 2
������ = ������ 3������������ ������������ ������
3
������ ������������ ������������ ������ 2 ������������ ������������ 2 1 ������ 3 ������������ ������������ 3
+ ������ − 1 − ������ + ������ − ������
������������ ������������ 2 20 ������������ 3
1 ������ 4 ������������ ������������ 4
− ������ + ⋯
120 ������������ 4
By applying the assumption of constant vapor properties at the saturation
point of the bulk liquid pool, this equation reduces to the following form.
������ = 4������������������ ������������ ������2 ������
Entropy Transfer Rate
The entropy transfer rate for a bubble growing on a wall is determined by
dividing the heat transfer rate by the wall temperature. By substitution of the
derived heat transfer rate equation, the following equation is defined.
������ 4������
=− ������ ������2 ������
������������������������������ ������������������������������ ∞
Net Entropy Flow Rate
The net entropy flow rate is defined as follows.
R
������ ������
������������ = 4π ������������ ������������ ������2 ������������
������������ ������������ 0
������������
Since the state of the vapor flowing into the bubble is assumed to be
equivalent to the state of the vapor accumulated within the bubble, the equation
for net entropy flow rate takes the same form as that derived for the entropy
change rate.
17
33. Entropy Generation Rate
The rate of entropy generation is determined by substitution of the derived
equations into the second law of thermodynamics. As it was previously noted,
the net entropy flow rate and the entropy transfer rate are equivalent and
therefore cancel. The resulting entropy generation rate equation is a function of
only the heat transfer rate.
4������
������������������������ = ������ ������2 ������
������������������������������ ∞
If entropy generation rate reaches a maximum value at the point of bubble
departure as hypothesized, the bubble departure radius can be determined by
taking the derivative of entropy generation rate with respect to bubble radius and
setting it equivalent to zero.
������������������������������ ������ 4������ 4������ ������ ������������
=0= ������∞ ������2 ������ = ������∞ ������2 ������
������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������ ������������
This reduces to the following equation.
4������ ������
0= ������∞ ������ 2������ + ������
������������������������������ ������
Rearranging of the equation produces the following second order, non-
linear differential equation; the solution to which should describe the departure
radius if the hypothesis is true.
0 = ������������ + 2������2
By utilization of substitution methods, it can be shown that the general
solution to the second order, non-linear differential equation takes the following
form.
18
34. ������������������������������ = −3������ −2������ ������ + 3������ 1 3
For this solution to be useful, variables ������ and ������ must be defined. This
requires the application of two boundary conditions. The first boundary condition
can be determined by evaluation of experimental data for bubble departure radii.
Comparison of the rate of change for both the general solution and the
experimental bubble at departure can be used to satisfy the second boundary
condition.
Analysis of Second Order, Non-Linear Differential Equation
Analysis of the second order, non-linear differential equation requires an
understanding of growth behavior of bubbles during pool boiling. Bubble
behavior has been described by a number of researchers including (Rayleigh,
1917), (Plesset & Zwick, 1954), and (Mikic, Rohsenow, & Griffith, 1970). In the
following sections, the equations derived by these researches will be utilized to
solve the second order, non-linear differential equation.
Experimental data published by (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal,
1975) for bubbles undergoing growth in superheated water at sub-atmospheric
pressures will be utilized for comparison and refinement of the second order,
non-linear differential equation. Application of the equations for bubble growth
requires an understanding of both fluid and vapor properties. For the purposes
of this analysis, bulk liquid pool properties are assumed uniform and constant,
and effects of thermal boundary layers and the liquid-vapor interface are ignored.
Furthermore, the state of vapor within the bubble may be estimated by utilizing
19
35. the saturation point of the bulk liquid pressure. While the vapor pressure within a
bubble is highly dynamic, it approaches the bulk liquid pressure as growth
transitions from an inertia controlled region to heat diffuse region. As described
by (Lien, 1969), the following liquid properties will be utilized to solve for the
Jakob number of the system as well as additional system constants for use in the
growth equations.
