![Elementary Composition of MSW
1
Werte aus : NEUPERT, 1989, Stoffl. Zussammensetzung von Haus- u. Gewerbemüll
Bayr. Landesamt für Umweltschutz (Hrsg.): Zusammensetzung und Schadstoffgehalt von Siedlungsabfällen, 2003
Zeschmar- Lahl, 2003
Bidlingmeyer, 1990, Schwermetalle im Hausmüll
El Dawi, 1997, Vergleich der Müllzusammensetzungen in Abfallbehandlungsanlagen
2 Werte aus: Neumayer, 1999
Döberl, 2004
Substance Ratio 2
[% FS]
Lignin 6
Cellulose 16
Hemicellulose 7
Hydrocarbons 9
Proteins 3
Fats, Resins, Waxes 2
Paper additives (org.+anorg.) 8
Plastics 18
Plastic additives (anorg.) 3
Minerals 13
Ash 4
Hazardous substances 1
Metals 10
Summe 100
Microscopical picture of slag from
thermal waste treatment
Quelle: ise.uni-karlsruhe.de
Substance Ratio 1
[Gew.% FS]
Water 35 -37
Glass/Minerals 7- 11,2
O2 13,6
H2 2,4
C ges 20 - 22
Zn 0,04 - 0,3
Fe 2,8
Pb 0,011 - 0,063
Cd 0,0006 - 0,001
Hg 0,0004
Cu 0,024
Cr 0,0031 - 0,021
Mn 0,018
Ni 0,0024
Sn 0,002
Al 0,64
As 0,0007 - 0,0009
Ti 0,16
F 0,012
Cl 0,5
S 0,2
N 0,9
P 0,1
Na 0,5
K 0,4
Mg 0,3
Ca 2,1](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-94-320.jpg)
![TAZ/NED/Fall2015En501/20150822/v1
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy that has a diameter usually considered to
be roughly 100,000–120,000 light-years but may be 150,000–180,000 light-years.
The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars, although this number
may be as high as one trillion.
There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way.
The Solar System is located within the disk, about 27,000 light-years from the
Galactic Center, on the inner edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of
gas and dust called the Orion Arm.
Nebula A nebula (Latin for "cloud";[2] pl. nebulae, nebulæ, or nebulas) is an interstellar
cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases. Originally, nebula was a
name for any diffuse astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky
Way. The Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was referred to as the Andromeda
Nebula (and spiral galaxies in general as "spiral nebulae") before the true nature
of galaxies was confirmed in the early 20th century by Vesto Slipher, Edwin
Hubble and others.
pre-main sequence
stars
A pre-main-sequence star (also known as a PMS star and PMS object) is a star in
the stage when it has not yet reached the main sequence.
A protostar grows by accretion, acquiring mass from its surrounding envelope of
interstellar dust and gas. By the time it is visible, the main accretion phase has
ended and it has acquired virtually all of its mass but has not yet started hydrogen
burning (i.e. nuclear fusion of hydrogen). The end of the main accretion phase to
the start of hydrogen burning (i.e. zero age main sequence) is the pre-main
sequence stage.
Protoplanetary disk A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disk of dense gas surrounding a
young newly formed star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star.
The protoplanetary disk may also be considered an accretion disc for the star
itself, because gasses or other material may be falling from the inner edge of the
disk onto the surface of the star. But this process should not be confused with the
accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves.
Protoplanets Protoplanets are large planetary embryos that originate within protoplanetary
discs and have undergone internal melting to produce differentiated interiors.
runaway accretion
Siderophile Siderophile (from sideron, "iron", and philia, "love") elements are the high-density
transition metals which tend to sink into the core because they dissolve readily in
iron either as solid solutions or in the molten state.
The siderophile elements include gold, cobalt, iron, iridium, manganese,
molybdenum, nickel, osmium, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium and
ruthenium.
Stars vs planets
Stellar relating to a star or stars
supernova remnant This shock wave sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust called a supernova
remnant.
Supernovae A supernova is a stellar explosion that briefly outshines an entire galaxy, radiating
as much energy as the Sun or any ordinary star is expected to emit over its entire
life span, before fading from view over several weeks or months.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-232-320.jpg)
![HANDOUT-Timeline of natural history
In the earliest solar system history, the Sun, the planetesimals and the jovian planets were formed.
The inner solar system aggregated more slowly than the outer, so the terrestrial planets were not yet
formed, including Earth and Moon.
c. 4,570 Ma: A supernova explosion (known as the primal supernova) seeds our galactic
neighborhood with heavy elements that will be incorporated into the Earth, and results in
a shock wave in a dense region of the Milky Way galaxy. The Ca-Al-rich inclusions, which
formed 2 million years before the chondrules,[1]
are a key signature of a supernova explosion.
4,567±3 Ma: Rapid collapse of hydrogen molecular cloud, forming a third-generation Population
I star, the Sun, in a region of the Galactic Habitable Zone(GHZ), about 25,000 light years from
the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.[2]
4,566±2 Ma: A protoplanetary disc (from which Earth eventually forms) emerges around the
young Sun, which is in its T Tauri stage.
4,560–4550 Ma: Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar
System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but
liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse
warming of high levels ofmethane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early
Bombardment Phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and
debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size
Hadean Eon[edit]
4,533 Ma: Hadean Eon, Precambrian Supereon and unofficial Cryptic era start as the Earth–
Moon system forms, possibly as a result of a glancing collision between proto–Earth and the
hypothetical protoplanet Theia. (The Earth was considerably smaller than now, before this
impact.) This impact vaporized a large amount of the crust, and sent material into orbit around
Earth, which lingered as rings, similar to those of Saturn, for a few million years, until they
coalesced to become the Moon. The Moon geology pre-Nectarian period starts. Earth was
covered by a magmatic ocean 200 kilometres (120 mi) deep resulting from the impact energy
from this and other planetesimals during the early bombardment phase, and energy released by
the planetary core forming. Outgassing from crustal rocks gives Earth a reducing atmosphere
of methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, and water vapour, with lesser amounts of hydrogen
sulfide, carbon monoxide, then carbon dioxide. With further full outgassing over 1000–1500 K,
nitrogen and ammonia become lesser constituents, and comparable amounts of methane,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and hydrogen are released.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-234-320.jpg)
![ 4,500 Ma: Sun enters main sequence: a solar wind sweeps the Earth-Moon system clear of
debris (mainly dust and gas). End of the Early Bombardment Phase.Basin Groups Era begins on
Earth
4,450 Ma: 100 million years after the Moon formed, the first lunar crust, formed of
lunar anorthosite, differentiates from lower magmas. The earliest Earth crust probably forms
similarly out of similar material. On Earth the pluvial period starts, in which the Earth's crust
cools enough to let oceans form.
4,300 Ma: Nectarian Era begins on Earth
4,404 Ma: First known mineral, found at Jack Hills in Western Australia. Detrital zircons show
presence of a solid crust and liquid water. Latest possible date for a secondary atmosphere to
form, produced by the Earth's crust outgassing, reinforced by water and possibly organic
molecules delivered by comet impacts andcarbonaceous chondrites (including type CI shown to
be high in a number of amino acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)).
4,250 Ma: Earliest evidence for life, based on unusually high amounts of light isotopes of
carbon, a common sign of life, found in Earth's oldest mineral deposits located in the Jack
Hills of Western Australia.[3]
4,100 Ma: Early Imbrian Era begins on Earth. Late heavy bombardment of the Moon (and
probably of the Earth as well) by bolides and asteroids, produced possibly by the planetary
migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of orbital
resonances between Jupiter and Saturn.[4]
4,030 Ma: Acasta Gneiss of Northwest Territories, Canada, first known oldest rock, or aggregate
of minerals.
Archean Eon[edit]
Main article: Archean
Eoarchean Era[edit]
Main article: Eoarchean
4,000 Ma: Archean Eon and Eoarchean Era start. Possible first appearance of plate tectonic
activity in the Earth's crust as plate structures may have begun appearing. Possible beginning
of Napier Mountains Orogeny forces of faulting and folding create first metamorphic rocks.
Origins of life.
3,930 Ma: Possible stabilization of Canadian Shield begins
3,920–3,850 Ma: Final phase of Late Heavy Bombardment
3,850 Ma: Greenland apatite shows evidence of 12
C enrichment, characteristic of the presence of
photosynthetic life.[5]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-235-320.jpg)
![ 3,850 Ma: Evidence of life: Akilia Island graphite off Western Greenland contains evidence
of kerogen, of a type consistent with photosynthesis.[citation needed]
3,800 Ma: Oldest banded iron formations found.[citation needed]
. First complete continental masses
or cratons, formed of granite blocks, appear on Earth. Occurrence of initial felsic igneous activity
on eastern edge of Antarctic craton as first great continental mass begins to coalesce. East
European Craton begins to form - first rocks of the Ukrainian Shield and Voronezh Massif are
laid down
3,750 Ma: Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt forms
3,700 Ma: Graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary
rocks discovered in Western Greenland[6]
Stabilization of Kaapval cratonbegins: old tonaltic
gneisses laid down
Paleoarchean Era[edit]
3,600 Ma: Paleoarchean Era starts. Possible assembly of the Vaalbara supercontinent: Oldest
cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield, East European Craton and Kaapval) begin
growing as a result of crustal disturbances along continents coalescing into Vaalbara - Pilbara
Craton stabilizes. Formation ofBarberton greenstone belt: Makhonjwa Mountains uplifts on the
eastern edge of Kaapval craton, oldest mountains in Africa - area called the "genesis of life" for
exceptional preservation of fossils. Narryer Gneiss Terrane stabilizes: these gniesses become
the "bedrock" for the formation of the Yilgarn Craton in Australia - noted for the survival of
the Jack Hills where the oldest mineral, a zircon was uncovered
3,500 Ma: Lifetime of the last Universal ancestor: split between bacteria and archaea occurs as
"tree of life" begins branching out - varieties of Eubacteria begin to radiate out globally. Fossils
resembling cyanobacteria, found at Warrawoona, Western Australia.[citation needed]
3,480 Ma: Fossils of microbial mat found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered
in Western Australia.[7][8]
First appearance of stromatolitic organisms that grow
at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on submerged or moist surfaces
3,460 Ma: Fossils of bacteria in chert.[citation needed]
Zimbabwe Craton stabilizes from the suture of
two smaller crustal blocks, the Tokwe Segment to the south and the Rhodesdale Segment or
Rhodesdale gneiss to the north
3.400 Ma: Eleven taxa of prokaryotes are preserved in the Apex Chert of the Pilbara craton in
Australia. Because chert is fine-grained silica-rich microcrystalline,cryptocrystalline or
microfibrious material, it preserves small fossils quite well. Stabilization of Baltic Shield begins
3.340 Ma: Johannesburg Dome forms in South Africa: located in the central part of Kaapvaal
Craton and consists of trondhjemitic and tonalitic granitic rocks intruded into mafic-ultramafic
greenstone - the oldest granitoid phase recognised so far.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-236-320.jpg)
![ 3,300 Ma: Onset of compressional tectonics[9]
Intrusion of granitic plutons on the Kaapvaal
Craton
3,260 Ma: One of the largest recorded impact events occurs near the Barberton Greenstone
Belt, when a 58 km (36 mi) asteroid leaves a hole almost 480 km (300 mi) across – two and a
half times larger in diameter than the Chicxulub crater.[10]
Mesoarchean Era[edit]
3,200 Ma: Mesoarchean Era starts. Onverwacht series in South Africa form - contain some of
the oldest microfossils mostly spheroidal and carbonaceous alga-like bodies
3,200–2600 Ma: Assembly of the Ur supercontinent to cover between 12–16% of the
current continental crust. Formation of Limpopo Belt
3.1 Ma: Fig Tree Formation: second round of fossilizations including Archaeosphaeroides
barbertonensis and Eobacterium. Gneiss and greenstone belts in the Baltic Shield are laid down
in Kola Peninsula, Karelia and northeastern Finland
3 Ma: Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica: possible formation of Humboldt Mountains in Queen
Maud Land. Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolve; they use water as a reducing agent,
thereby producing oxygen as a waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the
oceans, creating iron ore - over time oxygen concentration in the atmosphere slowly rises, acting
as a poison for many bacteria. As Moon is still very close to Earth and causes tides 1,000 feet
(305 m) high, the Earth is continually wracked by hurricane-force winds - these extreme mixing
influences are thought to stimulate evolutionary processes. Rise ofStromatolites: microbial mats
become successful forming the first reef building communities on Earth in shallow warm tidal
pool zones (to 1.5 Gyr). Tanzania Craton forms
2.940 Ma: Yilgarn Craton of western Australia forms by the accretion of a multitude of formerly
present blocks or terranes of existing continental crust
2,900 Ma: Assembly of the Kenorland supercontinent, based upon the core of the Baltic shield,
formed at 3100 Ma. Narryer Gniess Terrane (including Jack Hills) of Western Australia
undergoes extensive metamorphism
Neoarchean Era[edit]
2,800 Ma: Neoarchean Era starts. Breakup of the Vaalbara: Breakup of supercontinent Ur as it
becomes a part of the major supercontinent Kenorland. Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons join
together
2,770 Ma: Formation of Hamersley Basin on the southern margin of Pilbara Craton - last stable
submarine-fluviatile environment between the Yilgarn and Pilbara prior to rifting, contraction and
assembly of the intracratonic Gascoyne Complex
2,750 Ma: Renosterkoppies Greenstone Belt forms on the northern edge of the Kaapvaal Craton](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-237-320.jpg)
![ 2,736 Ma: Formation of the Temagami Greenstone Belt in Temagami, Ontario, Canada
2,707 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-
day Ontario and Quebec - first known Precambrian supervolcano - first phase results in creation
of 8km long, 40km wide, east-west striking Misema Caldera - coalescence of at least two large
mafic shield volcanoes
2,705 Ma: Major komatiite eruption, possibly global[9]
- possible mantle overturn event
2.704 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: second phase results in creation of 30 km long,
15 km wide northwest-southeast trending New Senator Caldera - thick massive mafic sequences
which has been inferred to be a subaqueous lava lake
2,700 Ma: Biomarkers of cyanobacteria discovered, together
with steranes (sterols of cholesterol), associated with films of eukaryotes, in shales located
beneath banded iron formation hematite beds, in Hamersley Range, Western
Australia[11]
Skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites shows a small rise in oxygen
concentration in the atmosphere[12]
Sturgeon Lake Caldera, forms in Wabigoon greenstone belt:
contains well perserved homoclinal chain of greenschist facies, metamorphosed intrusive,
volcanic and sedimentary layers - Mattabi pyroclastic flow considered third most voluminous
eruptive event. Stromatolites of Bulawayo series in Zimbabwe form: first verified reef community
on Earth. Skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites shows a small rise in oxygen
concentration in the atmosphere
2,696 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: third phase of activity constructs classic east-
northeast striking Noranda Caldera which contains a 7-to-9-km-thick succession of mafic and
felsic rocks erupted during five major series of activity. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day
Ontario and Quebec begins to form: considered world's largest series of Archean greenstone
belts, appears to represent a series of thrusted subterranes
2,690 Ma: Formation of high pressure granulites in the Limpopo Central Region
2,650 Ma: Insell Orogeny: occurrence of a very-high grade discrete tectonothermal event (a
UHT metamorphic event)
2,600 Ma: Oldest known giant carbonate platform.[9]
Saturation of oxygen in ocean sediments is
reached as oxygen now begins to dramatically appear in Earth's atmosphere
Proterozoic Eon[edit]
Main article: Proterozoic
Paleoproterozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Paleoproterozoic
Siderian Period[edit]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-238-320.jpg)
![ 2,500 Ma: Proterozoic Eon, Paleoproterozoic Era, and Siderian Period start. Oxygen saturation
in the oceans is reached: Banded iron formations form and saturate ocean floor deposits -
without an oxygen sink, Earth's atmosphere becomes highly oxygenic. Great Oxygenation
Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis - various forms of Archaea and anoxic
bacteria become extinct in first great extinction event on Earth. Algoman Orogeny or Kenoran:
assembly of Arctica out of the Canadian Laurentian Shield and Siberian craton - formation
of Angaran Shield and Slave Province
2,440 Ma: Formation of Gawler Craton in Australia
2,400 Ma: Huronian glaciation starts, probably from oxidation of earlier methane greenhouse
gas produced by burial of organic sediments of photosynthesizers. First cyanobacteria.
Formation of Dharwar Craton in southern India
2,400 Ma: Suavjarvi impact structure forms. This is the oldest known impact crater whose
remnants are still recognizable. Dharwar Craton in southern India stabilizes
Rhyacian Period[edit]
2,300 Ma: Rhyacian period starts.
2,250 Ma: Bushveld Igneous Complex forms: world's largest reserves of platinum-group
metals (platinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium and ruthenium) as well as vast quantities
of iron, tin chromium titanium and vanadium appear - formation of Transvaal Basin begins
2,200–1800 Ma: Continental Red Beds found, produced by iron in weathered sandstone being
exposed to oxygen. Eburnean Orogeny, series of tectonic, metamorphic and plutonic events
establish Eglab Shield to north of West African Craton and Man Shield to its south - Birimian
domain of West Africa established and structured
2,200 Ma: Iron content of ancient fossil soils shows an oxygen built up to 5–18% of current
levels[13]
End of Kenoran Orogeny: invasion of Superior and Slave Provinces by basaltic dikes
and sills - Wyoming and Montana arm of Superior Province experiences intrusion of 5 km thick
sheet of chromite-bearing gabbroic rock as Stillwater Complex forms
2,100 Ma: Huronian glaciation ends. Earliest known eukaryote fossils found. Earliest
multicellular organisms collectively referred to as the "Gabonionta" (Francevillian Group
Fossil), Wopmay orogeny along western margin of Canadian Shield
2,090 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: Eglab Shield experiences syntectonic trondhjemitic pluton
intrusion of its Chegga series - most of the intrusion is in the form of a plagioclase called
oligoclase
2.070 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: asthenospheric upwelling releases large volume of post-orogenic
magmas - magma events repeatedly reactivated from the Neoproterozoic to the Mesozoic
Orosirian Period[edit]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-239-320.jpg)
![ 2,050 Ma: Orosirian Period starts. Significant orogeny in most continents.
2,023 Ma: Vredefort impact structure forms.
