The document describes the endocrine system and its major components. It discusses the pituitary gland, known as the "master gland", and the other major endocrine glands including the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, and pancreas. It outlines the hormones produced by each gland and how they regulate various metabolic processes and target tissues throughout the body. Negative feedback mechanisms precisely control hormonal secretions in the endocrine system.

1. Endocrine System

2. Outline of major players
Endocrine System
• Pituitary gland “Master Gland”
• Organs of the Endocrine system
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenals
• Pancreas

3. 11.1 Introduction Endocrine
Objectives-
– Describe the components of the endocrine
system.
– Definition of a hormone and distinguish
between endocrine and exocrine secretions.

4. A. The endocrine system is made up of the cells,
tissues, and organs that secrete hormones into
body fluids.
Introduction

5. Glands
B. The body has two kinds of glands,
• exocrine acini cells(secretes products into
ducts)
• endocrine langerhan cells (secrete products into body
fluids to affect target cells).

6. 11.2 General Characteristics of the
Endocrine system
Objective-
- Compare the similarities and differences
between the endocrine and nervous
system.
- Describe the specificity of the endocrine
system.
- Location of the major endocrine glands
and list some functions of the endocrine
system.

7. A. The endocrine system’s function is to
• communicate with cells using chemicals called
hormones.
B. Endocrine glands and their hormones
• regulate a number of metabolic processes within
cells, and the whole body.
General Characteristics
Endocrine System

8. C. Their actions are precise,
• they only affect specific target cells.

9. D. Endocrine glands include the
– pituitary gland,
– thyroid gland,
– parathyroid glands,
– adrenal glands,
– pancreas, and other hormone-secreting
glands and tissues.

11. Hormones can
• Alter cellular operations by changing the
identities, activities, or quantities of import
enzymes and structural proteins in various
target cells.
• influence target cells even if they are
present only in minute concentrations.

12. 11.3 Hormone action
• Objective-
– Explain how steroid and nonsteroid hormones
affect target cells.
– Be able to give examples of each and their
mechanism of action.

13. A. Hormones are can be divided into two major
groups Steroid and Nonsteroid Hormones.
B. three subgroups on the basis of chemical
structure:
1) lipid derivatives (steroids).
Hormone Action

15. Nonsteroid hormones
2. amino acid derivatives (Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, thyroid hormones,
melatonin).
3. peptide hormones ( Anitdiurentic Hormone
ADH, Oxytocin, Growth hormone GH,
Prolactin).

16. Nonsteroid Hormones
1. Receptors in target cell membranes
2. The hormone-receptor complex (as first
messenger) triggers a cascade of
biological activity.
Receptor in cell membrane

17. 3. The hormone-receptor complex
generally activates a G protein, which
then activates the enzyme adenylate
cyclase that is bound to the inner cell
membrane.
G protein
Adenylate cyclase

18. 4. This enzyme removes two phosphates
from ATP to produce cyclic AMP (the
second messenger), which in turn
activates protein enzymes that activate
proteins.
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19. 5. These activated proteins induce changes
in the cell.
6. Not all nonsteroid hormones use cAMP;
others use diacylglycerol (DAG) or
inositol triphosphate.
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21. Non steroid
Steroid

22. D. Prostaglandins
1. Prostaglandins are locally-produced
lipids that affect usually don’t make it to
the bloodstream and affect neighboring
tissue or the organ in which they are
produced.
Inflammatory prostaglandins are inhibited by
NonSteroid Anti Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
been marketed as a ‘safe’ alernative to aspirin.

23. Prostaglandins
2. Prostaglandins produce a variety of
effects: some relax smooth muscle,
others contract smooth muscle, some
stimulate secretion of other hormones,
and others influence blood pressure
and inflammation.
Examples are found in the liver, kidney, heart,
lungs, pancreas, brain and reproductive organs

24. 11.4 Control of Hormonal
Secretions
• Objective
– Discuss how negative feedback mechanisms
regulate hormonal secretions.
– And explain how the nervous system
regulates those secretions.