Thermal Conductivity of Liquid Saturated liquid at ������∞
Surface Tension of Liquid Saturated liquid at ������∞
Specific Heat of Liquid Saturated liquid at ������∞
Density of Liquid Saturated liquid at ������∞
Latent Heat of Vaporization Saturated liquid at ������∞
Density of Vapor Saturated liquid at ������∞
Vapor Pressure Saturated liquid at ������∞
The liquid and vapor properties listed above will be determined by
utilization of equations defined by the International Association for the Properties
of Water and Steam (Revised release on the IAPWS Industrial Formulation of
1997 for the thermodynamic properties of water and steam, 2007) (IAPWS
release on surface tension of ordinary water substance, 1994)
Analysis Using Rayleigh Equation
Bubble growth is defined by two distinct regions. Initial bubble growth is
described as inertia controlled growth in which high internal pressures produce
rapid growth of the bubble. Growth in this region is limited by the amount of
20
36. momentum available to displace the surrounding fluid. As internal pressures
drop and the effect of inertia becomes negligible, bubbles transition to heat
diffuse growth in which bubble growth is driven primarily by heat transfer.
Correlations have been developed for each of these regions to describe the
bubbles growth characteristics.
In 1917, Rayleigh derived an equation of motion for the flow of and
incompressible fluid around spherical bubble. The equation takes the following
form.
2
������ 2 ������ 3 ������������ 1 2������
������ 2 + = ������������ − ������∞ −
������������ 2 ������������ ������������ ������
It was shown by Rayleigh that this equation can be reduced to the
following form by utilization of a linearirzed Clausis-Clapeyron equation.
2
������ 2 ������ 3 ������������ ������������������ ������������ ������∞ − ������������������������
������ 2 + =
������������ 2 ������������ ������������ ������������������������
Integration of the above equation leads to the Rayleigh equation for
bubble growth
1 2
2 ������������������ ������������ ������∞ − ������������������������
������ = ������
3 ������������ ������������������������
This equation is commonly written as follows.
������ = ������������
������������������������������
1 2
������������������ ������������ ������∞ − ������������������������ 2
������ = ������ , ������ =
������������ ������������������������ 3
21
37. From the relationship above, it is possible to determine the radial velocity
and acceleration of a growing bubble by taking the first and second derivatives
with respect to time.
������������
= ������
������������
������ 2 ������
=0
������������ 2
Utilization of the bubble growth equations defined above, the second
order, non-linear differential equation derived in the section above may be solved
by direction substitution. If the hypothesis that entropy generation reaches a
maximum value at the point of bubble departure, the solution to the equation
bellow describes the departure radius for a bubble undergoing pool boiling on a
wall.
������������ + 2������2 = 0
Substitution of the Rayleigh equations into the equation above produces
the following relationship.
2������2 = 0
By observation, it can be seen that the above equation is invalid for any
non-zero value of ������. Furthermore, the equation is not a function of bubble radius.
Substitution of the Rayleigh equation into the second order, non-linear differential
equation does not produce a departure radius for a spherical bubble.
While direct substitution of the Rayleigh equation and it derivative into the
second order, non-linear differential equation does not produce a departure
radius, utilization of the general solution may provide improved results. Earlier in
22
38. this chapter a general solution was determined for the derived second order,
non-linear differential equation. This general solution takes the following form.
������ = −3������ −������ ������ + ������ 1 3
������������������������������ ������������������ ������������������������������������������������������������ ������������ ������������������������������������������ ������������:
������������
= −������ −������ −3������ −������ ������ + ������ −1 3
������������
Utilization of the general solution requires that constants ������ and ������ be
determined. This is accomplished by applying boundary conditions. For the
purposes of this analysis the boundary conditions will be defined at the time of
bubble departure. At departure, the radius defined by the Rayleigh equation will
be set equal to the radius defined by the general solution. Additionally, the slope
of both equations will be assumed perpendicular at this time.
������������������������������������������������ ������ = ������������������������ ������������������������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������
������=������ ������������������������
−1
������������ ������������
=−
������������ ������������������������������������������ ������ ������=������ ������������������������
������������ ������������������ ������������������������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������
By substation of the appropriate equations into the boundary conditions
defined above, a system of equations is created. This system of equations is
reduced to define the constant ������. The derivation of this is located in Appendix B.
������ = −������������ ������������������������������������ 2
This equation is rewritten in terms of bubble departure radius by utilization
of the Rayleigh equation.
1
������ = −������������ ������������������������������ 2
������
23
39. Solving for constant ������ requires experimental data including system
conditions and the departure radius. By averaging results for experimental data
sets, a value for constant ������ can be defined.
������ 1 2
−������������ ������
������������ ������������������ ,������
������ =
������
������=1
To define the constant ������, experimental data published by (Van Stralen,
Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) is utilized. Results of this analysis are shown in
Table 3.
Table 3. Values of C for the General Solution Derived from Rayleigh Equation with
Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975).