2,005 Ma: Glenburgh Orogeny (2,005–1,920 Ma) begins: Glenburgh Terrane in western
Australia begins to stabilize during period of substantial granite magmatism and deformation;
Halfway Gneiss and Moogie Metamorphics result. Dalgaringa Supersuite (2,005–1,985 Ma),
comprising sheets, dykes and viens of mesocratic and leucocratic tonalite, stabilizes.
2,000 Ma: The lesser supercontinent Atlantica forms. The Oklo natural nuclear
reactor of Gabon produced by uranium-precipitant bacteria.[14]
First acritarchs.
1,900 - 1,880 Ma: Gunflint chert biota forms flourishes including prokaryotes
like Kakabekia, Gunflintia, Animikiea and Eoastrion
1,850 Ma: Sudbury impact structure. Penokean orogeny. First eukaryotes. Bacterial viruses
(bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic
lineages.[15]
1,830 Ma: Capricorn Orogeny (1.83 - 1.78 Gyr) stabilizes central and northern Gascoyne
Complex: formation of pelitic and psammitic schists known as Morrissey Metamorphics and
depositing Pooranoo Metamophics an amphibolite facies
Statherian Period[edit]
1,800 Ma: Statherian Period starts. Supercontinent Columbia forms, one of whose fragments
being Nena. Oldest ergs develop on several cratons[9]
Barramundi Orogeny (ca. 1.8 Gyr)
influences MacArthur Basin in Northern Australia.
1,780 Ma Colorado Orogeny (1.78 - 1.65 Gyr) influences southern margin of Wyoming craton -
collision of Colorado orogen and Trans-Hudson orogen with stabilized Archean craton structure
1,770 Ma Big Sky Orogeny (1.77 Gyr) influences southwest Montana: collision between Hearne
and Wyoming cratons
1,765 Ma As Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent slows, Yapungku Orogeny (1.765 Gyr)
begins effecting Yilgarn craton in Western Australia - possible formation of Darling Fault, one of
longest and most significant in Australia
1,760 Ma Yavapai Orogeny (1.76 - 1.7 Gyr) impacts mid to south western United States
1.750 Ma Gothian Orogeny (1.75 - 1.5 Gyr): formation of tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic rocks
and calc-alkaline volcanites in the East European Craton
1,700 Ma Stabilization of second major continental mass, the Guiana Shield in South America
1,680 Ma Mangaroon Orogeny (1.68 - 1.62 Gyr), on the Gascoyne Complex in Western
Australia: Durlacher Supersuite, granite intrusion featuring a northern (Minnie Creek) and
southern belt - heavily sheared orthoclase porphyroclastic granites](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-240-320.jpg)
![ 1.650 Ma Kararan Orogeny (1.65 Gyr) uplifts great mountains on the Gawler Craton in Southern
Australia - formation of Gawler Range including picturesque Conical Hill Track and "Organ
Pipes" waterfall
Mesoproterozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Mesoproterozoic
Calymmian Period[edit]
1,600 Ma: Mesoproterozoic Era and Calymmian Period start. Platform covers expand. Major
orogenic event in Australia: Isan Orogeny (1,600 Ma) influences Mount Isa Block of Queensland
- major deposits of lead, silver, copper and zinc are laid down. Mazatzal Orogeny (1,600 Ma -
1,300 Ma) influences mid to south western United States: Precambrian rocks of the Grand
Canyon, Vishnu Schist and Grand Canyon Series, are formed establishing basement of Canyon
with metamorphosed gniesses that are invaded by granites
1,500 Ma: Supercontinent Columbia collapses: associated with continental rifting along western
margin of Laurentia, eastern India, southern Baltica, southeastern Siberia, northwestern South
Africa and North China Block - formation of Ghats Province in India First structurally
complex eukaryotes (Hododyskia, colonial formamiferian).
Ectasian Period[edit]
1,400 Ma: Ectasian Period starts. Platform covers expand. Major increase
in Stromatolite diversity with widespread blue-green algae colonies and reefs dominating tidal
zones of oceans and seas
1,300 Ma: Break-up of Columbia Supercontinent completed: widespread anorogenic magmatic
activity, forming anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite suites in North America, Baltica,
Amazonia and North China - stabilization of Amazonian Craton in South America Grenville
orogeny(1,300 - 1,000 Ma) in North America: globally associated with assembly of
Supercontinent Rodinia establishes Grenville Province in Eastern North America - folded
mountains from Newfoundland to North Carolina as Old Rag Mountain forms
1,270 Ma Emplacement of Mackenzie granite mafic dike swarm - one of three dozen dike
swarms, forms into Mackenzie Large Igneous Province - formation of Copper Creek deposits
1,250 Ma Sveconorwegian Orogeny (1,250 Ma - 900 Ma) begins: essentially a reworking of
previously formed crust on the Baltic Shield
1,240 Ma Second major dike swarm, Sudbury dikes form in Northeastern Ontario around the
area of the Sudbury Basin
Stenian Period[edit]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-241-320.jpg)
![ 1,200 Ma: Stenian Period starts. Red alga Bangiomorpha pubescens, earliest fossil evidence
for sexually reproducing organism.[16]
Meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single-
celled eukaryotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[17]
Supercontinent
of Rodinia(1.2 Gyr - 750 Myr) completed: consisting of North American, East European,
Amazonian, West African, Eastern Antactica, Australia and China blocks, largest global system
yet formed - surrounded by superocean Mirovia
1,100 Ma: First dinoflagellate evolve: photosynthetic some develop mixotrophic habits ingesting
prey - with their appearance, prey-predator relationship is established for first time forcing
acritarchs to defensive strategies and leading to open "arms" race. Late Ruker (1.1 - 1 Gyr) and
Nimrod Orogenies (1.1 Gyr) in Antarctica possibly begins: formation of Gamburtsev mountain
range and Vostok Subglacial Highlands. Keweenawan Rift buckles in the south-central part of
the North American plate - leaves behind thick layers of rock that are exposed in Wisconsin,
Minnesota, Iowa and Nebraska and creates rift valley where future Lake Superior develops.
1.080 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny (ca. 1.080 Gyr) forms Musgrave Block, an east-west trending belt
of granulite-gneiss basement rocks - voluminous Kulgera Suite of granite and Birksgate
Complex solidify
1.076 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny: Warakurna large igneous province develops - intrusion of Giles
Complex and Winburn Suite of granites and deposition of Bentley Supergroup (including Tollu
and Smoke Hill Volcanics)
Neoproterozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Neoproterozoic
Tonian Period[edit]
1,000 Ma: Neoproterozoic Era and Tonian Period start. Grenville orogeny ends. First radiation of
dinoflagellates and spiny acritarchs - increase in defensive systems indicate that acritarchs are
responding to carnivorous habits of dinoflagellates - decline in stromatolite reef populations
begins. Rodinia starts to break up. First vaucherian algae. Rayner Orogeny as proto-India and
Antarctica collide (to 900 Ma.) Trace fossils of colonial Hododyskia (1500 Ma - 900 Ma): possible
divergence between animal and plant kingdoms begins. Stabilization of Satpura Province in
Northern India. Rayner Orogeny (1 Gyr - 900 Myr) as India and Antarctica collide
920 Ma: Edmundian Orogeny (ca. 920 - 850 Myr) redefines Gascoyne Complex: consists of
reactivation of earlier formed faults in the Gascoyne - folding and faulting of overlying Edmund
and Collier basins
920 Ma: Adelaide Geosyncline laid down in central Australia - essentially a rift complex, consists
of thick layer of sedimentary rock and minor volcanics deposited on easter margin - limestones,
shales and sandstones predominate](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-242-320.jpg)
![ 900 Ma: Bitter Springs Formation of Australia: in addition to prokaryote assemblage of fossils,
cherts include eukaryotes with ghostly internal structures similar to green algae - first
appearance of Glenobotrydion (900 - 720 Myr), among earliest plants on Earth
Cryogenian Period[edit]
850 Ma: Cryogenian Period starts, during which Earth freezes over (Snowball Earth or Slushball
Earth) at least 3 times. Rift develops on Rodinia between continental masses of Australia,
eastern Antarctica, India, Congo and Kalahari on one side and Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia,
West African and Rio de la Plata cratons on other - formation of Adamastor Ocean.
800 Ma: With free oxygen levels much higher, carbon cycle is disrupted and once again
glaciation becomes severe - beginning of second "snowball Earth" event
750 Ma: First Proterozoa appears: as creaturs like Paramecium, Amoeba and Melanocyrillium
evolve, first animal-like cells become distinctive from plants - rise of herbivores (plant feeders) in
the food chain. First Sponge-like animal: similar to early colonial foraminiferan Horodyskia,
earliest ancestors of Sponges were colonial cells that circulated food sources using flagella to
their gullet to be digested. Kaigas glaciation (ca. 750 Ma): first major glaciation of Earth - almost
entire planet is covered with ice sheets up to more than a kilometer thick and identified from
units in Namibia and the South China Block
720 Ma: Sturtian glaciation continues process begun during Kaigas - great ice sheets cover
most of the planet stunting evolutionary development of animal and plant life - survival based on
small pockets of heat under the ice
700 Ma: Fossils of testate Amoeba first appear: first complex metazoans leave unconfirmed
biomarkers - they introduce new complex body plan architecture which allows for development
of complex internal and external structures. Worm trail impressions in China: because putative
"burrows" under stromatolite mounds are of uneven width and tapering makes biological origin
difficult to defend - structures imply simple feeding behaviours. Rifting of Rodinia is completed:
formation of new superocean of Panthalassa as previous Mirovia ocean bed closes -
Mozambique mobile belt develops as a suture between plates on Congo-Tanzania craton
660 Ma As Sturtian glaciers retreat, Cadomian orogeny (660 - 540 Myr) begins on north coast
of Armorica: involving one or more collisions of island arcs on margin of future Gondwana,
terranes of Avalonia, Armorica and Ibera are laid down
650 Ma First Demosponges appear: form first skeletons of spicules made from
protein spongin and silica - brightly coloured these colonial creatures filter feed since they lack
nervous, digestive or circulatory systems and reproduce both sexually and asexually
650 Ma: Final period of worldwide glaciation, Marinoan (650 - 635 Myr) begins: most significant
"snowball Earth" event, global in scope and longer - evidence from Diamictite deposits in South
Australia laid down on Adelaide Geosyncline](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-243-320.jpg)
![Ediacaran Period[edit]
635 Ma: Ediacaran period begins. End of Marinoan Glaciation: last major "snowball Earth" event
as future ice ages will feature less overall ice coverage of the planet
633 Ma: Beardmore Orogeny (633 - 620 Ma) in Antarctica: reflection of final break-up of Rodinia
as pieces of the supercontinent begin moving together again to form Pannotia
620 Ma: Timanide Orogeny (620 - 550 Ma) affects northern Baltic Shield: gneiss province
divided into several north-south trending segments experiences numerous metasedimentary and
metavolcanic deposits - last major orogenic event of Precambrian
600 Ma: Pan-African Orogeny (600 Ma) begins: Arabian-Nubian Shield formed between plates
separating supercontinent fragments Gondwana and Pannotia - Supercontinent Pannotia (600 -
500 Ma) completed, bordered by Iapetus and Panthalassa oceans. Accumulation of atmospheric
oxygen allows for the formation of ozone layer: prior to this, land-based life would probably have
required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough to permit colonization of the
land
575 Ma: First Ediacaran-type fossils.
560 Ma: Trace fossils, e.g., worm burrows, and small bilaterally symmetrical animals.
Earliest arthropods. Earliest fungi.
555 Ma: The first possible mollusk Kimberella appears.
550 Ma: First possible comb-jellies, sponges, corals, and anemones.
544 Ma: The small shelly fauna first appears.
Phanerozoic Eon[edit]
Main article: Phanerozoic
Paleozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Paleozoic
Cambrian Period[edit]
541 ± 0.3 Ma: beginning of the Cambrian Period, the Paleozoic Era and
the Phanerozoic (current) Eon. End of the Ediacaran Period, the Proterozoic Eon and
the Precambrian Supereon. Time since the Cambrian explosion the emergence of most forms of
complex life,
including vertebrates (fish), arthropods,echinoderms and molluscs. Pannotia breaks up into
several smaller continents: Laurentia, Baltica and Gondwana.
540 Ma: Supercontinent of Pannotia breaks up.
530 Ma: First fish.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-244-320.jpg)
![ 521 Ma: First trilobites
525 Ma: First graptolites.
505 Ma: Deposition of the Burgess Shale.
Ordovician Period[edit]
485.4 ± 1.7 Ma: Beginning of the Ordovician and the end of the Cambrian Period.
485 Ma: First jawless fish.
450 Ma: Plants and arthropods colonize the land. Sharks evolve.
Silurian Period[edit]
443.8 ± 1.5 Ma: Beginning of the Silurian and the end of the Ordovician Period.
420 Ma: First creature took a breath of air. First ray-finned fish and land scorpions.
410 Ma: First toothed fish and nautiloids.
Devonian Period[edit]
419.2 ± 2.8 Ma: Beginning of the Devonian and end of the Silurian Period. First insects.
395 Ma: First of many modern groups, including tetrapods.
360 Ma: First crabs and ferns.
350 Ma: First large sharks, ratfish and hagfish.
Carboniferous Period[edit]
358.9 ± 2.5 Ma: Beginning of the Carboniferous and the end of Devonian
Period. Amphibians diversify.
330 Ma: First amniotes evolve.
320 Ma: First synapsids evolve.
315 Ma: The evolution of the first reptiles.
305 Ma: First diapsids evolve.
Permian Period[edit]
298.9 ± 0.8 Ma: End of Carboniferous and beginning of Permian Period. By this time, all
continents have fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea. Beetlesevolve. Seed
plants and conifers diversify along with temnospondyls and pelycosaurs.
275 Ma: First therapsids evolve.
251.4 Ma: Permian mass extinction. End of Permian Period and of the Palaeozoic Era.
Beginning of Triassic Period, the Mesozoic era and of the age of the dinosaurs.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-245-320.jpg)
![Mesozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Mesozoic
Triassic Period[edit]
252.17 ± 0.4 Ma: Mesozoic era and Triassic Period begin. Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins.
245 Ma: First ichthyosaurs.
240 Ma: Cynodonts and rhynchosaurs diversify.
225 Ma: First dinosaurs and teleosti evolve.
220 Ma: First crocodilians and flies.
215 Ma: First turtles. Long-necked sauropod dinosaurs and Coelophysis, one of the
earliest theropod dinosaurs, evolve. First mammals.
Jurassic Period[edit]
201.3 ± 0.6 Ma: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event marks the end of Triassic and beginning
of Jurassic Period. The largest dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus andBrachiosaurus evolve during
this time, as do the carnosaurs; large, bipedal predatory dinosaurs such as Allosaurus. First
specialized pterosaurs and sauropods.Ornithischians diversify.
190 Ma: Pliosaurs evolve, along with many groups of primitive sea invertebrates.
180 Ma: Pangaea splits into two major continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the
south.
176 Ma: First stegosaurs.
170 Ma: First salamanders and newts evolve. Cynodonts go extinct.
165 Ma: First stingrays.
161 Ma: First ceratopsians.
155 Ma: First birds and triconodonts. Stegosaurs and theropods diversify.
Cretaceous Period[edit]
145 ± 4 Ma: End of Jurassic and beginning of Cretaceous Period.
130 Ma: Laurasia and Gondwana begin to split apart as the Atlantic Ocean forms. First flowering
plants.
115 Ma: First monotremes.
110 Ma: First hesperornithes.
106 Ma: Spinosaurus evolves.
100 Ma: First bees.
90 Ma: the Indian subcontinent splits from Gondwana, becoming an
island continent. Ichthyosaurs go extinct. Snakes and ticks evolve.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-246-320.jpg)
![ 80 Ma: Australia splits from Antarctica. First ants.
70 Ma: Multituberculates diversify.
68 Ma: Tyrannosaurus rex evolves.
66 ± 0.3 Ma: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous Period marks
the end of the Mesozoic era and the age of the dinosaurs; start of the Paleogene Period and the
current Cenozoic era.
Cenozoic Era[edit]
Main article: Cenozoic
Paleogene Period[edit]
63 Ma: First creodonts.
60 Ma: Evolution of the first primates and miacids. Flightless birds diversify.
56 Ma: Gastornis evolves.
55 Ma: the island of the Indian subcontinent collides with Asia, thrusting up the Himalayas and
the Tibetan Plateau. Many modern bird groups appear. Firstwhale ancestors.
First rodents, lagomorphs, armadillos, sirenians, proboscideans, perissodactyls, artiodactyls,
and mako sharks. Angiosperms diversify.
52 Ma: First bats.
50 Ma: Africa collides with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Sea. Divergence
of cat and dog ancestors. Primates diversify. Brontotheres, tapirs, rhinos, and camelsevolve.
49 Ma: Whales return to the water.
40 Ma: Age of the Catarrhini parvorder; first canines evolve. Lepidopteran insects become
recognizable. Gastornis goes extinct. Basilosaurus evolves.
37 Ma: First Nimravids.
33.9 ± 0.1 Ma: End of Eocene, start of Oligocene epoch.
35 Ma: Grasslands first appear. Glyptodonts, ground sloths, peccaries, dogs, eagles, and hawks
evolve.
33 Ma: First thylacinid marsupials evolve.
30 Ma: Brontotheres go extinct. Pigs evolve. South America separates from Antarctica,
becoming an island continent.
28 Ma: Paraceratherium evolves.
26 Ma: Emergence of the first true elephants.
25 Ma: First deer. Cats evolve.
Neogene Period[edit]
23.03 ± 0.05 Ma: Neogene Period and Miocene epoch begin](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-247-320.jpg)
![ 20 Ma: Giraffes and giant anteaters evolve.
18-12 Ma: estimated age of the Hominidae/Hylobatidae (great apes vs. gibbons) split.
15 Ma: First mastodons, bovids, and kangaroos. Australian megafauna diversify.
10 Ma: Insects diversify. First large horses.
6.5 Ma: First members of the Hominini tribe.
6 Ma: Australopithecines diversify.
5.96 Ma - 5.33 Ma: Messinian Salinity Crisis: the precursor of the current Strait of
Gibraltar closes repeatedly, leading to a partial desiccation and strong increase in salinity of
the Mediterranean Sea.
5.4-6.3 Ma: Estimated age of the Homo/Pan (human vs. chimpanzee) split.