25. A. Negative Feedback Systems
1. Commonly, negative feedback
mechanisms control hormonal releases.
2. In a negative feedback system, a gland
is sensitive to the concentration of the
substance it regulates or which regulates
it.
The thermostat keeps temperature constant
The house warms up and inhibits-sends inhibitory factors to the furnace
Thermostat is the sensory receptor regulating the furnace (organ producing product)
product (i.e. hormone)

26. B. Hormone levels are very precisely regulated.
C. Control Mechanisms
1. Release of hormones from the
hypothalamus controls secretions of
the anterior pituitary.
2. The nervous system influences certain
endocrine glands directly.
3. Other glands respond directly to
changes in the internal fluid
composition.
Control of Hormonal Secretions

28. 3. When the concentration of the regulated
substance reaches a certain level (high
or low), it inhibits the gland from
secreting more hormone until the
concentration returns to normal.
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29. 11.5- 11.10 Pituitary gland- other
endocrine glands
• Objective
– Name and describe the locations of the major
endocrine glands, and list the hormones they
secrete
– Describe the functions and target tissue and
their major affect of the hormones that
endocrine glands secrete.
– Explain how the secretion of each hormone is
regulated by the body.

30. 11.5 Pituitary gland
1. Compare the similarities between the
Anterior Pituitary Gland and the Posterior
Pituitary Gland.

31. Pituitary Gland “Master Gland”
A. The pituitary gland is attached to the base of
the brain
• has an anterior lobe (anterior pituitary) &
• a posterior lobe (posterior pituitary).
This diagram show just one o
the many functions of the
Pituitary

32. Hypothalumus
Pituitary

33. Pituitary

34. B. The brain controls the activity of the pituitary
gland.
1. Releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus control the secretions of
the Anterior Pituitary.
a. The releasing hormones (cause
the release of Hormones!) are
carried in the bloodstream
directly to the Anterior Pituitary
by hypophyseal portal veins.
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36. Anterior
Posterior

37. 2. The Posterior Pituitary releases
hormones into the bloodstream in
response to nerve impulses from the
hypothalamus.
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39. C. Anterior Pituitary Hormones
1. The anterior pituitary consists mostly of
epithelial tissue arranged around blood
vessels and enclosed in a capsule of
collagenous connective tissue.
I. Growth hormone (GH)
II. Prolactin (PRL)
III. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
IV. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
V. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
VI. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

40. 2. Growth hormone (GH) stimulates body
cells to grow and reproduce; it also
speeds the rate at which cells use
carbohydrates and fats.
a. Growth hormone-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus
increases the amount of GH
released, GH release-inhibiting
hormone inhibits its release.
b. Nutritional status affects the
release of GH
Acromegaly- excess GH causes an enlargement
of hands and feet, facial features

41. Acromegaly

42. 3. Prolactin (PRL) promotes milk
production following the birth of an
infant.
a. The effect of PRL in males is
less-well understood, although it
may cause a deficiency of male
sex hormones.
Prolactinoma- menstral changes,
infertility, in men impotence, loss of
sexual drive

44. 4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
controls the secretion of hormones from
the thyroid gland.
a. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH) from the hypothalamus
regulates the release of TSH.
c. As blood concentrations of
thyroid hormones increases,
secretions of TRH and TSH
decrease.
Hypothyroidism (Hashimoto’s disease,
Goiter) and Hyperthyroidism (Graves’
disease)
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45. Goiter

46. 5. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
controls the secretion of hormones from
the adrenal cortex.
a. It is regulated by corticotropin-
releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus, and stress can also
increase its release.
Adrenal gland diseases- glucocorticoids
(blood sugar levels and metabolism of
proteins and fats), Mineralocorticoids
(body’s electrolyte level), and Androgens
(sex hormones)
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49. 6. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormine (LH) are
gonadotropins affecting the male and
female sex organs.
Infertility
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50. D. Posterior Pituitary Hormones
1. The posterior lobe consists of nerve
fibers and neuroglial cells that support
nerve fibers arising in the
hypothalamus.
2. Neurons in the hypothalamus produce
antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin,
which are stored in the posterior
pituitary.
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52. 3. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) produces
its effect by causing the kidneys to
conserve water.
a. The hypothalamus regulates the
secretion of ADH based on the
amount of water in body fluids.
Diabetes Insipidus- insufficient ADH loss of water
balance
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53. 4. Oxytocin plays a role in childbirth by
contracting muscles in the uterine wall,
and in milk-letdown by forcing milk
into ducts from the milk glands.
a. Stretching of the uterus in the
latter stages of pregnancy
stimulates release of oxytocin.
b. Suckling of an infant at the breast
stimulates release of oxytocin
after childbirth.
Inducing Labor- synthetic oxytocin
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54. Glands (Hormone Target
Tissue)
• Thyroid
• Parathyroid
• Adrenal
• Pancreas