Experimental
Departure Radius
of (Van Stralen,
Bubble Number Cole, Sluyter, & Ja ������ ������
Sohal, 1975)
������������������������ , m
1 0.00092 64.4322 6.032567 15.779446
2 0.0079 124.4618 2.572322 10.626594
3 0.0119 200.1375 2.549390 9.798288
4 0.0136 385.8247 2.411500 9.475620
5 0.0268 895.6793 2.309636 8.075797
6 0.0415 2038.6934 1.924969 7.019034
Average 10.129130
It is possible to solve for constant ������ by substitution of constant ������ into the
general solution and rearranging.
24
40. 3������ −������
������ ������������������������ ,������ 3 + ������������������������ ,������
������������
������ =
������
������=1
Evaluation of the equation above is again accomplished by utilizing
experimental data published by (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) and
the average constant ������ derived above. Results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Values of D for the General Solution Derived from Rayleigh Equation with
Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975).
Experimental
Departure Radius
of (Van Stralen,
Bubble Number Cole, Sluyter, & Ja ������ ������
Sohal, 1975)
������������������������ , m
1 0.00092 64.4322 6.032567 1.90337E-08
2 0.0079 124.4618 2.572322 8.60658E-07
3 0.0119 200.1375 2.549390 2.2439E-06
4 0.0136 385.8247 2.411500 3.19052E-06
5 0.0268 895.6793 2.309636 2.06378E-05
6 0.0415 2038.6934 1.924969 7.4054E-05
Average 1.683431E-05
Substitution of these constants into the general solution produces a linear
relationship for bubble radius that satisfies the second order, non-linear
differential equation.
1 3
1
������ = − ������ + 1.683431E − 05
8354.181454
At departure, this equation will be equivalent to the Rayleigh equation.
Setting the general solution equal to the Rayleigh equation produces a function
25
41. of the departure time. In order to solve for bubble departure radius, the
departure time is replaced by utilizing the Rayleigh equation.
3������ −������
0 = ������������������������������ 3 + ������������������������������ − ������
������
Substitution of the constants ������ and ������ results in the following equation.
1
0 = ������������������������������ 3 + ������ − 1.683431E − 05
8354.181454 ∗ ������ ������������������������
The above equation has three possible solutions for the departure radius.
The exact solution corresponding to the bubble departure must be real, positive
and should be in the scale of expected results. Evaluation of experimental data
from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) with the equation above
produces the predicted departure radii presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on Rayleigh Based General
Solution.
Experimental
Departure Radius
Predicted
of (Van Stralen,
Bubble Number Ja Departure Radius % Error
Cole, Sluyter, &
Sohal, 1975) ������������������������������ , m
������������������������ , m
1 64.4322 0.00092 0.025371 2657.7113
2 124.4618 0.0079 0.025024 216.7582
3 200.1375 0.0119 0.025018 110.2391
4 385.8247 0.0136 0.024984 83.7026
5 895.6793 0.0268 0.024955 -6.8839
6 2038.6934 0.0415 0.024821 -40.1915
26
42. Analysis of the table indicates that predicted departure radii fail to
consistently fit with experimental data. This is seen graphically in Figure 4 and
Figure 5.
Figure 4. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Rayleigh Based Equation and
Experimental Departure Radii.
27
43. Figure 5. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii from Rayleigh Based Equation.
The large error associated with predicted bubble departure radii is
associated with the average values of constants ������ and ������. Results are improved
by modifying constants ������ and ������ to be functions of system values ������ and/or ������������.
While values ������ and ������ are now variable from system to system, they are constant
for a given a given boiling condition. By comparison of the calculated values of ������
presented in Table 3 with system constant ������, it is determined that ������ is
approximated by the following equation.
������ = 7.459635������������(������) + 2.607226
This equation fits the values of ������ presented in Table 3 with a ������2 value of
0.9579. Comparison of the constant ������ with Jakob numbers for the experimental
28
44. systems fails to produce a satisfactory curve fit. The modified values of
calculated constant ������ are now used to calculate modified values for constant ������.
By again comparing the modified values of constant ������ with system values
������ and ������������, a relationship is determined. Constant ������ is best estimated with a ������2
value of 0.9971 by the following equation.
������ = 2.278040 −11 ������������2 + 6.485067������ −09 ������������ − 3.367751������(−07)
Comparison of constant ������ with constant ������ fails to create an equally good
curve fit.
The derived equations for constants ������ and ������ are substituted into the
general solution to create a new correlation. The modified general solution takes
the following form.