5.5 Ma: Appearance of the genus Ardipithecus
5.33 Ma: Zanclean flood: the Strait of Gibraltar opens for the last (and current) time and water
from the Atlantic Sea fills again the Mediterranean Sea basin.
5.333 ± 0.005 Ma: Pliocene epoch begins. First tree sloths and hippopotami. First large
vultures. Nimravids go extinct.
4.8 Ma: The mammoth appears.
4.5 Ma: appearance of the genus Australopithecus
3 Ma: Isthmus of Panama joins North and South America. Great American Interchange.
2.7 Ma: Paranthropus evolve.
2.6 Ma: current ice age begins
Quaternary Period[edit]
2.58 ± 0.005 Ma: start of the Pleistocene epoch, the Stone Age and the
current Quaternary Period; emergence of the genus Homo. Smilodon, the best known of
the sabre-toothed cats, appears.
1.8 Ma: Oldest known Homo erectus fossils. This species might be evolved some time before,
up to 2 Ma ago.
1.7 Ma: Australopithecines go extinct.
1.5 Ma: earliest possible evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus
1.2 Ma: Homo antecessor evolves. Paranthropus dies out.
0.79 Ma: earliest demonstrable evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus
0.7 Ma: last reversal of the earth's magnetic field
0.64 Ma: Yellowstone caldera erupts
0.6 Ma: Homo heidelbergensis evolves.
0.5 Ma: colonisation of Eurasia by Homo erectus. Ancient history begins.
0.3 Ma: Approximate age of Canis lupus. Middle Stone Age begins in Africa.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-248-320.jpg)
![ 0.25 Ma: Neanderthals evolve.
0.2 Ma: Middle Paleolithic begins. Appearance of Homo sapiens in Africa
For later events, see Timeline of human prehistory.
Etymology of period names[edit]
Period Started Root word Meaning Reason for name
Siderian 2500 Ma Greek sidēros iron ref. the banded iron formations
Rhyacian 2300 Ma Gk. rhyax lava flow much lava flowed
Orosirian 2050 Ma Gk. oroseira
mountain
range
much orogeny in this period's latter half
Statherian 1800 Ma Gk. statheros steady continents became stable cratons
Calymmian 1600 Ma Gk. calymma cover platform covers developed or expanded
Ectasian 1400 Ma Gk. ectasis stretch platform covers expanded
Stenian 1200 Ma Gk. stenos narrow
much orogeny, which survives
as narrow metamorphic belts
Tonian 1000 Ma Gk. tonos stretch
The continental crust stretched
as Rodinia broke up](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-249-320.jpg)
![Table of geologic time[edit]
The following table summarizes the major events and characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. As above, this time scale is
based on the International Commission on Stratigraphy. (See lunar geologic timescale for a discussion of the geologic subdivisions of Earth's moon.) This
table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the most ancient at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond
to the duration of each subdivision of time.
The content of the table is based on the current official geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy,[1]
with the epoch names altered
to the early/late format from lower/upper as recommended by the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.[3]
A service providing a Resource Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the timescale is available through the Commission for
the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service[18]
and at a SPARQL end-point.[19][20]
[hide]Su
pereon
Eon Era Period[21]
Epoch Age[22]
Major events
Start,
million
years ago[22]
n/a[23] Phanero
zoic
Cenozo
ic[24]
Quatern
ary
Holocen
e
chrons:Subatlantic ·Subbor
eal ·Atlantic · Boreal ·Preb
oreal
Quaternary Ice Age recedes, and the
currentinterglacial begins; rise of
human civilization. Saharaforms from savannah,
and agriculture begins. Stone Age cultures give way to Bronze
Age (3300 BC) andIron Age (1200 BC), giving rise to many
pre-historic cultures throughout the world. Little Ice
Age (stadial) causes brief cooling in Northern Hemisphere from
1400 to 1850. Following the Industrial
Revolution,atmospheric CO2 levels rise from around 280 parts
per million volume (ppmv) to the current level of
400[25]
ppmv.[26][27]
0.0117[28]
Pleistoce
ne
Late (locallyTarantian ·Tyrr
henian ·Eemian ·Sangamo
nian)
Flourishing and then extinction of many
largemammals (Pleistocene megafauna). Evolution of
anatomically modern humans. Quaternary Ice Agecontinues
with glaciations and interstadials (and the accompanying
fluctuations from 100 to 300 ppmv
inatmospheric CO2 levels[26][27]
), further intensification
of Icehouse Earth conditions, roughly 1.6 Ma. Last glacial
maximum (30000 years ago), last glacial period (18000–15000
years ago). Dawn of humanstone-age cultures, with increasing
technical complexity relative to previous ice age cultures, such
as engravings and clay statues (e.g. Venus of Lespugue),
particularly in the Mediterranean and Europe. Lake
Toba supervolcano erupts 75000 years before present,
causing a volcanic winter that pushes humanity to the brink of
0.126
Middle (formerly Ionian) 0.781
Calabrian 1.8*
Gelasian 2.58*](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-252-320.jpg)
![extinction. Pleistocene ends with Oldest Dryas, Older
Dryas/Allerød and Younger Dryas climate events, with
Younger Dryas forming the boundary with the Holocene.
Neogen
e
Pliocene
Piacenzian/Blancan Intensification of present Icehouse conditions,present
(Quaternary) ice age begins roughly 2.58 Ma; cool and
dry climate. Australopithecines, many of the existing genera of
mammals, and recent mollusksappear. Homo habilis appears.
3.6*
Zanclean 5.333*
Miocene
Messinian Moderate Icehouse climate, punctuated by ice
ages;Orogeny in Northern Hemisphere.
Modern mammaland bird families become
recognizable. Horses andmastodons diverse. Grasses become
ubiquitous. First apes appear (for reference see the article:
"Sahelanthropus tchadensis"). Kaikoura
Orogenyforms Southern Alps in New Zealand, continues today.
Orogeny of the Alps in Europe slows, but continues to this
day. Carpathian orogeny formsCarpathian
Mountains in Central and Eastern Europe.Hellenic orogeny in
Greece and Aegean Sea slows, but continues to this
day. Middle Miocene Disruptionoccurs. Widespread forests
slowly draw in massive amounts of CO2, gradually lowering the
level of atmospheric CO2 from 650 ppmv down to around 100
ppmv.[26][27]
7.246*
Tortonian 11.63*
Serravallian 13.82*
Langhian 15.97
Burdigalian 20.44
Aquitanian 23.03*
Paleoge
ne
Oligocen
e
Chattian Warm but cooling climate, moving towards Icehouse;
Rapid evolution and diversification of fauna,
especially mammals. Major evolution and dispersal of modern
types of flowering plants
28.1
Rupelian 33.9*
Eocene
Priabonian Moderate, cooling climate.
Archaic mammals (e.g.Creodonts, Condylarths, Uintatheres,
etc.) flourish and continue to develop during the epoch.
Appearance of several "modern" mammal families.
Primitive whales diversify. First grasses. Reglaciation of
Antarctica and formation of its ice cap; Azolla event triggers ice
age, and the Icehouse Earth climate that would follow it to this
day, from the settlement and decay of seafloor algae drawing
in massive amounts of atmospheric carbon
dioxide,[26][27]
lowering it from 3800 ppmv down to 650 ppmv.
End of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky
Mountains in North America. Orogeny of the Alps in Europe
begins. Hellenic Orogeny begins in Greece and Aegean Sea.
37.8
Bartonian 41.2
Lutetian 47.8*
Ypresian 56*
Paleocen
e
Thanetian Climate tropical. Modern plants appear; Mammalsdiversify into
a number of primitive lineages following the extinction of the
dinosaurs. First large mammals (up to bear or
small hippo size). Alpine orogeny in Europe and Asia
59.2*
Selandian 61.6*
Danian 66*](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-253-320.jpg)
![begins. Indian Subcontinent collides with Asia
55 Ma, Himalayan Orogeny starts between 52 and 48 Ma.
Mesoz
oic
Cretace
ous
Late
Maastrichtian
Flowering plants proliferate, along with new types ofinsects.
More modern teleost fish begin to
appear.Ammonoidea, belemnites, rudist bivalves, echinoidsan
d sponges all common. Many new types
ofdinosaurs (e.g. Tyrannosaurs, Titanosaurs, duck bills,
and horned dinosaurs) evolve on land, as doEusuchia (modern
crocodilians); and mosasaurs and modern sharks appear in the
sea. Primitive birdsgradually
replace pterosaurs. Monotremes,marsupials and placental ma
mmals appear. Break up of Gondwana. Beginning
of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky
Mountains. atmospheric CO2close to present-day levels.
72.1 ± 0.2*
Campanian 83.6 ± 0.2
Santonian 86.3 ± 0.5*
Coniacian 89.8 ± 0.3
Turonian 93.9*
Cenomanian 100.5*
Early
Albian ~113
Aptian ~125
Barremian ~129.4
Hauterivian ~132.9
Valanginian ~139.8
Berriasian ~145
Jurassic
Late
Tithonian
Gymnosperms (especially conifers, Bennettitales andcycads)
and ferns common. Many types ofdinosaurs, such
as sauropods, carnosaurs, andstegosaurs. Mammals common
but small.
First birdsand lizards. Ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs diverse.Biv
alves, Ammonites and belemnites abundant. Sea urchins very
common, along with crinoids, starfish,sponges,
and terebratulid and rhynchonellidbrachiopods. Breakup
of Pangaea into Gondwanaand Laurasia. Nevadan orogeny in
North America.Rantigata and Cimmerian Orogenies taper off.
Atmospheric CO2 levels 4–5 times the present day levels
(1200–1500 ppmv, compared to today's 385 ppmv[26][27]
).
152.1 ± 0.9
Kimmeridgian 157.3 ± 1.0
Oxfordian 163.5 ± 1.0
Middle
Callovian 166.1 ± 1.2
Bathonian 168.3 ± 1.3*
Bajocian 170.3 ± 1.4*
Aalenian 174.1 ± 1.0*
Early
Toarcian 182.7 ± 0.7*
Pliensbachian 190.8 ± 1.0*
Sinemurian 199.3 ± 0.3*
Hettangian 201.3 ± 0.2*
Triassic
Late
Rhaetian Archosaurs dominant on land as dinosaurs, in the oceans
as Ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs, and in the air
as pterosaurs. Cynodonts become smaller and more mammal-
like, while first mammals andcrocodilia appear. Dicroidiumflora
common on land. Many large
aquatic temnospondyl amphibians.Ceratitic
ammonoids extremely common. Modern corals and teleost fish
appear, as do many moderninsect clades. Andean Orogeny in
~208.5
Norian ~227
Carnian ~237*
Middle
Ladinian ~242*
Anisian 247.2
Early Olenekian 251.2](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-254-320.jpg)
![Induan
South America.Cimmerian Orogeny in Asia. Rangitata
Orogenybegins in New Zealand. Hunter-Bowen
Orogeny inNorthern Australia, Queensland and New South
Wales ends, (c. 260–225 Ma)
252.17
± 0.06*
Paleoz
oic
Permian
Lopingia
n
Changhsingian
Landmasses unite into supercontinent Pangaea, creating
the Appalachians. End of Permo-Carboniferous
glaciation. Synapsid reptiles(pelycosaurs and therapsids)
become plentiful,
whileparareptiles and temnospondyl amphibians remain
common. In the mid-Permian, coal-age flora are replaced
by cone-bearing gymnosperms (the first trueseed plants) and
by the first true mosses. Beetlesand flies evolve. Marine life
flourishes in warm shallow
reefs; productid and spiriferid brachiopods, bivalves, forams,
and ammonoids all abundant.Permian-Triassic extinction
event occurs 251 Ma: 95% of life on Earth becomes extinct,
including alltrilobites, graptolites,
and blastoids. Ouachita andInnuitian orogenies in North
America. Uralian orogenyin Europe/Asia tapers
off. Altaid orogeny in Asia.Hunter-Bowen
Orogeny on Australian continentbegins (c. 260–225 Ma),
forming the MacDonnell Ranges.
254.14
± 0.07*
Wuchiapingian 259.8 ± 0.4*
Guadalu
pian
Capitanian 265.1 ± 0.4*
Wordian/Kazanian 268.8 ± 0.5*
Roadian/Ufimian 272.3 ± 0.5*
Cisuralia
n
Kungurian 283.5 ± 0.6
Artinskian 290.1 ± 0.26
Sakmarian 295 ± 0.18
Asselian
298.9
± 0.15*
Carbon-
iferous[29]
Pennsylv
anian
Gzhelian Winged insects radiate suddenly; some
(esp.Protodonata and Palaeodictyoptera) are quite
large.Amphibians common and diverse.
First reptiles andcoal forests (scale trees, ferns, club
trees, giant horsetails, Cordaites, etc.). Highest-
ever atmosphericoxygen levels. Goniatites, brachiopods,
bryozoa, bivalves, and corals plentiful in the seas and oceans.
Testate forams proliferate. Uralian orogeny in Europe and
Asia. Variscan orogeny occurs towards middle and late
Mississippian Periods.
303.7 ± 0.1
Kasimovian 307 ± 0.1
Moscovian 315.2 ± 0.2
Bashkirian 323.2 ± 0.4*
Mississip
pian
Serpukhovian Large primitive trees, first land vertebrates, and
amphibious sea-scorpions live amid coal-forming
coastal swamps. Lobe-finned rhizodonts are dominant big
fresh-water predators. In the oceans, early sharks are common
and quite
diverse;echinoderms (especially crinoids and blastoids)
abundant. Corals, bryozoa, goniatites and brachiopods
(Productida, Spiriferida, etc.) very common,
but trilobites and nautiloids decline.Glaciation in
East Gondwana. Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand tapers off.
330.9 ± 0.2
Viséan 346.7 ± 0.4*
Tournaisian 358.9 ± 0.4*
Devonia Late Famennian First clubmosses, horsetails and ferns appear, as do the 372.2 ± 1.6*](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-255-320.jpg)
![Drumian inarticulate brachiopods(unhinged lampshells), and many other
animals numerous. Anomalocarids are giant predators, while
many Ediacaran fauna die
out. Prokaryotes, protists(e.g., forams), fungi and algae continu
e to present day. Gondwana emerges. Petermann Orogeny on
theAustralian continent tapers off (550–535 Ma). Ross
Orogeny in Antarctica. Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian
Orogeny), majority of orogenic activity from 514–
500 Ma. Lachlan Orogeny on Australian continent, c. 540–
440 Ma. Atmospheric CO2 content roughly 20–35 times
present-day (Holocene) levels (6000 ppmv compared to
today's 385 ppmv)[26][27]
~504.5*
Stage 5 ~509
Series 2
Stage 4 ~514
Stage 3 ~521
Terreneu
vian
Stage 2 ~529
Fortunian 541 ± 1.0*
Precambrian[30]
Proterozoic[31]
Neoproterozoic[31]
Ediacaran
Good fossils of the first multi-celled
animals. Ediacaran biota flourish
worldwide in seas. Simple trace fossils of
possible worm-like Trichophycus, etc.
First sponges andtrilobitomorphs.
Enigmatic forms include many soft-jellied
creatures shaped like bags, disks, or
quilts (likeDickinsonia). Taconic
Orogeny in North America. Aravalli
Range orogeny inIndian Subcontinent.
Beginning of Petermann
Orogeny on Australian continent.
Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica, 633–
620 Ma.
~635*
Cryogenian
Possible "Snowball Earth"
period. Fossils still
rare. Rodinia landmass begins to break
up. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in
Antarctica tapers of<bef.
720[32]
Tonian
Rodinia supercontinent persists. Trace
fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes.
First radiation of dinoflagellate-
like acritarchs. Grenville Orogeny tapers
off in North America. Pan-African
orogeny in Africa. Lake Ruker / Nimrod
Orogeny in Antarctica, 1000 ± 150 Ma.
Edmundian Orogeny (c. 920 –
850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex, Western
Australia. Adelaide Geosyncline laid down
on Australian continent, beginning
of Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian
Orogeny) in that continent.
1000[32]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-257-320.jpg)
![Mesoproterozoic[31]
Stenian
Narrow highly metamorphic belts due
to orogeny as Rodinia forms. Late Ruker /
Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica possibly
begins. Musgrave Orogeny (c.
1080 Ma), Musgrave Block,Central
Australia.
1200[32]
Ectasian
Platform covers continue to
expand. Green algae colonies in the
seas. Grenville Orogeny in North
America.
1400[32]
Calymmian
Platform covers expand. Barramundi
Orogeny, McArthur Basin, Northern
Australia, and Isan Orogeny, c.1600 Ma,
Mount Isa Block, Queensland
1600[32]
Paleoproterozoic[31]
Statherian
First complex single-celled
life: protists with nuclei. Columbia is the
primordial supercontinent. Kimban
Orogeny in Australian continent ends.
Yapungku Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in
Western Australia. Mangaroon Orogeny,
1680–1620 Ma, on the Gascoyne
Complex in Western Australia. Kararan
Orogeny (1650– Ma), Gawler
Craton, South Australia.
1800[32]
Orosirian
The atmosphere becomes oxygenic. Vred
efort and Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts.
Muchorogeny. Penokean and Trans-
Hudsonian Orogenies in North America.
Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2000–
1700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh
Terrane, Australian continent c.2005–
1920 Ma. Kimban Orogeny, Gawler
craton in Australian continent begins.
2050[32]
Rhyacian
Bushveld Igneous
Complex forms. Huronian glaciation.
2300[32]
Siderian
Oxygen catastrophe: banded iron
formations forms. Sleaford Orogeny
on Australian continent,Gawler
Craton 2440–2420 Ma.
2500[32]
Archean[31]
Neoarchean[31]
Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn
event. Insell Orogeny, 2650 ± 150 Ma.Abitibi greenstone belt in
present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilizes by
2600 Ma.
2800[32]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-258-320.jpg)
![Mesoarchean[31]
First stromatolites (probably colonial cyanobacteria).
Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica.Blake
River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-
day Ontario and Quebec, ends by roughly 2696 Ma.
3200[32]
Paleoarchean[31]
First known oxygen-producing bacteria. Oldest
definitive microfossils. Oldest cratons on Earth (such as
theCanadian Shield and the Pilbara Craton) may have formed
during this period.[33]
Rayner Orogeny in Antarctica.
3600[32]
Eoarchean[31] Simple single-celled life (probably bacteria and archaea).
Oldest probable microfossils.
4000
Hadean[31][34]
Early Imbrian[31][35]
Indirect photosynthetic evidence (e.g., kerogen) of primordial
life. This era overlaps the end of the Late Heavy
Bombardment of the Inner Solar System.