56. 11.6 Thyroid
• Objectives-
– Locate the thyroid gland and identify which
hormones affect carbohydrate metabolism.
– How does the thyroid gland influence the
concentration of blood calcium

57. Thyroid Gland
A. The thyroid gland is located below the larynx
and consists of two broad lobes connected by
an isthmus.
B. Structure of the Gland
1. The thyroid consists of secretory parts
called follicles filled with hormone-
storing colloid.
11.6

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60. C. Thyroid Hormones
1. The follicular cells produce two iodine-
containing hormones, thyroxine (T4
)
(tetraiodothyronine) and
triiodothyronine (T3
), that together
regulate energy metabolism.

61. a. These two hormones increase the
rate at which cells release energy
from carbohydrates, enhance
protein synthesis, and stimulate
the breakdown and mobilization
of lipids.
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62. b. These hormones are essential for
normal growth and development.
c. The hypothalamus and pituitary
gland control release of thyroid
hormones.
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63. 2. Extrafollicular cells of the thyroid
secrete calcitonin, which lowers blood
levels of calcium and phosphate ions
when they are too high.
a. Calcitonin increases the rate at
which calcium is stored in bones
and excreted in the urine.
b. Calcitonin secretion is regulated
by negative feedback involving
blood concentrations of calcium.
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64. 11.7 Parathyroid
• Objective-
– Locate the parathyroids and be able to
describe how they help regulate
concentrations of blood calcium and
phosphate ions.

65. Parathyroid Glands
A. The four, tiny parathyroids are located on the
posterior of the thyroid.
B. Structure of the Glands
1. Parathyroid glands consist of tightly
packed secretory cells covered by a thin
capsule of connective tissue.

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67. C. Parathyroid Hormone
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases
blood calcium ion concentration and
decreases phosphate ion concentration.
2. PTH stimulates bone resorption by
osteoclasts, which releases calcium into
the blood.
3. PTH also influences the kidneys to
conserve calcium and causes increased
absorption of calcium in the intestines.

69. 4. A negative feedback mechanism
involving blood calcium levels
regulates release of PTH.
D. Calcitonin and PTH exert opposite effects in
regulating calcium ion levels in the blood.
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73. • Pancreas
• Pineal Gland
• Thymus
• Reproductive
• Digestive glands
• Stress and Health

74. 11.8 Adrenals
• Objective-
– Locate the adrenals, identify the layers of the adrenal
glands and the hormones they produce.
– What stimulates the release of medullary hormones
(hormones released from the adrenal medulla).
– What causes the release of hormones released from
the Adrenal cortex (aldosterone, cortisol and sex
hormones).
– Whats the function of aldosterone, cortisol and how
are the blood concentration regulated/
– Know the ‘fight or flight’ response