������ = −3������ − 7.459635 ������������ (������)+2.607226 ������ + 2.278040 −11 ������������2 + 6.485067������ −09 ������������
1 3
− 3.367751������(−07)
By setting this equation equivalent to the Rayleigh equation, the following
relationship is derived.
3 3������ − 7.459635 ������������ (������)+2.607226
0 = ������������������������������ + ������������������������������ − 2.278040 −11 ������������2
������
− 6.485067������ −09 ������������ + 3.367751������(−07)
This equation takes the same form as that previously derived using the
Rayleigh equation. However, the equation is now a function of the system values
������ and ������������ defined in the Rayleigh equation. Analysis of experimental data from
(Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) using the modified general solution is
presented in Table 6.
29
45. Table 6. Error Analysis of Predicted Departure Radii based on Rayleigh Based Modified
General Solution.
Experimenta
l Departure
Radius of
(Van Predicted
Bubble Stralen, Departure
Ja ������ ������ Cole, Radius % Error
Number
Sluyter, &
Sohal, ������������������������������ , m
1975)
������������������������ , m
1 64.4322 16.01348 1.44669E-07 0.00092 0.005597 508.3716
2 124.4618 9.655156 7.92277E-07 0.0079 0.006802 -13.8934
3 200.1375 9.588356 1.84262E-06 0.0119 0.010174 -14.5016
4 385.8247 9.173562 5.52545E-06 0.0136 0.015300 12.5015
5 895.6793 8.851611 2.37162E-05 0.0268 0.026591 -0.7785
6 2038.6934 7.492615 0.000107535 0.0415 0.041509 0.0223
The results obtained from the modified general solution derived using the
Rayleigh equation demonstrate an improved fit with experimental data. This is
seen graphically in Figure 6 and Figure 7.
30
46. Figure 6. Comparison of Predicted Departure Radii from Modified Rayleigh Based
Equation with Experimental Departure Radii.
31
47. Figure 7. Error Plot of Predicted Departure Radii using Rayleigh Based Modified
Equation.
The departure radii predicted using the Rayleigh based modified general
solution demonstrates greatly improved fit with experimental data of (Van
Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975). For bubbles having a Jakob number
greater than 100, experimental departure radii are predicted within 15% results
obtained experimentally. Results improve as the Jakob number for the system
grows.
Analysis Using Plesset-Zwick Equation
The previous section evaluated the use of the Rayleigh solution to provide
a departure radius for a bubble growing on a wall in pool boiling. It was noted
32
48. that the Rayleigh equation is only effective for modeling bubble growth occurring
within the inertia controlled growth region. To better understand the growth
behavior of a bubble, another equation is required.
In 1954, Plesset and Zwick developed an equation to describe bubble
growth occurring in the heat diffuse region. The derived equation is a function of
the Jakob number of the system and the thermal diffusivity of the surrounding
liquid.
1 2
12������������
������ = ������������ ������ 1 2
������
The equation is commonly written as follows.
������ = ������������ 1 2
������������������������������
1 2
12������������
������ = ������������
������
������������ ������������,������
������������ = ������ − ������������������������
������������ ������������������ ∞
In the case of a bubble growing on a wall, the variable ������ and the Jakob
number are rewritten as follows.
1 2
∗
12������������
������ = ������������
������
������������ ������������,������
������������∗ = ������ − ������������������������
������������ ������������������ ������������������������
The Plesset-Zwick equation is utilized to determine the radial velocity and
acceleration of a bubble by taking its first and second derivatives.
������������ 1 −1 2
= ������������
������������ 2
33
49. ������2 ������ 1
= − ������������ −3 2
������������ 2 4
The Plesset-Zwick equations defined above is used to solve the second
order, non-linear differential equation derived in this chapter by direct
substitution. Doing so results in the following equation.
1 2 −1
������ ������ = 0
4
By observation, it is seen that there are only two possible solutions to the
equation above; either ������ is equal to zero or ������ is equal to infinity. The variable ������
must be a non-zero value for the Plesset-Zwick equation to model bubble growth.
This implies that bubble departure will only occur at a time equal to infinity.
Substitution of the Plesset-Zwick equation into the derived second order, non-
linear differential equation is not a suitable method for determining the radius of a
bubble at departure. Furthermore, it indicates that the suspicion that entropy
generation reaches a maximum value at bubble departure may be invalid. This
is confirmed by plotting the calculated entropy generation rate against the bubble
radius for on experimental data set from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal,
1975).