~4100
Nectarian[31][35]
This unit gets its name from the lunar geologic timescale when
the Nectaris Basin and other greater lunar basins form by
big impact events.
~4300
Basin Groups[31][35]
Oldest known rock (4030 Ma).[36]
The first life forms and self-
replicating RNA molecules evolve around 4000 Ma, after
the Late Heavy Bombardment ends on Earth. Napier Orogeny
in Antarctica, 4000 ± 200 Ma.
~4500
Cryptic[31][35]
Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4404 ± 8 Ma).[37]
Formation
of Moon (4533 Ma), probably from giant impact. Formation
of Earth (4567.17 to 4570 Ma)
~4567](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-259-320.jpg)
![Thunderbolts over Larkana during the Pre
Monsoon of 2015
Lightning in Murree during the monsoon
of 2005
List of extreme weather records in Pakistan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The weather extremes in Pakistan include high and low
temperatures, heaviest Rainfall and flooding. The highest
temperature ever recorded in Pakistan is 53.5 °C (128.3 °F)
which was recorded in Mohenjodaro, Sindh on 26 May 2010.
It was not only the hottest temperature ever recorded in
Pakistan but also the hottest reliably measured temperature
ever recorded on the continent of Asia.[1][2] and the fourth
highest temperature ever recorded on earth. The highest
Rainfall of 620 millimetres (24 in) was recorded in Islamabad
during 24 hours on 23 July 2001. The recordbreaking Rain
fell in just 10 hours. It was the heaviest Rainfall in Islamabad
in the previous 100 years.[3][4]
Contents
1 Temperature
1.1 List of cities with temperature of 50°C or
above
1.2 List of cities with temperature of 45°C or
above but below 50°C
1.3 List of cities with temperature of 0°C or
below
1.4 List of cities with temperature of 5°C or
below but above 0°C
1.5 Recordbreaking 2010 summer heat wave
2 Precipitation
2.1 Heaviest Rainfall of 400 mm or above
during 24 hours
2.2 Heaviest Rainfall of 200 mm or above but
below 400 mm during 24 hours
2.3 Heaviest Snowfall of 40" or above during 24
hours
2.4 Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of
September 2014
2.4.1 Heavy Rainfall recorded during the
wet spell of September 2014
2.5 Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of
September 2012 in Sindh
2.5.1 Heavy Rainfall recorded during the
wet spell of September 2012 in Sindh
2.6 Recordbreaking torrential Rainfall of
August and September 2011 in Sindh
2.6.1 Heavy Rainfall recorded during the
wet spells of August and September 2011
in Sindh
2.7 Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of July
2010
2.7.1 Heavy Rainfall recorded during the
wet spell of July 2010
3 Floods](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-478-320.jpg)
![3 Floods
3.1 See also
3.2 Notes
3.3 References
3.4 External links
Temperature
The standard measuring conditions for temperature are 1.2 meters above the ground out of direct sunlight
(hence the term, x degrees "in the shade").
List of cities with temperature of 50°C or above
Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 50 °C (122 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department, 1931–2015[5]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-479-320.jpg)
![Date
Temperature
°C
City Province Notes References
26 May 2010
53.5 °C
(128.3 °F)[A] Mohenjodaro Sindh
It was the fourth
highest
temperature ever
recorded on earth
and the hottest
reliably measured
temperature ever
recorded in the
continent of Asia.
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for four
consecutive days
from 24 to 27
May 2010.
[1][2]
26 May 2010
53.4 °C
(128.1 °F)[A] Larkana Sindh
It was the fifth
highest
temperature ever
recorded on earth
and the second
hottest reliably
measured
temperature ever
recorded in the
continent of Asia
and it is the
hottest city of
Pakistan since
2010. 50 °C
(122 °F) or above
was recorded for
four consecutive
days from 24 to
27 May 2010.
[2]
26 May 2010 53 °C (127 °F) Jacobabad Sindh
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for four
consecutive days,
24 to 27 May
2010.Event also
occurred on 12
June 1919.
[2]
26 May 2010
53 °C
(127 °F)[A] Sibi Balouchistan
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for
consecutive 5
days from 22 to
26 May 2010.
Previously
52.6 °C
(126.7 °F) was
recorded on June
5, 2003.[6]
[2]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-480-320.jpg)
![5, 2003.[6]
12 June 1919
52.8 °C
(127.0 °F)
Jacobabad Sindh [7][8]
31 May 1998
52.7 °C
(126.9 °F)[A] Larkana Sindh
It was the highest
temperature in
1998.
[9]
26 May 2010
52.5 °C
(126.5 °F)[A] Padidan Sindh
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for three
consecutive days
from 24 to 26
May 2010.
[2]
26 May 2010
52 °C
(126 °F)[A] Nawabshah Sindh
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for
consecutive 5
days from 22 to
26 May 2010.
[2]
30 May 2009 52 °C (126 °F) Turbat Balouchistan
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for
consecutive 5
days from 26 to
29 May 2009.
[2]
19 May 2013
51.5 °C
(124.7 °F)
Larkana Sindh [10]
1 July 1990
51.4 °C
(124.5 °F)
Dalbandin Balouchistan
22 May 2010
51.3 °C
(124.3 °F)
Larkana Sindh [11]
9 June 2007 51 °C (124 °F) Mianwali Punjab
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for 2
days, 9 and 10
June 2007.
[2]
1 June 1996 51 °C (124 °F) Rohri Sindh [12]
28 May 2010
51 °C
(124 °F)[A] Dadu Sindh
50 °C (122 °F)
was recorded for
2 days, 26 and 27
May 2010 .
[2]
26 May 2010
51 °C
(124 °F)[A] Noorpurthal Punjab
50 °C (122 °F)
was recorded on
May 19, 2011.
[2][13]
25 May 2010
51 °C
(124 °F)[A] Sukkur Sindh
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for three
consecutive days,
25 to 27 May
2010.
[2]
50 °C (122 °F)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-481-320.jpg)
![10 June 2007 51 °C (124 °F) Sargodha Punjab
50 °C (122 °F)
was recorded for
2 days, 9 and 10
June 2007.
[2]
26 May 2010
50 °C
(122 °F)[A]
Rahim yar
Khan
Punjab
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for three
consecutive days
from 25 to 27
May 2010.
[2]
15 May 2009 50 °C (122 °F) Lasbella Balochistan
50 °C (122 °F)
was recorded for
2 days, 15 and 16
May 2009. 50 °C
(122 °F) was also
recorded on May
21, 2011.
[2][14]
27 May 2010
50 °C
(122 °F)[A] Multan Punjab
Record
temperature in
city ; previous
highest was 49 °C
(120 °F) in 1956.
[2]
26 May 2010
50 °C
(122 °F)[A] Bahawalnagar Punjab [2]
20 May 2011 50 °C (122 °F) Pasni Balochistan [15]
18 June 1995 50 °C (122 °F) Peshawar
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[16]
5 June 1978 50 °C (122 °F)
Dera Ismail
Khan
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[17]
10 June 2007 50 °C (122 °F) Bannu
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
50 °C (122 °F) or
above was
recorded for two
days, 9 and 10
June 2007.
[2]
List of cities with temperature of 45°C or above but below 50°C
Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 45 °C (113 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-482-320.jpg)
![Date
Temperature
°C
City Province Notes References
4 June 2014
49.5 °C
(121.1 °F)*
Gwadar Balochistan
Highest
temperature
on Makran
coast.
20 June 2010 49 °C (120 °F)* Dera Ghazi Khan Punjab [2]
7 June 1991
48.5 °C
(119.3 °F)
Hyderabad Sindh [18] so
26 May 2010
48.5 °C
(119.3 °F)[A] Bhakkar Punjab [2]
30 May 1944
48.3 °C
(118.9 °F)
Lahore Punjab
48 °C
(118 °F)
was
recorded in
Lahore on
10 June
2007.
[19][20]
8 June 2014
48.0 °C
(118.4 °F)*
Gwadar Balochistan
This
temperature
was also
recorded on
9 June
2014.
10 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Attock Punjab
26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F) Faisalabad Punjab
This
temperature
was also
recorded on
24 June
2005.
[2][21]
8 June 1979 48 °C (118 °F) Jiwani Balouchistan [22]
26 May 2010
48 °C
(118 °F)[A] Jhelum Punjab [2]
25 May 2010
48 °C
(118 °F)[A] Bhawalpur Punjab [2]
9 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Mandi Bahauddin Punjab [2]
26 May 2010
48 °C
(118 °F)[A] Kohat
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[2]
25 May 2010
48 °C
(118 °F)[A] Bhawalpur Punjab [2]
26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F) Nok Kundi Balouchistan [2]
11 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Thatta Sindh
9 June 1938
47.8 °C
(118.0 °F)
Karachi Sindh [23]
This is the
highest
recorded](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-483-320.jpg)
![24 May 2013
47.4 °C
(117.3 °F)
Lahore Punjab
recorded
temperature
of May in
Lahore
since
1954.[10]
24 June 1990
47.3 °C
(117.1 °F)
Drosh
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[24]
22 June 2007 47 °C (117 °F) Chorr Sindh
25 May 2010
47 °C
(117 °F)[A] Okara Punjab [2]
25 May 2010
47 °C
(117 °F)[A] Sahiwal Punjab [2]
24 May 2010
47 °C
(117 °F)[A] Khanpur Punjab [2]
7 June 2014
48.1 °C
(118.6 °F)
Sialkot Punjab
24 May 2010
47 °C
(117 °F)[A] Toba tek singh Punjab [2]
23 June 2005
46.6 °C
(115.9 °F)
Rawalpindi/Islamabad
Punjab/Islamabad
Capital Territory
[25]
31 May 1988
46.5 °C
(115.7 °F)
Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir [26]
17 July 1997
46.3 °C
(115.3 °F)
Gilgit Gilgit Baltistan [27]
26 May 2010
46 °C
(115 °F)[A] Gujranwala Punjab [2]
10 June 2007 46 °C (115 °F) Rawalpindi Punjab
This
temperature
was also
recorded on
29 June
2009.
[28]
20 June 2015 45 °C (113 °F) Karachi Sindh [2]
List of cities with temperature of 0°C or below
Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 0 °C (32 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-484-320.jpg)
![Date Temperature °C City Province Notes References
7 January 1995 −24.1 °C (−11.4 °F) Skardu Gilgit–Baltistan [29]
8 January 1970 −18.3 °C (−0.9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [30]
1 February 1970 −16.7 °C (1.9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [30]
30 December
2013
−15 °C (5 °F) Kalat Balochistan [31]
5 February 2008 −15 °C (5 °F) Quetta Balochistan [32]
30 December
2013
−13 °C (9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [31]
26 December
2011
−12 °C (10 °F) Kalat Balochistan
17 January 1967 −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [33]
7 January 1970 −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [34]
17 January 1967 −2.5 °C (27.5 °F) Rawalpindi Punjab
17 January 1935 −2.2 °C (28.0 °F) Lahore Punjab [35]
21 January 1934 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) Karachi Sindh [36]
List of cities with temperature of 5°C or below but above 0°C
Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 0 °C (32 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources.
Recordbreaking 2010 summer heat wave
The hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever recorded in the
world was in Mohenjodaro, Sindh at 53.5 °C (128.3 °F) while the second hottest temperature ever
recorded in Asia and the fifth highest temperature ever recorded in the world was in Larkana, Sindh at
53.4 °C (128.1 °F) on May 26, 2010. Twelve cities in Pakistan saw temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F)
during the extreme heatwave of summer 2010, which lasted from May 22 to May 31, 2010.[37] On May 27,
temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F) hit areas across Pakistan and at least 18 people died as a result.[38]
Also, during the extreme heatwave season, 11 cities saw their highest ever recorded temperatures of 50 °C
(122 °F) or above, and five cities saw temperatures of 53 °C (127 °F). 11 cities also saw extremes of more
than 45 °C (113 °F) but below 50 °C (122 °F). The previous record for Pakistan and for Asia was on June
12, 1919 at 52.8 °C (127 °F) at Jacobabad.[7][39]
Precipitation
The standard way of measuring Rainfall or Snowfall is the standard Rain gauge, which can be found in
100mm (4in) plastic and 200mm (8in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of
Rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder
down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the
appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is
discarded, then filled with the remaining Rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer
cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-485-320.jpg)
![Heaviest Rainfall of 400 mm or above during 24 hours
Recordbreaking Rainfall extremes in Pakistan over 400 millimetres (16 in) or above during 24 hours,
based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2010[5] and other sources.
Date
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
(in)
City Province Notes References
24 July 2001 620 24.4 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
620 millimetres
(24 in) Rainfall
was recorded in
12 hours, on 23
July 2001 in
Islamabad as a
result of a
Cloudburst. It is
the heaviest
Rainfall in
Islamabad.
[3][4]
Heaviest Rainfall of 200 mm or above but below 400 mm during 24 hours
Recordbreaking Rainfall extremes in Pakistan over 200 millimetres (7.9 in) or above but below 400
millimetres (16 in) during 24 hours, based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–
2010[5] and other sources.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-486-320.jpg)
![Date
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
(in)
City Province Notes References
11 August 2011 350 13.7
Tando
Ghulam Ali
Sindh [40]
24 July 2001 335 13.1 Rawalpindi Punjab
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Rawalpindi
due to
Cloudburst.
7 September 2011 312 12.2 Diplo Sindh
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Diplo.
[41]
10 September 2012 305 11.8 Jacobabad Sindh
Heaviest 24
hours
Rainfall
while
441 mm
Rainfall in
36 hours in
the month
of
September.
5 September 2014 300 11.8 Lahore Punjab
Heaviest 24
hours
Rainfall in
the month
of
September.
[42]
5 September 2014 298 11.7 Rawalpindi Punjab
Heaviest 24
hours
Rainfall in
the month
of
September.
[42]
5 September 2014 297 11.7 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[42]
10 August 2011 291 11.5 Mithi Sindh
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Mithi.
[43][44][45]
29 July 2010 280 11.0 Risalpur Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[46]
7 August 1953 278.1 10.95 Karachi Sindh [47]
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Peshawar ,
previously](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-487-320.jpg)
![29 July2010 274 10.7 Peshawar
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
previously
187
millimetres
(7.4 in) mm
was
recorded on
10 April
2009.
[16][46]
5 September 1961 264.2 10.4 Faisalabad Punjab [21]
30 July 2010 257 10.1 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[46]
29 July 2010 257 10.1 Cherat
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[46]
2 July 1972 256.5 10.1 Nawabshah Sindh [48]
10 September 1992 255 10.0 Murree Punjab [49]
5 September 2014 251 9.9 Mangla Punjab [42]
5 September 2014 251 9.9 Sialkot Punjab [50]
12 September 1962 250.7 9.8 Hyderabad Sindh [18]
18 July 2009 245 9.6 Karachi Sindh
The
Rainfall
occurred in
just 4
hours.
[51]
5 September 2014 243 9.6 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[42]
30 July 2010 240 9.4 Kamra Punjab [46]
26 August 2011 240 9.4 Kohat
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[52]
31 August 2011 238 9.4 Padidan Sindh [52][53]
5 September 2014 234 9.2 Rawalakot
Azad
Kashmir
[42]
27 August 1997 233.8 9.2 Murree Punjab [49]
29 July 2010 233 9.1 Kohat
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
[46]
30 July 2010 231 9.1 Murree Punjab [46]
6 June 2010 227 8.9 Gwadar Balouchistan
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Gwadar.
[54]
7 September 2011 225 8.85 Mithi Sindh [55][56]
13 August 2008 221 8.7 Lahore Punjab [57]
20 July 2013 217 8.6 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[58]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-488-320.jpg)
![Territory
1 August 1976 211 8.3 Lahore Punjab [20]
8 July 2003 209 8.2 Larkana Sindh
Heaviest
Rainfall in
just 12
hours.
10 September 1992 208 8.2 Muzaffarabad
Azad
Kashmir
[59]
1 July 1977 207.6 8.1 Karachi Sindh [2]
29 July 2007 205 8.0 Sargodha Punjab
4 August 2010 202 7.9
Dera Ismail
Khan
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
Record
breaking
Rainfall in
Dera Ismail
Khan
previously
116
millimetres
(4.6 in) was
recorded on
4 July
1994.
[2][17]
11 August 2011 200 7.8
Tando
Mohammad
Khan
Sindh [60]
11 August 2011 200 7.8
Tando
Ghulam
Haider
Sindh [60]
24 July 2001 200 7.8 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[25]
27 August 1997 200 7.8 Islamabad
Islamabad
Capital
Territory
[25]
Heaviest Snowfall of 40" or above during 24 hours
Recordbreaking Snowfall extremes in Pakistan over 40 inches (100 cm) or above during 24 hours, based
on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2010[5] and other sources.
Date
Snowfall
(in)
Snowfall
(cm)
City or
Station
Province Notes References
4 February 2013 42 106.68 Malam Jabba
Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa
Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of September 2014
Main article: 2014 India–Pakistan floods](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-489-320.jpg)
![An August like Monsoonal moisture hit the country in the first week of the month when a very low air
pressure system (29") was formed over Kashmir that moved eastward into Northern Pakistan. The spell
caused torrential Rainfall between 1st and 5th September that resulted in devastation to life and property.
The last two days of the spell being extremely wet in Pakistan caused River Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Sutlej
and Indus to overflow their banks.
Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spell of September 2014
Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded during the wet spell of September 1 to 5,
2014 in northern Pakistan based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department.[42] This extreme
event also broke several 24 hour Rainfall records, which can be seen on the main article.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-490-320.jpg)
![Supercell Thunderstorm over Larkana
during the wet spell of September 2011
fortnight of September 2012. Highest Rainfall was recorded in Jacobabad with the record of 481 mm in
just 7 days & 441 mm in just 36 hours. Other records are 239 mm in Larkana while 206 mm in Sukkur.
Larkana division was worst hit by Heavy Rainfall.
Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spell of September 2012 in Sindh
Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded during the wet spell of September 5 to 11,
2012 in the province of Sindh particularly in upper Sindh based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological
Department.
City
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
(in)
Monsoon
spell
Notes
Jacobabad 481 18.9
September 5
to 11
Recordbreaking Rainfall for the month &
441 mm in just 36 hours.
Larkana 239 9.4
September 5
to 11
Recordbreaking Rainfall for past few years
in the month of September.
Sukkur 206 8.1
September 5
to 11
Recordbreaking Rainfall for past few years
in the month of September.