75. Adrenal Glands
A. The adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys
enclosed in a layer of fat.

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77. B. Structure of the Glands
1. The pyramid-shaped glands consist of
an inner adrenal medulla and an outer
adrenal cortex.
2. The adrenal medulla is made up of
modified postganglionic neurons that
are connected to the sympathetic
nervous system.
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78. 3. The adrenal cortex makes up most of
the adrenal glands and consists of
epithelial cells in three layers--an outer,
middle, and an inner zone.
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79. C. Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
1. The adrenal medulla secretes
epinephrine and norepinephrine into the
blood stream.
2. The effects of these hormones resemble
those of the sympathetic division
neurotransmitters of the same name,
except that they last up to 10 times
longer when they are secreted as
hormones.
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80. 3. The are used in times of stress and for
“fight or flight.”
4. Release of medullary hormones is
regulated by nervous impulses from the
central nervous system.
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81. D. Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
1. The cells of the adrenal cortex produce
over 30 different steroids, some of
which are vital to survival, the most
important of which are aldosterone
(mineralocorticoid), cortisol
(Glucocorticoid), and the sex hormones
(Androgens).
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82. 2. Aldosterone
a. Aldosterone, a mineralocorticoid,
causes the kidneys to conserve
sodium ions and thus water, and
to excrete potassium ions.
b. Aldosterone is secreted in
response to decreasing blood
volume and blood pressure as a
result of changes in the kidney.
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84. 3. Cortisol
a. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid,
influences the metabolism of
glucose, protein, and fat in
response to conditions that stress
the body and require a greater
supply of energy in the
bloodstream.
Cushing’s Syndrome- excess cortisol,
longer healing time, face becomes puffy,
fatigue, high blood pressure, hyperglycemic
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85. Cushing syndrome

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87. b. A negative feedback mechanism
involving CRH from the
hypothalamus and ACTH from
the anterior pituitary controls the
release of cortisol.
c. Stress, injury, or disease can also
trigger increased release of
cortisol.
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89. 4. Adrenal Sex Hormones
a. Sex hormones, produced in the
inner zone, are mostly of the male
type, but can be converted to
female hormones in the skin,
liver, and adipose tissues.
b. These hormones supplement
those released by the gonads and
may stimulate early development
of reproductive organs.
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90. 11.9 Pancreas

91. Pancreas
A. The pancreas secretes hormones as an
endocrine gland, and digestive juices to the
digestive tract as an exocrine gland.
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92. B. Structure of the Gland
1. The pancreas is an elongated organ
posterior to the stomach.
2. Its endocrine portions are the islets of
Langerhans that include two cell types--
alpha cells that secrete glucagon, and
beta cells that secrete insulin.
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93. C. Hormones of the Islets of Langerhans
1. Glucagon increases the blood levels of
glucose by stimulating the breakdown
of glycogen and the conversion of
noncarbohydrates into glucose.
a. The release of glucagon is
controlled by a negative
feedback system involving
low blood glucose levels.
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94. 2. Insulin decreases the blood levels of
glucose by stimulating the liver to form
glycogen, increasing protein synthesis,
and stimulating adipose cells to store
fat.
a. The release of insulin is
controlled by a negative
feedback system involving
high blood glucose levels.
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95. 3. Insulin and glucagon coordinate to
maintain a relatively stable blood
glucose concentration.
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98. A. Pineal Gland
1. The pineal gland, near the upper portion
of the thalamus, secretes melatonin,
which is involved in the regulation of
circadian rhythms of the body.
11.10 Other Endocrine glands

99. B. Thymus Gland
1. The thymus gland, lying between the
lungs under the sternum, secretes
thymosins that affect production and
differentiation of T lymphocytes that
are important in immunity.
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100. C. Reproductive Glands
1. The ovaries produce estrogen and
progesterone.
2. The placenta produces estrogen,
progesterone, and a gonadotropin.
3. The testes produce testosterone.
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101. D. Digestive Glands
1. The digestive glands secrete hormones
associated with the processes of
digestion.
E. Other Hormone Producing Organs
1. The heart secretes atrial natriuretic
peptide affecting sodium and the
kidneys secrete erythropoietin for blood
cell production.
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102. A. Factors that serve as stressors to the body
produce stress and threaten homeostasis.
11.11 Stress and Health

103. B. Types of Stress
1. Stress may be physical, psychological,
or some combination of the two.
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104. 2. Physical stress threatens the survival of
tissues, such as extreme cold, prolonged
exercise, or infections.
3. Psychological stress results from real or
perceived dangers, and includes feelings
of anger, depression, fear, and grief;
sometimes even pleasant stimuli cause
stress.
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105. C. Response to Stress
1. Responses to stress are designed to
maintain homeostasis.
2. The hypothalamus controls the general
stress syndrome, which involves
increased sympathetic activity and
increased secretion of cortisol,
glucagon, growth hormone, and
antidiuretic hormone.
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