34
50. Figure 8. Entropy Generation Rate vs. Bubble Radius for Experimental Data Obtained
from (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) (A=1.924969, B=0.267915).
As seen in Figure 8, the calculated entropy generation rate does not reach
a maximum value. This failure to reach a maximum entropy generation rate may
be associated with the inability to effectively model bubble radius and vapor
properties within the bubble.
While direct substitution fails to produce a reasonable solution and
identifies a failure of the calculated entropy generation rate to reach a maximum
value, utilization of the Plesset-Zwick equation to solve general solution to the
second order, non-linear differential equation may result in a correlation which
predicts departure radii of bubbles undergoing nucleate pool boiling. As
previously shown, the general solution takes the following form.
35
51. ������ = −3������ −������ ������ + ������ 1 3
������������������������������ ������������������ ������������������������������������������������������������ ������������
������������
= −������ −������ −3������ −������ ������ + ������ −1 3
������������
Utilization of the general solution requires that constants ������ and ������ be
solved. This is accomplished by applying boundary conditions. For the purposes
of this analysis the boundary conditions are defined at the time of bubble
departure. At departure, the radius defined by the Plesset-Zwick equation is set
equal to the radius defined by the general solution. Additionally, the slope of
both equations is assumed perpendicular at this time.
������������������������������������������������ −������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������ = ������������������������ ������������������������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������
−1
������������ ������������
=−
������������ ������������������������������������������ −������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������ ������������ ������������������ ������������������������������������������������ ������=������ ������������������������
By substation of the appropriate equations into the boundary conditions
defined above, a system of equations is created. This system of equations is
arranged to solve for the constant ������.
������ = −������������ 2������������������������������������ 3 2
The time at departure is replaced using the Plesset-Zwick equation.
2������������������������������ 3
������ = −������������
������2
Solving for constant ������ requires experimental data including environmental
conditions and the radius at bubble departure. By averaging results for
experimental data sets, a value for constant ������ is defined.
36
52. 2������������������������������ ,������ 3
������ −������������
������������ 2
������ =
������
������=1
Experimental data published by (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal,
1975) is used to determine a value for ������. Results of this analysis are shown in
Table 7
Table 7. Values of C for the General Solution Derived Using Plesset-Zwick Equation with
Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975).
Experimental
Departure Radius
of (Van Stralen,
Bubble Number Cole, Sluyter, & Ja ������ ������
Sohal, 1975)
������������������������ , m
1 0.00092 64.4322 0.009769 11.023181
2 0.0079 124.4618 0.017661 5.756737
3 0.0119 200.1375 0.028018 5.450687
4 0.0136 385.8247 0.053010 6.325360
5 0.0268 895.6793 0.120425 5.931457
6 0.0415 2038.6934 0.267915 6.218867
Average 6.784382
With constant ������ defined, constant ������ is solved for. By substitution of the
constant ������ into the general solution, a solution for constant ������ is determined.
3������ −������
������ ������������������������������ ,������ 3 + ������������������������������ ,������ 2
������������ 2
������ =
������
������=1
37
53. Experimental data of (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975) is again
utilized to evaluate this equation. Results of this evaluation are shown in Table
8.
Table 8. Values of D for the General Solution Derived Using Plesset-Zwick Equation with
Experimental Data of (Van Stralen, Cole, Sluyter, & Sohal, 1975).
Experimental
Departure Radius
of (Van Stralen,
Bubble Number Cole, Sluyter, & Ja ������ ������
Sohal, 1975)
������������������������ , m
1 1.37057E-09 64.4322 0.009769 3.010152E-05
2 3.02747E-06 124.4618 0.017661 6.795799E-04
3 4.50537E-06 200.1375 0.028018 6.139248E-04
4 2.93983E-06 385.8247 0.053010 2.259056E-04
5 1.9709E-05 895.6793 0.120425 1.873373E-04
6 7.16988E-05 2038.6934 0.267915 1.529070E-04
Average 3.149594E-04
The resulting general solution to the second order, non-linear differential
equation after substitution of the defined constants is defined as follows.
1 3
������ = 3.393921������(−03)������ + 3.149594E(−04)
At departure, the equation is set equivalent to the Plesset-Zwick equation.
Setting the equations equal produces a function of the departure time. The
equation can be re-written by replacing departure time using the Plesset-Zwick
equation.
3������ −������
0 = ������������������������������ 3 + ������������������������������ 2 − ������
������2
Substitution of the constants ������ and ������ results in the following equation.
38