Recordbreaking torrential Rainfall of August and September
2011 in Sindh
In the month of July Pakistan received below normal Monsoon
Rains; however in August and September the country received
above normal Monsoon Rains. A strong weather pattern
entered the areas of Sindh from the Indian states of Rajasthan
and Gujarat in August and gained strength with the passage of
time and caused heavy Downpour. The first Monsoon spell hit
the southern parts of Sindh on 10 August. It produced record
breaking widespread torrential Rainfall and resulted in floods
in district Badin. The second spell hit the areas on 30 August
and lasted until 2 September. In the month of September four
more consecutive spells of Monsoon Rainfall devastated the
southern parts of the province. The first spell of September hit
the already inundated parts of the province on 2 September.
Thereafter, the second spell hit on 5 September, the third on 9
September, and the fourth on 12 September 2011. The four spells of Monsoon produced even more
devastating torrential Rains in the already affected areas of Sindh.
Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spells of August and September 2011 in Sindh
Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded in the heaviest Monsoon spell in different
areas of Sindh province in the months of August and September, 2011 based on data from the Pakistan
Meteorological Department.[61]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-492-320.jpg)
![City
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
(in)
Monsoon
Spell
Notes References
Mithi 760 30.0
September 1 to
14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Mithi.
[62][63][64]
Mirpur Khas 603 23.7
September 1 to
14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Mirpur Khas.
[62][63][64]
Padidan 356 14.0
August 30 to
September 4
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Padidan.
[62][63][64]
Nawabshah 353.2 13.9
September 1 to
14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Nawabshah.
[62][63][64]
Dadu 348.1 13.7
September 1 to
14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Dadu.
[62][63][64]
Badin 302.1 11.8 August 10 to 14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Badin.
[62][63][64]
Chhor 268 10.6
September 1 to
14
Recordbreaking Rainfall
in Chhor.
[62][63][64]
Hyderabad 244.2 9.6
September 1 to
14
[62][63][64]
Karachi 212.2 8.3
September 1 to
14
[62][63][64]
September 1 to 14, 2011 four consecutive spells of Monsoon Rains in Sindh.
August 1 to 14, 2011 first spell of Monsoon Rains in Sindh.
August 30 to September 4 second spell of Monsoon Rains in Sindh.
Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of July 2010
Unprecedented heavy Monsoon Rains began in the last week of July 2010 in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Punjab, GilgitBaltistan and Azad Kashmir regions of Pakistan which causes floods in Balochistan and
Sindh.[65] The floods which were caused by Monsoon Rains, and were forecast to continue into early
August, were described as the worst in the last 80 years.[66] The Pakistan Meteorological Department said
that over 200 mm (7.88 inches) of Rain fell over a 24hour period over a number of places of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab and more was expected.[67] A recordbreaking 274 mm (10.7 inches) Rain fell in
Peshawar during 24 hours,[68] previously 187 mm (7.36 inches) of Rain was recorded in April 2009.[16]
Other recordbreaking Rains were recorded in Risalpur, Cherat, Saidu Sharif, Mianwali, and Kohat regions
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spell of July 2010
Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded during the four day wet spell of July 27 to
30, 2010 in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Punjab based on data from the Pakistan
Meteorological Department.[46]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-493-320.jpg)
![City
Rainfall
(mm)
Rainfall
(in)
Monsoon
spell
Province Notes References
Risalpur 415[B] 16.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Islamabad 394 15.5 July 27 to 30
Islamabad Capital
Territory
[46]
Murree 373 14.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Cherat 372[B] 14.6 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Garhi Dopatta 346 13.6 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46]
Saidu Sharif 338[B] 13.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Peshawar 333[B] 13.1 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Kamra 308 12.1 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Rawalakot 297 11.7 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46]
Muzaffarabad 292 11.5 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46]
Lahore 288 11.3 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Mianwali 271[B] 10.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Lower Dir 263 10.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Kohat 262[B] 10.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Balakot 256 10.0 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Sialkot 255 10.0 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Pattan 242 9.5 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46]
Dir 231 9.10 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Gujranwala 222 8.7 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Dera Ismail
Khan
220 8.6 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46]
Rawalpindi 219 8.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46]
Floods
Main article: List of floods in Pakistan
Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most destructive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, which
swept away the 20% of Pakistan's land, the flood is the result of unprecedented Monsoon Rains which
lasted from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and North eastern Punjab were badly affected
during the Monsoon Rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By midAugust, according to the
governmental Federal Flood Commission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least 1,540 people,
while 2,088 people had received injuries, 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million people
had been displaced.[69] One month later, the data had been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people
with injuries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed.[70] The flood affected more than 20 million
people exceeding the combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005
Kashmir earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[71][72] The flood is considered as worst in Pakistan's
history affecting people of all four provinces and Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan.[73]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-494-320.jpg)
![A NASA satellite image showing the Indus River at
the time of 2010 floods
The 2011 Sindh floods began during the Monsoon
season in midAugust 2011, resulting from heavy
Monsoon Rains in Sindh, Eastern Balochistan, and
Southern Punjab.[74] The floods have caused
considerable damage; an estimated 270 civilians have
been killed, with 5.3 million people and 1.2 million
homes affected.[75] Sindh is a fertile region and often
called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage
and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy is
said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres of arable
land has been inundated as a result of the flooding.[75]
The flooding has been described as the worst since the
2010 Pakistan floods, which devastated the entire
country.[75] Unprecedented torrential Monsoon Rains
caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh
province.[64]
The other floods which caused destruction in the history of Pakistan, includes the flood of 1950, which
killed 2910 people, On 1 July 1977 heavy Rains and flooding in Karachi, killed 248 people, according to
Pakistan meteorological department 207 millimetres (8.1 in) of Rain fell in 24 hours.[76] In 1992 flooding
during Monsoon season killed 1,834 people across the country, in 1993 flooding during Monsoon Rains
killed 3,084 people, in 2003 Sindh province was badly affected due to Monsoon Rains causing damages in
billions, killed 178 people, while in 2007 Cyclone Yemyin submerged lower part of Balochistan Province
in sea water killing 380 people. Before that it killed 213 people in Karachi on its way to Balochistan.
See also
Climate of Pakistan
2015 Pakistani heat wave
2010 Pakistan floods
2011 Sindh floods
List of weather records
Drought in Pakistan
List of floods in Pakistan
Tropical cyclones and tornadoes in Pakistan
2014 India–Pakistan floods
Notes
A. ^ Indicates new record. Recordbreaking extreme heat wave observed in the plain areas of Punjab,
Sindh and Balochistan where 50 °C (122 °F) or more was observed in 12 cities between 22 to 27
May 2010. Previous extreme heat wave conditions were observed in 1998, 2002 and 2007.
B. ^ Indicates new record. Recordbreaking Monsoon Rains observed during the month of July, 2010
in northeastern Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir.
References
1. "Wunder Blog : Weather Underground" (http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?
entrynum=1559&tstamp=). Wunderground.com. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
2. "Pakmet.com.pk :Extreme Heat wave in Pakistan" (http://www.pakmet.com.pk/latest%20news/Latest%20News
old.html). Pakmet.com.pk. Retrieved 6 September 2010.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-495-320.jpg)
![HIERARCHY OF WASTE MANAGEMENT
Prevention -This strategy prevents wastes from ever being formed in
the first place.
Recycling~Resource Recovery~Waste-to-Energy (R3WE) –
Recycling and reuse of materials,
the recovery of certain wastes for reuse (known as resource
recovery),and
the conversion of certain types of waste into useful energy such as heat,
electricity, and hot water
[ strategies which recover and offset costs for overall waste
management.]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-531-320.jpg)
![Pathogen Classification
Pathogens can be classified with respect to its origin:
Water borne,
Food borne,
Blood borne [hepatitis B virus and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV)], and
STD (SexuallyTransmitted diseases).](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-733-320.jpg)
![EMS – based on Deming’s Cycle
• is an iterative four-step problem-solving process
• It is also known as the Deming cycle, Shewhart cycle,
Deming wheel, or PLAN-DO-CHECK-ACT [PDCA].](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-889-320.jpg)
![inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene, soil quality, and strengthening
institutions for environmental management. As a result of the COED’s quantification of
economic losses from environmental degradation, other priorities for additional action
and Bank support emerged, such as reducing the threat of air pollution to human health
and the need to better control urban and industrial effluent in urban centers. The SCEA
influenced the environmental content of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)
and was meant to serve the donor community more widely as well as to guide World
Bank environmental support to Pakistan (World Bank, 2007).
Pakistan Country Environmental Analysis (CEA). Prepared by the ADB in 2008, the
CEA identified the following priority areas of investment: (i) access to basic sanitation
and safe water for all; (ii) achieving energy efficiency; (iii) checking urban air pollution; (iv)
improving agricultural productivity; and (v) establishing public-private partnerships for
cleaner production and the treatment of industrial effluents. The CEA also proposed a
series of reforms, technical assistance and investments to build the country’s capacity to
address identified priorities.
An analysis of the profiled policy SEAs identifies similar features: robust stakeholder
participation, client ownership, and temporal coordination with the county’s
development priorities and processes. They also tend to be done in ways that are
collaborative, evolving, and ongoing rather than as a safeguard clearance requirement
which may receive heavier attention during project preparation than during project
implementation (Slunge and Loayza, 2012).
A noteworthy strength of recent policy SEAs in Pakistan is an often explicit attention to
social and poverty issues, particularly when linked to sectoral or environment-related
reforms. This encompassing approach is consistent with the guidance of the OECD-
DAC (2006, p. 42), which lists the first benefit of SEA as “safeguard[ing] the
environmental assets and opportunities upon which all people depend, particularly the
poor, and so promot[ing] sustainable poverty reduction and development.” Through
public consultations and outreach, policy SEAs were able to ensure that some of the
follow-up actions focused on poverty alleviation and addressing citizen and stakeholder
concerns. The importance of these actions cannot be overemphasised, particularly
considering that EIAs were initially conceived as a tool to engage stakeholders and open
up decision-making to public scrutiny, but as this chapter’s previous sections indicate,
have become environmental management tools in which the value of public participation
and robust analysis of environmental impacts to inform decision-making has been
sidelined in the interest of procedural compliance.
6.7 Conclusions
Results with EIAs conducted for projects financed by IODBs in Pakistan overall have
been mixed in terms of procedural and substantive compliance. The EIAs for projects
financed by IODBs tend to be done primarily to meet these organisations’ clearance
requirements and to minimise their “reputational risk18
”. The main indicator of procedural
74 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
18 Policies issued by IODBs do not define the concept of reputational risk. Furthermore, these organisations have not
operationalized or measured reputational risk in terms of the IODBs’ assets value.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-1229-320.jpg)
![79EIA Handbook for Pakistan
Mitigation
Measures
EIA
Follow-up
Public
Participation
EIA
Conclusions
During construction: use of advanced railway construction techniques,
development of a waste management programme and proper routing around
site areas.
During the operational phase: erect a sound barrier wall, which would also act
as safety wall. A solid waste collection system would be provided and
hazardous waste treatment would be required.
Other mitigation measures consisted of treatment of waste-water and
maintenance of infrastructure and equipment. The report stated that a
“resettlement action will be prepared that includes monetary compensation,
relocation, resettlement and rehabilitation.”
Pakistan Railways would be responsible for the overall management of KUTC.
Preliminary meetings were held with stakeholders on the KCR track to obtain
their views on the construction of the road and on information to support the
study.
The report concluded “[t]he Revival of Karachi Circular Railway Project would
vitalise Karachi, solve its traffic problems extensively and make a major
contribution towards improving the living standard of the people of the city.”
Source: Authors based on EMC (2009).21
21 Available at: http://www.kutckcr.com/files/KCR-EIA-Final-Report-_opt.pdf](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/en-501-2015-original-151128083711-lva1-app6892/85/En-501-2015-original-1234-320.jpg)
More Related Content
En 501-2015-original
- 1. NED University ofEngineering and Technology Department of Environmental Engineering EN501: Introduction to Environmental Engineering - Fall 2015 semester Course Plan Week Topic 1 Introduction to Subject, distribution of marks, Natural Resource and its characteristics, Global Environmental Issues, Pakistan Environmental Issues 2 Ecology, Ecosystems and Economic Growth 3 Cycles in Nature 4 Brief introduction to Air Pollution and its Management 5 Brief introduction to Water Pollution and its Management 6 Brief introduction to Solid waste and its Management 7 Brief Introduction to Noise Pollution, Radiation and its Management 8 Interrelations of air, water pollution and solid waste management, radiation, noise pollution 9 Effects of Pathogen and Chemicals on Health 10 Economics of Environmental Pollution Control 11 Environmental Quality Objectives 12 Environmental Legislation 13 Brief Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment 14 Environmental Standards and Technologies, An Introduction to ISO 14001:2004 15 Student Presentation 16 Student Presentation, Distribution of Course Marks Marks 1. Exams 60 2. Sessional 40 a. Class Test Best 2 of 3 2 x 10 = 20 b. Class Report 10 c. Class Presentation 10 Class Teacher Tufail Ali Zubedi Cell: 0300-3538024 Email: info@SPMCpk.com; Zubeditufail@yahoo.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 2. Engr.TufailAli Zubedi, PE BECivil, ME Environmental Engg Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/ EN 501 Introduction to Environmental Engineering
- 3. Today’s Talk Roundof Introduction Class etiquettes Course Syllabus Distribution of Marks Introduction to subject
- 4. Round of Introduction Tufail Ali Zubedi Students
- 5. Class Etiquettes Student–Teacher relationship While in class: Smoking , Eating, Drinking, especially sleeping is not allowed Mobile / iPod / iPads switched off Lecture will be provided Open to suggestions “Learn by doing” Language of instruction = English
- 6. Week Topic 1 Introductionto Subject, distribution of marks, Natural Resource and its characteristics, Global Environmental Issues, Pakistan Environmental Issues 2 Ecology, Ecosystems and Economic Growth 3 Cycles in Nature 4 Brief introduction to Air Pollution and its Management 5 Brief introduction to Water Pollution and its Management 6 Brief introduction to Solid waste and its Management 7 Brief Introduction to Noise Pollution, Radiation and its Management 8 Interrelations of air, water pollution and solid waste management, radiation, noise pollution 9 Effects of Pathogen and Chemicals on Health 10 Economics of Environmental Pollution Control 11 Environmental Quality Objectives 12 Environmental Legislation 13 Brief Introduction to Environmental Impact Assessment 14 Environmental Standards and Technologies, An Introduction to ISO 14001:2004 15 Student Presentation 16 Student Presentation, Course Syllabus
- 7. Marks Distribution Distribution ofCourse Marks Marks 1. Exams 60 2. Sessional 40 a. Class Test Best 2 of 3 2 x 10 = 20 b. Class Report 10 c. Class Presentation 10
- 8. Introduction to Environmental Engineering The application of Science and engineering knowledge and concepts To care for / restore our natural environment & To resolve environmental problems
- 9. Who does itaffect? Everyone and Everything! Plants Insects Animals Humans Ecosystems Our planet ..
- 10. What to EnvironmentalEngineer do? Environmental Engineers are Concerned with the negative impacts of human activity on the environment Also concerned with the positive impacts on the environment Scale = micro to macro Individual and holistic activities Individual and cumulative impacts Within and outside the project boundaries
- 11. Natural Resources Naturalresources occur naturally within environments that exist relatively undisturbed by humanity, in a natural form. A natural resource is often characterized by amounts of biodiversity and geodiversity existent in various ecosystems. Natural resources are derived from the environment. Some of them are essential for our survival while most are used for satisfying our desires.
- 12. A naturalresource may exist as a separate entity such as Fresh water, and air, as well as a living organism such as a fish, or it may exist in an alternate form which must be processed to obtain the resource such as metal ores, oil, and most forms of energy.
- 13. Classification On the basisof origin, natural resources may be divided into: Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from them. (Oil / coal) Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from nonliving, inorganic material. (land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores)
- 14. Considering their stageof development, natural resources may be: Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be used in the future. (petroleum but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, itremains a potential resource.) Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. (The development of an actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and the cost involved.) Reserve resources –The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources – Stock resources are those that have been surveyed but cannot be used by organisms due to lack of technology. (hydrogen. Shale gas)
- 16. natural resourcescan be categorized as either renewable or nonrenewable: Renewable resources – Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. (sunlight, air, wind, etc.) Resources from a human use perspective are classified as renewable only so long as the rate of replenishment/recovery exceeds that of the rate of consumption. Nonrenewable resources – Nonrenewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment. (fossil fuel)
- 18. World Charter forNature In 1982 the UN developed theWorld Charter for Nature, which recognized the need to protect nature from further depletion due to human activity. It states that measures need to be taken at all societal levels, from international to individual, to protect nature READ “UN-World Charter for Nature” It outlines the need for sustainable use of natural resources and suggests that the protection of resources should be incorporated into national and international systems of law.
- 19. Reading Assignment IUCN-PakistanConservation Strategy IUCN- State of Environment and Development (SoED) of Sindh IUCN-Sindh Strategy for Sustainable Development
- 20. Natural Resources ofPakistan
- 21. FINAL WORDS There ismuch debate worldwide over natural resource allocations, this is partly due to increasing scarcity (depletion of resources) but also because the exportation of natural resources is the basis for many economies (particularly for developed nations). Next Class Global and Pakistan Environmental Issues and solutions
- 22. TIP Some naturalresources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, and are known as ubiquitous resources. However, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localized resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible (will not run out in foreseeable future) – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, and air (though access to clean air may not be).The vast majority of resources are exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity, and can be depleted if managed improperly.
- 23. Natural Resources https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Sohail Ahmed Presentation
- 24. 11/20/2015 A/RES/37/7. World Charter for Nature http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/37/a37r007.htm 1/5 United NationsA/RES/37/7 General Assembly Distr. GENERAL 28 October 1982 ORIGINAL: ENGLISH A/RES/37/7 48th plenary meeting 28 October 1982 37/7. World Charter for Nature The General Assembly, Having considered the report of the Secretary‐General on the revised draft World Charter for Nature, Recalling that, in its resolution 35/7 of 30 October 1980, it expressed its conviction that the benefits which could be obtained from nature depended on the maintenance of natural processes and on the diversity of life forms and that those benefits were jeopardized by the excessive exploitation and the destruction of natural habitats, Further recalling that, in the same resolution, it recognized the need for appropriate measures at the national and international levels to protect nature and promote international co‐operation in that field, Recalling that, in its resolution 36/6 of 27 October 1981, it again expressed its awareness of the crucial importance attached by the international community to the promotion and development of co‐operation aimed at protecting and safeguarding the balance and quality of nature and invited the Secretary‐General to transmit to Member States the text of the revised version of the draft World Charter for Nature contained in the report of the Ad Hoc Group of Experts on the draft World Charter for Nature, as well as any further observations by States, with a view to appropriate consideration by the General Assembly at its thirty‐seventh session, Conscious of the spirit and terms of its resolutions 35/7 and 36/6, in which it solemnly invited Member States, in the exercise of their permanent sovereignty over their natural resources, to conduct their activities in recognition of the supreme importance of protecting natural systems, maintaining the balance and quality of nature and conserving natural resources, in the interests of present and future generations, Having considered the supplementary report of the Secretary‐General, Expressing its gratitude to the Ad Hoc Group of Experts which, through its work, has assembled the necessary elements for the General Assembly to be able to complete the consideration of and adopt the revised draft World Charter for Nature at its thirty‐seventh session, as it had previously recommended,
- 25.
- 26.
- 27.
- 28.
- 29. By :Sohail Ahmed NATURALRESOURCES OF PAKISTAN
- 30. NATURAL RESOURCES Soil Mountains Rivers andCanals Forests Animals Minerals The resources gifted by the nature to the country and the people are called National Resources. SOHAIL AHMED 2
- 31. SOIL • Fertile Plainsand deserts are important part of natural resources. • More fertile plain a country has means more Agricultural department. • Allah has gifted many fertile plains to Pakistan. • Pakistan Can Cultivate a number of different foods. SOHAIL AHMED 3
- 32. MOUNTAINS • Mountains arethe gift of the nature. • They protect from the cool winds • Mountains are rich in minerals. • Mountain provide water to our rivers. • Mountains of Pakistan are rich in minerals especially the Western Mountain Ranges. SOHAIL AHMED 4
- 33. RIVERS AND CANALS •The underground water, rivers and oceans are natural resources • The river system of Pakistan is consisted of Indus and other associated rivers. • We use water for drinking purposes and store the water of the rivers and use it for different purposes like irrigation, for hydroelectricity etc. SOHAIL AHMED 5
- 34. FORESTS • They arehelpful in improvement of weather • Protect against windstorms • Help in slow melting of snow to stop floods. • Much More to explain • Normally 25 percent area of a country should be covered with forest. But in Pakistan it is only 4 to 5 percent. SOHAIL AHMED 6
- 35. ANIMALS • Animals providemilk, meat, hide and skins, wool etc. • They are also used for agriculture and transportation. • They are a source of foreign exchange. • Pakistan is Gifted by Nature a lot of Different types of Animals SOHAIL AHMED 7
- 36. MINERAL RESOURCES The termMineral Resource is used to refer to any of a class of naturally occurring solid inorganic substances with a characteristic crystalline form and a homogeneous chemical composition. SOHAIL AHMED 8
- 37. MINERALS OF PAKISTAN InPakistan there is wide scale availability of mineral resources, but these resources remained unexploited for years. It is due to lack of technical skill, finance and technology. SOHAIL AHMED 9
- 38. IMPORTANT MINERALS OFPAKISTAN • Coal • Natural Gas • Iron ore • Chromite • Gypsum • Sulphur • Oil • Uranium SOHAIL AHMED 10
- 39. COAL • The annualcoal production of Pakistan is 3.2 million tones. • Coal is used in power generation. It is basically used as fuel. • It is mostly found in Sindh (Thatta, Tharparkar, Manara) Balochistan (Deegari, Maach), Punjab (Makarwal, Dandot),NWFP (Cherat and Noshera). SOHAIL AHMED 11
- 40. NATURAL GAS • Itis itself a source of energy and fuel. • Used as a source of power generation. • It is found in Sui, Mari, Uch, Khairpur, Jacobabad etc. • Now some new discoveries are also found. SOHAIL AHMED 12
- 41. IRON ORE • IronOre is used for industry, especially steel industry. • Its deposits are found in Chitral, Chaghai, Kohat, Kurram Agency, Mardan, Hazara, Mianwali (Kalabagh) and DG Khan. SOHAIL AHMED 13
- 42. CHROMITE • Chromite isused in preparing other metals, leather tanning, making of steel products, armament and stainless steel. • Found in Zoab (Muslim Bagh), Chaghai, Malakand, Mahmand, Waziristan, Fort Sandaman etc. SOHAIL AHMED 14
- 43. GYPSUM • Gypsum isused for plaster of Paris, Paints and Cement. • It is found in Jhelum, Mianwali, DG Khan, Kohat and Loralai. SOHAIL AHMED 15
- 44. SULPHUR • Sulphur isused by chemical industry. • Its deposits are found in Kalat, Khairpur, Mardan, and Jacobabad etc. SOHAIL AHMED 16
- 45. OIL • It isa major source of energy. • It is mostly imported from Iran and Gulf states. • Now some valuable reserves are found in Jhelum, Mianwali, Attock, Balkasar, Mial, Chakwal, and Dhodak. SOHAIL AHMED 17
- 46. URANIUM • It isthe basic element for atomic power, indispensable for the defence. • Its deposits are in DG Khan, Hazara and Kohat. SOHAIL AHMED 18
- 47. Pakistan is blessedwith considerable mineral resources. Some of them are explored but much remains to be done for the search for more SOHAIL AHMED 19
- 48.
- 49. EN 501 Introduction to EnvironmentalEngineering Engr.TufailAli Zubedi, PE BE Civil, ME Environmental Engg o e ta g ee g Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 50.
- 51. In March 1992,the Government of Pakistan adopted the National Conservation Strategy (NCS)Conservation Strategy (NCS). It addresses the issues of conservation and sustainable use of natural resources for economic development. IUCN Pakistan supported the Federal Government for the development of relevant provincial level strategies. IUCN's Sindh Programme was established in 2002.IUCN s Sindh Programme was established in 2002. IUCN Sindh Programme initiated the process of developing a report on the State of Environment and Development of Sindh (SoED) to bridge the existing information gap and to cater to the needs ofto bridge the existing information gap and to cater to the needs of a wide range of stakeholders, who have been striving for the sustainable development of Sindh.
- 52. The report mayalso serve as a baseline for policy makers, planners, and development practitioners. The next logical step to the SoED is to develop a Sustainable Development Strategy for SindhDevelopment Strategy for Sindh. The SoED is intended to provide the basis for devising this Strategy, which aims to provide an overall framework togy, p address the Province's environmental and development issues in a holistic manner.
- 53. SINDH IN THENATIONAL CONTEXTSINDH IN THE NATIONAL CONTEXT Sindh is located in the south-east of Pakistan. Throughout history it has been known by many names; Sindh comprises of Lower Indus Basin. Is the second-most populous province after the Punjab and Covers 140,914 square kilometre (km), with a northsouth l th f b t 540 k d b dth f b t 250 klength of about 540 km and a breadth of about 250 km. lies between 23° and 28 ° North latitudes and 66° and 71° East longitudesEast longitudes.
- 54. TopographyTopography Sindh can bedivided into four distinct parts dry and barren Kirthar Range in the west, a central alluvial plain bisected by the River Indus, a desert belt in the east anda desert belt in the east, and the Indus delta in the south.
- 55. Mountainous RangesMountainous Ranges WesternSindh is the only region which is mountainous It includes the hill ranges of Kirthar, P bPab, Laki, and Kohistan.Kohistan. Small hilly tract in the southeast corner of theTharparkary p District known as Nagarparkar.
- 56. The Kirthar RangeTheKirthar Range Kirthar has a simple, anticlinal structure with flanks gently dipping towards west and south. These ranges run north to south like a crescent turned towards the low lands and extend up to the northerntowards the low lands and extend up to the northern extremity of the province. The highest altitude known as Kutay-jee- Kabar (Dog'sg y j ( g Grave) is in the Kirthar Range and is 2072.64 meters high.
- 57. The Laki RangeTheLaki Range The Laki Range, is mainly composed of tertiary rocks and contains a large number of thermal springs.
- 59. The hilly regionof western Sindh consists almost entirely of rocks belonging to the tertiary system of geological nomenclature.y y g g Only along the Laki Range and in its neighborhood that there are some exposures of rocks belonging to the next older system, the Cretaceous. With the exception of some volcanic beds associated with these Cretaceous strata, all the rock formations of western Sindh are of sedimentary origin. All of the more important hill masses consist of limestone. A great majority of these limestone deposits belong to the Nummultic periodA great majority of these limestone deposits belong to the Nummultic period and are largely built up of the accumulated shells of foraminifera, principally those belonging to the genus Nummulites. The isolated hills of Nagarparkar on the northern border of the Rann of Kutch belong to quite a different system both geographically and geologically.
- 60. A large partof Sindh lies in the deltaic plain of the Lower IndusValley. Most of this region consists of plains overlain by alluvium, trenched with river channels in some places and overridden by raised terraces in othersoverridden by raised terraces in others. A few isolated low limestone hills are the only relieving features in the plains which are otherwise at one level.p The plains may be subdivided into three parts: the western valley, the eastern valley, and The deltaic area.
- 61. The western valleysection is distinguished from the eastern valley by the presence of old alluvium(wind-borne sand) and seasonal nala flowing from the Kirthar mountain range into the Manchar Lakethe Manchar Lake. The deltaic area largely consists of mangrove swamps and sandbars.The chief characteristic of the region is the creeks,g which serve as the changing outlets of the Indus and as inlets for the sea.
- 62. The eastern partof Sindh consists of theThar Desert which continues into Rajputana (India). The landscape is sandy and rough with sand dunes covering more than 56 percent of the areamore than 56 percent of the area. The sand dunes are mostly longitudinal with a north-east- south-west trend and are stabilized by shrub vegetation andy g grass.
- 64. VegetationVegetation characteristic features indicativeof a rainless climate, dry atmosphere and sandy soil largely impregnated with salt. Another feature of the vegetation in the province is the prominence and variety of grassesprominence and variety of grasses.
- 66. The most strikingcharacteristic is the predominance of l t ith ll l t ll lik th l flplants with small leaves, or none at all, like the leafless caper, milkbush and the cactus (Euphorbia nereifolia).The large leaved Banyan tree,like the pipal,was introduced later. Except for the irrigated Indus valley, the province is arid and with little vegetation.The dwarf palms, Kher (Acacia rupestris), and Lohirro (Tecoma undulata) trees are typical of the western hilland Lohirro (Tecoma undulata) trees are typical of the western hill region. In the central valley, the babul (known as Babur in Sindhi) tree is the most dominant and occurs in thick forests along the Indus banks.
- 67. The neem (Azadirachtaindica),ber (Zizyphys vulgaris) or jojoba, lai (Tamarix orientalis) and kirirr (Capparis decidua) are among the more common vegetation types. Mango date palms and the more recently introducedMango, date palms, and the more recently introduced banana, guava, orange and chiku are the common fruit-bearing trees of the irrigated areas.g
- 68. The coastal stripand the creeks abound in semi-aquatic and aquatic plants and the in-shore Indus deltaic islands support forests of timmer (Avicennia marina) (timmer ja bela) and chaunir (Ceriops tagal) treeschaunir (Ceriops tagal) trees. Water lilies grow in abundance in the numerous lakes and ponds, particularly in the Lower Sindh region.p p y g
- 70. Needs to beupdated : 2015-08-15
- 71. ClimateClimate Humidity Wind speed anddirection Rainfall
- 72. Wetlands of SindhWetlandsof Sindh
- 73. Protected areas ofSindhProtected areas of Sindh
- 76.
- 77. Bird Count inWetlands of SindhBird Count in Wetlands of Sindh
- 78. Mangrove Species inPakistanMangrove Species in Pakistan
- 79. List of Treesshrubs of SindhList of Trees, shrubs of Sindh
- 80. Important Mammal SpeciesImportantMammal Species
- 81. Handouts via email. Homeworkvia email.
- 82. Sustainable Solid WasteManagement- Application of Modern Landfill Concept Presenter: Mubashir Saleem NED University of Engineering & Technology August 13, 2015
- 83. - Name: MubashirSaleem - Professional Experiance: 2 years in the Design and drawing of water and wastewater conveayance and treatment systems + 1.5 year of Teaching - Academic Qualification: • BE (Civil Engineering), NED University (2009) • ME (Environmental Engineering), NED University + University of Padua ,(2013) - Current Affiliation: • Doctoral Research Fellow at The University of Padua, Italy. About Me
- 84.
- 85. WHAT IS POLLUTION? • Some sort of contamination • Unbalanced in the natural system • Accumulation of something bad or unwanted
- 86. POLLUTION, the otherside of the Coin POLLUTION is actually a RESOURCE in the WRONG QUANTITY at the WRONG PLACE An IDEA can change life
- 87. The Hypocrisy: (Fertilizerapplication) Fertilizers contain: • Plant Nutrients (Nitrate and Phosphates) • Resource when applied in the field • Becomes a pollutant when they infiltrate into the ground water
- 88. Definition of solidwaste: Difficult ! “Waste is a left-over, a redundant product or material of no or marginal value for the owner and which the owner wants to discard” Courtesy Prof.Christensen •No universally accepted definition exists
- 89. Waste is aproblem
- 90.
- 91. Quantity is aproblem!
- 92. The underestimated side: Energy Potential from waste in Pakistan The European Paradigm: UK produces 28 million tones (around 77000 tones per day) of household waste every year.. Currently, UK only 11% of this is utilized for energy production, producing, around 190MW, enough for 300,000 households. Where we are standing: • Only Karachi produce around 12000 tons/ day of solid waste out of which • 20% is collected by the intermediate waste pickers, • 20% is left on the streets at the mercy of nature and • the rest (almost 60%) is picked up and dump in official and/or unofficial dustbins of the city, then transported to the uphill areas located 30-35 km away from the city and disposed in open air • Apart from the Municipal waste the country has an enormous potential of recovering energy through Anaerobic Digestion of agricultural waste, poultry waste, animal manure etc. (Nayyer Alam Zaigham, Proceedings of COMSATS Conference2004 on Renewable Energy Technologies & Sustainable Development, 2005)
- 93. Quality is aproblem! And you about landfill gas? Do you know anything about parachutes?
- 94. Elementary Composition ofMSW 1 Werte aus : NEUPERT, 1989, Stoffl. Zussammensetzung von Haus- u. Gewerbemüll Bayr. Landesamt für Umweltschutz (Hrsg.): Zusammensetzung und Schadstoffgehalt von Siedlungsabfällen, 2003 Zeschmar- Lahl, 2003 Bidlingmeyer, 1990, Schwermetalle im Hausmüll El Dawi, 1997, Vergleich der Müllzusammensetzungen in Abfallbehandlungsanlagen 2 Werte aus: Neumayer, 1999 Döberl, 2004 Substance Ratio 2 [% FS] Lignin 6 Cellulose 16 Hemicellulose 7 Hydrocarbons 9 Proteins 3 Fats, Resins, Waxes 2 Paper additives (org.+anorg.) 8 Plastics 18 Plastic additives (anorg.) 3 Minerals 13 Ash 4 Hazardous substances 1 Metals 10 Summe 100 Microscopical picture of slag from thermal waste treatment Quelle: ise.uni-karlsruhe.de Substance Ratio 1 [Gew.% FS] Water 35 -37 Glass/Minerals 7- 11,2 O2 13,6 H2 2,4 C ges 20 - 22 Zn 0,04 - 0,3 Fe 2,8 Pb 0,011 - 0,063 Cd 0,0006 - 0,001 Hg 0,0004 Cu 0,024 Cr 0,0031 - 0,021 Mn 0,018 Ni 0,0024 Sn 0,002 Al 0,64 As 0,0007 - 0,0009 Ti 0,16 F 0,012 Cl 0,5 S 0,2 N 0,9 P 0,1 Na 0,5 K 0,4 Mg 0,3 Ca 2,1
- 95. eere.energy.gov Biomass Composition andDegradability Readily degradable under anaerobic landfill conditions Slowly degradable under anaerobic landfill conditionsPersistent under anaerobic landfill conditions A hemicellulose can be any of several different heteropolymers (matrix polysaccharides, most pentose sugars) present in almost all plant cell walls along with cellulose. Hemicellulose is a branched polymer, while cellulose is unbranched. In contrast to cellulose that is crystalline, strong, and resistant to hydrolysis, hemicellulose has a random, amorphous structure with little strength. 500-3000 sugar units 7,000 - 15,000 glucose molecules
- 96. Lignin structure Lignin isan organic substance binding the cells, fibres and vessels which constitute wood and the lignified elements of plants. After cellulose, it is the most abundant renewable carbon source on Earth. It is not possible to define the precise structure of lignin as a chemical molecule. All lignins show a certain variation in their chemical composition. However the definition common to all is a network polymer of phenyl propene basic units.
- 97. Recycling is anoption
- 99. Waste to energyis an option
- 101. Landfilling is anoption
- 102. Modern waste managementstrategy • Waste production minimisation • Efficient waste management • Recovery of valuable material resources • Global climate changes issues • Reduction of landfilling • Energy balance optimisation • Emissions minimisation, ecotoxilogical control • Health risk minimisation • Environmental sustainability (long term impacts) • Economical and social sustainability Boh!!!
- 103. Magic solutions Jarrod Ball& Associates
- 104.
- 105. Politicians are veryinterested in wastes (Howard Robinson, 2007)
- 106. NIMBY NIMO BANANAIDEOLOGIES Business interests Corruption Problems for decision makers Criminality
- 110.
- 111.
- 112.
- 113. POPs: The DirtyDozen Chlordane Dieldrin Chlorinated Dioxins and Furans Endrin Heptachlor Hexachlorobenzene Mirex PCBs Toxaphene DDT Aldrin transcis 2,3,7,8-TCDD 2,3,7,8-TCDF
- 114. Waste Management Traditional • lowpopulation • harmony with nature Low amount of waste Today • explosion of population • increasing standard of living huge amount of waste Traditional methods do not fulfill the new requirements! Himba- People / Namibia Pictures: GEO 2001; Greenpeace, Smid 1996 Sao Paulo / Brasil
- 115. Global Warming Depletion of stratosphericozone Global Environmental Impacts
- 116. Global Warming CH4 280 ppm 180ppm CO2 380 ppm Ice Core Data IPCC 2007
- 117. Global Warming • Landfillsare significant sources (6- 13% of global CH4 emission) • CH4 more GWP than CO2 (28-34 from 2013 IPCC AR5 p714) • Methane oxidation important • Less organic waste in landfills in the future (TH Christensen)
- 118. Loss of NaturalResources Loss of aestetics and landscaping Water Contamination Environmental damages AIT, Thailand
- 119. Collection of waste indeveloping countries - irregular - not efficient - not existing In many cases: Lixeira / Brasil Thailand Thailand Thailand Kampala/ Uganda Kampala/ Uganda Kampala/ Uganda Pakistan
- 120.
- 121. Ampang Jaya LandfillSite (Kuala Lumpur) Source: UPM, Malaysia, Dawn news paper Disposal of collected waste - dumps / landfills / open burning - Jam Chakro (Karachi)
- 122. Disposal of waste– if no collection system is existing - open fires - wild dumps - dump in waterbodies Ilhabela / Brasil Pictures: Santen, 2000; Kraus 2001 and Dawn news paper Kampala/ Uganda Jam Chakro, Karachi
- 123. Health issues Risk tocommunity Illness Disease - Breeding ground for vermin, insects and scavenging animals chances of illness and disease -waste pickers: contact with syringes, hospital wastes and other hazardous waste - Burning causes air pollution, and serious health effects - Where these sites are located very close to densely populated areas, or support substantial communities of waste pickers, there are particular public health risks
- 124. Dumpsite Collapsed inPhilippines On 10 July 2000, more than 200 people died and hundreds more were injured when the Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City, the Philippines, collapsed in heavy rains. The collapse buried shanty homes of the nation's poorest. Most of the victims were children, at home on a day declared a holiday because of an impending typhoon. Source: AIT, Thailand 1999: Shacks close to the mountain of garbage which subsided After the Collapse in July 2000 Payatas dumpsite in Quezon City, Philippines
- 125. Waste as aresource - Waste paper for new paper production - Separated plastics for (like PE, PVC, PP) as a source for new plastic production - Mixed plastic and paper as an energy source (RDF) - Metal recovery for new metal production (including electronic waste) - Kitchen and yard waste as soil conditioner - Sewage sludge and agricultural waste as soil conditioner or fuel
- 126. Waste as aresource New products from waste - organic waste as a source for the production of fuel, CO2, CH4, alcohol) - organic waste as a source for the production of food for animals - organic waste as a source for the production of e.g. biodegradable plastic
- 127. Hierarchy of utilisationof waste Direct recycling Downcycling Actual material use Raw material use (as a resource) Material use Energetic use (thermal use) Utilisation for
- 128. Avoidance Material recovery Energy recovery Landfilling WasteManagement Hierarchy
- 129. Waste Management Hierarchy Avoidance Materialrecovery Energy recovery Landfilling Ecoproduction Ecodistribution Packaging control Internal recycling
- 130. Waste Management Hierarchy Avoidance Materialrecovery Energy recovery Landfilling 3Rs: Recovery, Reuse,Recycle Separate collection
- 131.
- 136. What about theOrganics/ Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid waste / Putrescible waste ?
- 137. Aerobic stabilisation: Composting Biologicaldegradation and transformation process for organic substances by a variety of microbes, in aerobic conditions and in solid state. The process is exergonic, results in heating up of the stabilizingmaterial, and it leads to the formation of carbon dioxide and water. A humus rich material is generated. Under specific quality control of the substrate and of the process the final product may be classified as Compost: a stabilized and sanitised product which is beneficial to plant growth.
- 138. Mechanism Of BiologicalTreatment? Aerobic treatment is a biochemical process carried out in the presence of O2 (dissolved). The process uses organic matter, nutrients, and dissolved oxygen, and produces stable solids, carbon dioxide, and more organisms. Organic materials+ Nutrients +O2 CO2+NH3+New Cells Aerobic microbes Organics O2 CO2 Nutrients Stable Solids Growth Microbes
- 139. Aims of Composting Reduction of volume and mass of organic waste Recirculation of organics into the natural cycle Increasing of the Carbon Sink pool Energy recovery (if anaerobic digestion is adopted as a treatment before composting) Stabilisation and hygienization of organic waste as a pretreatment before landfilling Fulfilment of regulations and laws
- 140. The Actors • Bacteria •Actinobacteria • Fungi • (Protozoa and animals) Streptococcus Rods Cocci Phycomyces blakesleeanus Phellinius pini Coprinus -Specie Ciliary Flagellates Worms Actinomycetes
- 141. Degradation Phases duringComposting 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Meso- Thermophilic Cooling phase easilydeg radable medium degradable Phase anaerobic bacteria aerobic bacteria fungi Maturation hardly degradable substances unwanted Maturation phase : Actynomicetes are very active; phenols and phenolic acids generated by the degradation of lignins, tannins and poliphenols are polymerized to humic substances.
- 142. The Concept ofZero Waste
- 143. Avoidance Material recovery Energy recovery Landfilling WasteManagement Hierarchy
- 144. • Zero wasteis a new planning approach for the 21st Century that seeks to redesign the way resources and materials flow through society, taking a ‘whole system’ approach (Zero waste kuvalum, 2004). • Zero waste maximises recycling, minimises waste, reduces consumption and ensures that products are made to be reused, repaired or recycled back into nature or the market place (Grass Roots Recycling Network, 2004). (Cristina Trois, 2008) Zero waste option
- 145. Zero waste perspectives Zerowaste • Waste minimisation • Personal behaviour • Education • Composting, MBT • Thermal treatment • Landfilling Zero illness • Prevention • Personal behaviour • Education • Medicine • Surgeries • Graveyards
- 146. The Concept ofUrban Mining and Sustainability
- 147. E: extracted rawmaterial ΔR: recycled and reused material (secondary raw materials) ΔL: recovered material from landfill mining (secondary raw materials) di: diffuse mass emissions/loss associated to the specific steps and processes I: immobilized material. (inert material) The Concept of Urban Mining
- 148. Dispersion of Materialswith Time Raw Material Dispersed Material 100% 100% Cycle of Utilization/Time Raw Materials: i.e. steel, paints , textiles, tires, asphalt Processes : i.e. corrosion, abrasion, dissolution, evaporation,
- 149. E = ∆R∆L+ I∑di Mass Balance: Flow of Resources + + Sustainability and Urban Mining The diffuse emissions should be carefully controlled and minimised as they are the cause for the progressive deterioration of the global environmental quality. E= ∆R ∆L- I∑di - - • Minimise raw material extraction • Maximize recovery, recycling and reuse of secondary raw materials • Increase the immobilisation of materials in final sinks/geological repositories
- 150. Waste Management Hierarchy Avoidance Materialrecovery Energy recovery Landfilling Alternative/ Renewable energy
- 151.
- 152. Mechanism Of BiologicalTreatment? Anaerobic treatment is a biochemical process carried out in the absence of O2 for the stabilization of organic materials by conversion to CH4 and inorganic end-products such as CO2 and NH3 Organics Nutrients Growth Stable Solids CO2 CH4+ Microbes Energy Value: Methane can be used as fuel Organic materials+ Nutrients CH4+CO2+NH3+New Cells Anaerobic microbes
- 153. Biodegradation of organicwaste: Process choice green waste rural biowaste municipal biowaste kitchen waste food waste restaurant waste slaughterhouse waste sewage sludge slurry Composting Digestion Moisture Structure
- 154. Sludges Waste in Loading Combustion chamber Post-combustion Bagfilter Denox Bottom ash Fly ash Control panel Pump Mineralized Water Dégasing unit Air condenser Stack gases 36 MW Incineration
- 155. Perception & Reality (J.Gronow, H. Robinson, 2007)
- 159. By definition asanitary landfill is: • a fully engineered disposal option. • It avoids the harmful effects of uncontrolled dumping by • spreading, • compacting and • Covering the waste on land that has been carefully engineered before use. • Through careful site selection, preparation and management, operators can minimize risks from leachate and gas production both in the present and the future. • Site design and plans consider not only waste disposal but aftercare and ultimate land use once the site closes Sanitary landfill
- 160.
- 161. Objectives To prevent orreduce as far as possible negative effects from the landfilling of waste on • the environment • the global environment • human health
- 162. LANDFILL TYPE 1. Mound leachatemigration by gravity out of the landfill (long term) long term landfill identification 2. Pit closer to groundwater leachate control more difficult (eternal pumping) side walls to be lined (avoiding gas and leachate migration)
- 163. Concept I • Opendump – High impact during operation • Dry tomb landfilling – No air in landfill body →Anaerobic degradation – No water, no leachate →Very low organic waste degradation (mummification) →Long term impacts due to high organic content in landfill body
- 164. Concept II • Containedlandfill (today design) – Controll of biogas and leachate emissions by physical barriers (what will happen when they loose efficiency?) – Some lined landfill could became dry tomb – it depends on top cover and the allowance of leachate recirculation • Sustainable landfill (tomorrow design) – Waste pre-treatment – Aerobic landfilling – Open cover – High ratio Liquid/Solid
- 165. 2.84 time OPERATION dm/dta dm/dt30 300 AFTERCARE WASTE MANAGEMENT (fee) CONTAMINATED SOIL (socialmoney) Long term landfill accumulation tc Traditional landfill Sustainable landfill SAC (Short term After-Care) landfill dm/dtmax
- 166. Sustainable landfilling 30 years laterAnaerobic degradation Rain Leachate Mummification Rain Contaminant Leachate 30years later Degradation and flushing Rain Clean Leachate Aerobic degradation Rain Leachate to treatment Air
- 167. Long term landfillimpact Open dump Dry tomb landfill Contained landfill Sustainable landfill time OPERATION ea e30 300 AFTERCARE tc emax I II III
- 168.
- 169. amino acids, saccharid, glycerin, fattyacids Anaerobic Processes (Contained Landfills) fractions and solved polymeres protein carbohydrate fat H2 alcohol CO2 acetic acid Biogas CH4, CO2 organic acids Hydrolysis Acidification Acetogenic phase Methane formation H2 CO2 acetic acid propionic acid, butyric acid Complex & Particulate OM
- 170. • Particulates madesoluble and large polymers converted to simpler monomers – Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins • Large molecules (polymers) broken down into smaller molecules (monomers) – Allow passage through bacterial cell wall • Facultative anaerobes and anaerobes • May be rate limiting step in process for high concentrations of particulate organic matter. Step 1: Hydrolysis
- 171. Molecule composedof fatty acids and alcohols R — C O — H O R — C O — H O Fatty Acids: Long-chain hydrocarbon molecule capped by a carboxyl group (COOH) O C H — CH — CH — CH — H O R O C O R O C O R H — CH — CH — CH — H O R O C O R O C O R O C O R O C O R Fats (Lipids) Protein A macromolecule (polymer) C — C O — H O — NH2 H R amino acid C — C O — H O — NH2 H R C — C O — H O — NH2 H R amino acid C — C O — H O — NH2 H R — N — C — C O H H R’ peptide bond C — C O — H O — NH2 H R — N — C — C O H H R’ peptide bond Step 1: Hydrolysis (Examples)
- 172. Step 2: Acidogenesis •Glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids converted to C3 and C4 volatile fatty acids (76%), H2 (4%), and acetic acid (20%) • Optimum growth rate occurs near pH 6 • Volatile fatty acids generally not significant consumer of alkalinity • NH3 produced from amino acids Volatile Fatty Acids "short-chain" or volatile fatty acids are 2 to 4-carbon molecules CH3 — C O — H O CH3 — C O — H O ethanoic acid (acetic acid / vinegar) propionic acid CH3 — CH2 — C O — H O CH3 — CH2 — C O — H O O — H butanonic acid (butyric acid) CH3 — CH2 — CH2 — C O butanonic acid (butyric acid) CH3 — CH2 — CH2 — C O
- 173. Step 3: Acetogenesis Example: C2H5OH+ H2O acetate (CH3COO-) + H+ + 2H2 Go' = +9.6 kJ/mol • Volatile fatty acids converted to acetic acid (68%) and H2 (32%) • Sensitive to H2 concentration • Syntrophic (mutually beneficial) relationship with the methanogens
- 174. Step 4: Methanogenesis •Obligate anaerobes – methanogens – Tend to have slower growth rates • H2 utilizing methanogens use H2 to produce methane removing H2 from system • Limited pH range 6.7 to 7.4 – importance of alkalinity in system • Sensitive to temperature change
- 175. Mechanisms of MethaneFormation 2. Reduction of carbon dioxide CO2 + 4H2 => CH4 + 2H2O 1. Splitting of acetic acid CH3COOH => CH4 + CO2 Acetotrophic methanogens 4 CH3COOH 4 CO2 + 2 H2 Methylotrophic methanogens 4 CH3OH + 6 H2 3 CH4 + 2 H2O Hydrogenotrophic methanogens CO2 + 4 H2 CH4 + 2 H2O 1. 2.
- 176. Sample Methane Yield,m3 /kg VS Mixed MSW 0.186 - 0.222 Mixed Yard Waste 0.143 Office Paper 0.369 Newsprint 0.084 Magazine 0.203 Food Board 0.343 Milk Carton 0.318 Wax Paper 0.341 * From Owens, J.M. and D.P. Chynoweth Biogas Potentials of Different Materials
- 177. Major abiotic factorsInfluencing the process
- 178.
- 179. Leachate is awastewater produced by the infiltration of water in the landfill. The water percolating through the waste removes organic compounds, metals and salts. The QUALITY of the leachate depends on: • the quality and type of the waste (MSW, Industrial waste, bottom ashes). • it depends by the conditions of the degradation of waste in the landfill (anaerobic condition, aerobic conditions, semi-aerobic condtions) • and finally it depends by the age of the landfill (new landfill or old landfill). What is leachate?
- 180. The QUANTITY ofleachate depends on: • Characteristics of the site • Climatic & meteorological conditions of the site • Physical characteristics of the waste • Characteristics of the barrier systems What is leachate?
- 181. Leachate composition BMBF Statusbericht„Deponiekörper“, 1995 Phase I II III IV V
- 182. NH3 (aq) +H2O NH4 + + OH- Ammonia in Anaerobic Digestion
- 183. Leachate management options •A. In situ : recirculation • B. On site: leachate treatment plant • C. Off site: co-treatment at external facilities (industrial or domestic) C A B C
- 184. Selection criteria fortreatment Young Medium Old COD (mg/l) > 10.000 500-10.000 < 500 COD/TOC 2,7 2,0-2,7 2,0 BOD5/COD > 0,4 0,1-0,4 < 0,1 Biological treatment Chemical precipitation Ozone Reverse osmosis Activated carbon Ion exchange good good-fair fair fair-poor poor
- 185. Landfill Gas Phases Vol.% III III IV V 2 – 5 years several decades
- 186. 2nd Barriere =quality of the site 3rd Barriere = landfill concept Multi Barrier Concept 1st Barrier = quality of the waste 4th Barrier = landfill drainage & liner
- 187. Landfill siting The followingcriteria have to be respected in the course of landfill siting: Geological barrier: thickness > 3 m with kf < 1*10-7 m/s Groundwater: Baseline of the liner 1m above the highest groundwater table, soil should have a low permeability No drinking water catchment area, no nature conservation areas, no floading areas > 300 m distance to residential areas, appropriate traffic location
- 188. gravel layer (drainage) mineral layer plasticliner geotextil e Lining & Leachate Collection
- 189.
- 190. Drainage HPDE TUBE DE140 SILICAGRAVEL BARRIERS WASTE
- 191. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES OFSINDH EACH STUDENTTO PRESENT Uzma=water Scarcity Rabab=ground water Contamination Waseem=solidWaste in Urban Areas Sheheryar=wetlands Amin=Urbanization Amar=X Ahmer=Noise Pollution (KHI/SUKKUR) Waqas=Coalfired boiler (2014 SEPA survey) Tabish=various
- 192. Tufail Ali Zubedi EnvironmentalConsultant EN501 Introduction to Ecology
- 193. Today Evolution ofthe Solar System Evolution of Life on Earth Evolution of Life on Earth Periodic Extinctions
- 194. Evolution of theSolar System The standard model for the formation of the Solar System (including the Earth) is the solar nebula hypothesis. In this model, the Solar system formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the solar nebula. It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae. About 4.5 Ga, the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the shock wave of a nearby supernova. A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Small perturbations due to collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris created the means by which kilometer-sized protoplanets began to form, orbiting the nebular center.
- 195. The centerof the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly. The compression heating it until nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, aTTauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun. The solar wind of the newly formedTTauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield planets
- 196. In theouter part of the nebula, gravity caused matter to condense around density perturbations and dust particles. The rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. Successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets (called runaway accretion)
- 197. Earth formedin this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed within 10–20 million years The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called iron catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core Only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the formation of Earth's magnetic field.
- 198. Geological Layers ofEarth
- 199. Evolution of Lifeon Earth Biologists reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single universal ancestor. The earliest organisms fossil is available of bacteria. The lack of fossil or geochemical evidence for earlier organisms has left plenty of scope for hypotheses. Two main groups: 1) that life arose spontaneously on Earth or 2) that it was "seeded" from elsewhere in the Universe
- 200. Life "seeded" fromelsewhere There are three main versions of the "seeded from elsewhere" hypothesis: from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large meteor impact, in which case the most credible sources are Mars andVenus; by alien visitors, possibly as a result of accidental contamination by microorganisms that they brought with them; and from outside the Solar System but by natural means. Greek philosopher Anaximander, physical chemist Svante Arrhenius, astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe, and by molecular biologist Francis Crick and chemist Leslie Orgel.
- 201. Independent emergence onEarth Life on Earth is based on carbon and water. Carbon provides stable frameworks for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment, especially from carbon dioxide Water is an excellent solvent Research on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: self-replication, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external cell membranes, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances
- 202.
- 203. Evolution of Lifeon Earth Timeline of evolution of life represents the current scientific theory outlining the major events during the development of life on planet Earth. In biology, evolution is any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. Evolutionary processes give rise to diversity at every level of biological organization, from kingdoms to species, and individual organisms and molecules, such as DNA and proteins.
- 204. Basic Timeline In its4.6 billion years circling the Sun, the Earth has harbored an increasing diversity of life forms: 1. for the last 3.6 billion years, simple cells (prokaryotes); 2. for the last 3.4 billion years, cyanobacteria performing photosynthesis; 3. for the last 2 billion years, complex cells (eukaryotes); 4. for the last 1.2 billion years, eukaryotes which sexually reproduce 5. for the last 1 billion years, multicellular life; 6. for the last 600 million years, simple animals; 7. for the last 550 million years, bilaterians, water life forms with a front and a back; 8. for the last 500 million years, fish and proto-amphibians; 9. for the last 475 million years, land plants;
- 205. Basic Timeline 10. forthe last 400 million years, insects and seeds; 11. for the last 360 million years, amphibians; 12. for the last 300 million years, reptiles; 13. for the last 200 million years, mammals; 14. for the last 150 million years, birds; 15. for the last 130 million years, flowers; 16. for the last 60 million years, the primates, 17. for the last 20 million years, the family Hominidae (great apes); 18. for the last 2.5 million years, the genus Homo (including humans and their predecessors); 19. for the last 250,000 years, anatomically modern humans.
- 206.
- 207. Periodic Extinctions Periodic extinctionshave temporarily reduced diversity, eliminating: 2.4 billion years ago, many obligate anaerobes (Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen), in the Great Oxygenation Event; 252 million years ago, the trilobites (Trilobites (3 lobes) are a fossil group of extinct marine arthropods that form the class Trilobita.), in the Permian–Triassic extinction event; 65 million years ago, the pterosaurs (Pterosaurs ("winged lizard") were the earliest vertebrates flying reptiles known to have evolved powered flight and of order Pterosauria. Pterosaurs), non-avian dinosaurs, in the Cretaceous– Paleogene extinction event.
- 208.
- 231. TAZ/NED/Fall2015En501/20150822/v1 Handout Accretion In astrophysics,accretion is the growth of particles into a massive object by gravitationally attracting more matter, typically gaseous matter in an accretion disc. This attracted matter accelerates the growth of the particles into boulder-sized planetesimals. The more massive planetesimals accrete some smaller ones, while others shatter in collisions. Some dynamics in the disc are necessary to allow orbiting gas to lose angular momentum and fall onto the central massive object. Occasionally, this can result in stellar surface fusion. accretion disc An accretion disk is a structure (often a circumstellar disk) formed by diffused material in orbital motion around a massive central body. The central body is typically a star. Gravity causes material in the disc to spiral inward towards the central body. Gravitational and frictional forces compress and raise the temperature of the material causing the emission of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency range of that radiation depends on the central object's mass. Accretion discs of young stars and protostars radiate in the infrared; those around neutron stars and black holes in the X-ray part of the spectrum. The study of oscillation modes in accretion discs is referred to as diskoseismology Big Bang The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model for the universe from the earliest known periods through its subsequent large-scale evolution. It states that the universe expanded from a very high density state The Big Bang theory offers a comprehensive explanation for a broad range of observed phenomena, including the abundance of light elements, the cosmic microwave background, large scale structure, and Hubble's Law. The framework for the Big Bang model relies on Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity and on simplifying assumptions such as homogeneity and isotropy of space. circumstellar disk A circumstellar disk is a torus, pancake or ring-shaped accumulation of matter composed of gas, dust, planetesimals, asteroids or collision fragments in orbit around a star. Around the youngest stars, they are the reservoirs of material out of which planets may form. Around mature stars, they indicate that planetesimal formation has taken place and around white dwarfs, they indicate that planetary material survived the whole of stellar evolution. Such a disk can manifest itself in various ways. Herbig Ae/Be star A Herbig Ae/Be star (HABe) is a pre-main-sequence star – a young (<10Myr) star of spectral types A or B. These stars are still embedded in gas-dust envelopes and are sometimes accompanied by circumstellar disks. They are 2-8 Solar mass (M☉) objects Hydrogen and calcium emission lines are observed in their spectra Luminosity In astronomy, luminosity is the total amount of energy emitted by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical object per unit time. It is related to the brightness, which is the luminosity of an object in a given spectral region. Milky Way The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. Its name "milky" is derived from its appearance as a dim glowing band arching across the night sky whose individual stars cannot be distinguished by the naked eye.
- 232. TAZ/NED/Fall2015En501/20150822/v1 The Milky Wayis a barred spiral galaxy that has a diameter usually considered to be roughly 100,000–120,000 light-years but may be 150,000–180,000 light-years. The Milky Way is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars, although this number may be as high as one trillion. There are probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located within the disk, about 27,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge of one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas and dust called the Orion Arm. Nebula A nebula (Latin for "cloud";[2] pl. nebulae, nebulæ, or nebulas) is an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases. Originally, nebula was a name for any diffuse astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy, for instance, was referred to as the Andromeda Nebula (and spiral galaxies in general as "spiral nebulae") before the true nature of galaxies was confirmed in the early 20th century by Vesto Slipher, Edwin Hubble and others. pre-main sequence stars A pre-main-sequence star (also known as a PMS star and PMS object) is a star in the stage when it has not yet reached the main sequence. A protostar grows by accretion, acquiring mass from its surrounding envelope of interstellar dust and gas. By the time it is visible, the main accretion phase has ended and it has acquired virtually all of its mass but has not yet started hydrogen burning (i.e. nuclear fusion of hydrogen). The end of the main accretion phase to the start of hydrogen burning (i.e. zero age main sequence) is the pre-main sequence stage. Protoplanetary disk A protoplanetary disk is a rotating circumstellar disk of dense gas surrounding a young newly formed star, a T Tauri star, or Herbig Ae/Be star. The protoplanetary disk may also be considered an accretion disc for the star itself, because gasses or other material may be falling from the inner edge of the disk onto the surface of the star. But this process should not be confused with the accretion process thought to build up the planets themselves. Protoplanets Protoplanets are large planetary embryos that originate within protoplanetary discs and have undergone internal melting to produce differentiated interiors. runaway accretion Siderophile Siderophile (from sideron, "iron", and philia, "love") elements are the high-density transition metals which tend to sink into the core because they dissolve readily in iron either as solid solutions or in the molten state. The siderophile elements include gold, cobalt, iron, iridium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, osmium, palladium, platinum, rhenium, rhodium and ruthenium. Stars vs planets Stellar relating to a star or stars supernova remnant This shock wave sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust called a supernova remnant. Supernovae A supernova is a stellar explosion that briefly outshines an entire galaxy, radiating as much energy as the Sun or any ordinary star is expected to emit over its entire life span, before fading from view over several weeks or months.
- 233. TAZ/NED/Fall2015En501/20150822/v1 The extremely luminousburst of radiation expels much or all of a star's material at a velocity of up to 30,000 km/s (10% of the speed of light), driving a shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium. This shock wave sweeps up an expanding shell of gas and dust called a supernova remnant. Supernovae are potentially strong galactic sources of gravitational waves Supernovae are more energetic than novae. Nova means "new" in Latin, referring to what appears to be a very bright new star shining in the celestial sphere; the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous. Supernovae can be triggered in one of two ways: by the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star; or by the gravitational collapse of the core of a massive star The last directly observed supernova in the Milky Way was Kepler's Star of 1604 (SN 1604); remnants of two more recent supernovae have been found retrospectively T Tauri star T Tauri stars (TTS) are a class of variable stars named after their prototype – T Tauri. They are found near molecular clouds and identified by their optical variability and strong chromospheric lines. T Tauri stars are pre-main sequence stars in the process of contracting to the main sequence along the Hayashi track, a luminosity-temperature relationship obeyed by infant stars of less than 3 solar masses (M☉) in the pre-main-sequence phase of stellar evolution.
- 234. HANDOUT-Timeline of naturalhistory In the earliest solar system history, the Sun, the planetesimals and the jovian planets were formed. The inner solar system aggregated more slowly than the outer, so the terrestrial planets were not yet formed, including Earth and Moon. c. 4,570 Ma: A supernova explosion (known as the primal supernova) seeds our galactic neighborhood with heavy elements that will be incorporated into the Earth, and results in a shock wave in a dense region of the Milky Way galaxy. The Ca-Al-rich inclusions, which formed 2 million years before the chondrules,[1] are a key signature of a supernova explosion. 4,567±3 Ma: Rapid collapse of hydrogen molecular cloud, forming a third-generation Population I star, the Sun, in a region of the Galactic Habitable Zone(GHZ), about 25,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.[2] 4,566±2 Ma: A protoplanetary disc (from which Earth eventually forms) emerges around the young Sun, which is in its T Tauri stage. 4,560–4550 Ma: Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels ofmethane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early Bombardment Phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size Hadean Eon[edit] 4,533 Ma: Hadean Eon, Precambrian Supereon and unofficial Cryptic era start as the Earth– Moon system forms, possibly as a result of a glancing collision between proto–Earth and the hypothetical protoplanet Theia. (The Earth was considerably smaller than now, before this impact.) This impact vaporized a large amount of the crust, and sent material into orbit around Earth, which lingered as rings, similar to those of Saturn, for a few million years, until they coalesced to become the Moon. The Moon geology pre-Nectarian period starts. Earth was covered by a magmatic ocean 200 kilometres (120 mi) deep resulting from the impact energy from this and other planetesimals during the early bombardment phase, and energy released by the planetary core forming. Outgassing from crustal rocks gives Earth a reducing atmosphere of methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, and water vapour, with lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, then carbon dioxide. With further full outgassing over 1000–1500 K, nitrogen and ammonia become lesser constituents, and comparable amounts of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and hydrogen are released.
- 235. 4,500 Ma:Sun enters main sequence: a solar wind sweeps the Earth-Moon system clear of debris (mainly dust and gas). End of the Early Bombardment Phase.Basin Groups Era begins on Earth 4,450 Ma: 100 million years after the Moon formed, the first lunar crust, formed of lunar anorthosite, differentiates from lower magmas. The earliest Earth crust probably forms similarly out of similar material. On Earth the pluvial period starts, in which the Earth's crust cools enough to let oceans form. 4,300 Ma: Nectarian Era begins on Earth 4,404 Ma: First known mineral, found at Jack Hills in Western Australia. Detrital zircons show presence of a solid crust and liquid water. Latest possible date for a secondary atmosphere to form, produced by the Earth's crust outgassing, reinforced by water and possibly organic molecules delivered by comet impacts andcarbonaceous chondrites (including type CI shown to be high in a number of amino acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)). 4,250 Ma: Earliest evidence for life, based on unusually high amounts of light isotopes of carbon, a common sign of life, found in Earth's oldest mineral deposits located in the Jack Hills of Western Australia.[3] 4,100 Ma: Early Imbrian Era begins on Earth. Late heavy bombardment of the Moon (and probably of the Earth as well) by bolides and asteroids, produced possibly by the planetary migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of orbital resonances between Jupiter and Saturn.[4] 4,030 Ma: Acasta Gneiss of Northwest Territories, Canada, first known oldest rock, or aggregate of minerals. Archean Eon[edit] Main article: Archean Eoarchean Era[edit] Main article: Eoarchean 4,000 Ma: Archean Eon and Eoarchean Era start. Possible first appearance of plate tectonic activity in the Earth's crust as plate structures may have begun appearing. Possible beginning of Napier Mountains Orogeny forces of faulting and folding create first metamorphic rocks. Origins of life. 3,930 Ma: Possible stabilization of Canadian Shield begins 3,920–3,850 Ma: Final phase of Late Heavy Bombardment 3,850 Ma: Greenland apatite shows evidence of 12 C enrichment, characteristic of the presence of photosynthetic life.[5]
- 236. 3,850 Ma:Evidence of life: Akilia Island graphite off Western Greenland contains evidence of kerogen, of a type consistent with photosynthesis.[citation needed] 3,800 Ma: Oldest banded iron formations found.[citation needed] . First complete continental masses or cratons, formed of granite blocks, appear on Earth. Occurrence of initial felsic igneous activity on eastern edge of Antarctic craton as first great continental mass begins to coalesce. East European Craton begins to form - first rocks of the Ukrainian Shield and Voronezh Massif are laid down 3,750 Ma: Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt forms 3,700 Ma: Graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland[6] Stabilization of Kaapval cratonbegins: old tonaltic gneisses laid down Paleoarchean Era[edit] 3,600 Ma: Paleoarchean Era starts. Possible assembly of the Vaalbara supercontinent: Oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield, East European Craton and Kaapval) begin growing as a result of crustal disturbances along continents coalescing into Vaalbara - Pilbara Craton stabilizes. Formation ofBarberton greenstone belt: Makhonjwa Mountains uplifts on the eastern edge of Kaapval craton, oldest mountains in Africa - area called the "genesis of life" for exceptional preservation of fossils. Narryer Gneiss Terrane stabilizes: these gniesses become the "bedrock" for the formation of the Yilgarn Craton in Australia - noted for the survival of the Jack Hills where the oldest mineral, a zircon was uncovered 3,500 Ma: Lifetime of the last Universal ancestor: split between bacteria and archaea occurs as "tree of life" begins branching out - varieties of Eubacteria begin to radiate out globally. Fossils resembling cyanobacteria, found at Warrawoona, Western Australia.[citation needed] 3,480 Ma: Fossils of microbial mat found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.[7][8] First appearance of stromatolitic organisms that grow at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on submerged or moist surfaces 3,460 Ma: Fossils of bacteria in chert.[citation needed] Zimbabwe Craton stabilizes from the suture of two smaller crustal blocks, the Tokwe Segment to the south and the Rhodesdale Segment or Rhodesdale gneiss to the north 3.400 Ma: Eleven taxa of prokaryotes are preserved in the Apex Chert of the Pilbara craton in Australia. Because chert is fine-grained silica-rich microcrystalline,cryptocrystalline or microfibrious material, it preserves small fossils quite well. Stabilization of Baltic Shield begins 3.340 Ma: Johannesburg Dome forms in South Africa: located in the central part of Kaapvaal Craton and consists of trondhjemitic and tonalitic granitic rocks intruded into mafic-ultramafic greenstone - the oldest granitoid phase recognised so far.
- 237. 3,300 Ma:Onset of compressional tectonics[9] Intrusion of granitic plutons on the Kaapvaal Craton 3,260 Ma: One of the largest recorded impact events occurs near the Barberton Greenstone Belt, when a 58 km (36 mi) asteroid leaves a hole almost 480 km (300 mi) across – two and a half times larger in diameter than the Chicxulub crater.[10] Mesoarchean Era[edit] 3,200 Ma: Mesoarchean Era starts. Onverwacht series in South Africa form - contain some of the oldest microfossils mostly spheroidal and carbonaceous alga-like bodies 3,200–2600 Ma: Assembly of the Ur supercontinent to cover between 12–16% of the current continental crust. Formation of Limpopo Belt 3.1 Ma: Fig Tree Formation: second round of fossilizations including Archaeosphaeroides barbertonensis and Eobacterium. Gneiss and greenstone belts in the Baltic Shield are laid down in Kola Peninsula, Karelia and northeastern Finland 3 Ma: Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica: possible formation of Humboldt Mountains in Queen Maud Land. Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolve; they use water as a reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen as a waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore - over time oxygen concentration in the atmosphere slowly rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. As Moon is still very close to Earth and causes tides 1,000 feet (305 m) high, the Earth is continually wracked by hurricane-force winds - these extreme mixing influences are thought to stimulate evolutionary processes. Rise ofStromatolites: microbial mats become successful forming the first reef building communities on Earth in shallow warm tidal pool zones (to 1.5 Gyr). Tanzania Craton forms 2.940 Ma: Yilgarn Craton of western Australia forms by the accretion of a multitude of formerly present blocks or terranes of existing continental crust 2,900 Ma: Assembly of the Kenorland supercontinent, based upon the core of the Baltic shield, formed at 3100 Ma. Narryer Gniess Terrane (including Jack Hills) of Western Australia undergoes extensive metamorphism Neoarchean Era[edit] 2,800 Ma: Neoarchean Era starts. Breakup of the Vaalbara: Breakup of supercontinent Ur as it becomes a part of the major supercontinent Kenorland. Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons join together 2,770 Ma: Formation of Hamersley Basin on the southern margin of Pilbara Craton - last stable submarine-fluviatile environment between the Yilgarn and Pilbara prior to rifting, contraction and assembly of the intracratonic Gascoyne Complex 2,750 Ma: Renosterkoppies Greenstone Belt forms on the northern edge of the Kaapvaal Craton
- 238. 2,736 Ma:Formation of the Temagami Greenstone Belt in Temagami, Ontario, Canada 2,707 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present- day Ontario and Quebec - first known Precambrian supervolcano - first phase results in creation of 8km long, 40km wide, east-west striking Misema Caldera - coalescence of at least two large mafic shield volcanoes 2,705 Ma: Major komatiite eruption, possibly global[9] - possible mantle overturn event 2.704 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: second phase results in creation of 30 km long, 15 km wide northwest-southeast trending New Senator Caldera - thick massive mafic sequences which has been inferred to be a subaqueous lava lake 2,700 Ma: Biomarkers of cyanobacteria discovered, together with steranes (sterols of cholesterol), associated with films of eukaryotes, in shales located beneath banded iron formation hematite beds, in Hamersley Range, Western Australia[11] Skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites shows a small rise in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere[12] Sturgeon Lake Caldera, forms in Wabigoon greenstone belt: contains well perserved homoclinal chain of greenschist facies, metamorphosed intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary layers - Mattabi pyroclastic flow considered third most voluminous eruptive event. Stromatolites of Bulawayo series in Zimbabwe form: first verified reef community on Earth. Skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites shows a small rise in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere 2,696 Ma: Blake River Megacaldera Complex: third phase of activity constructs classic east- northeast striking Noranda Caldera which contains a 7-to-9-km-thick succession of mafic and felsic rocks erupted during five major series of activity. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form: considered world's largest series of Archean greenstone belts, appears to represent a series of thrusted subterranes 2,690 Ma: Formation of high pressure granulites in the Limpopo Central Region 2,650 Ma: Insell Orogeny: occurrence of a very-high grade discrete tectonothermal event (a UHT metamorphic event) 2,600 Ma: Oldest known giant carbonate platform.[9] Saturation of oxygen in ocean sediments is reached as oxygen now begins to dramatically appear in Earth's atmosphere Proterozoic Eon[edit] Main article: Proterozoic Paleoproterozoic Era[edit] Main article: Paleoproterozoic Siderian Period[edit]
- 239. 2,500 Ma:Proterozoic Eon, Paleoproterozoic Era, and Siderian Period start. Oxygen saturation in the oceans is reached: Banded iron formations form and saturate ocean floor deposits - without an oxygen sink, Earth's atmosphere becomes highly oxygenic. Great Oxygenation Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis - various forms of Archaea and anoxic bacteria become extinct in first great extinction event on Earth. Algoman Orogeny or Kenoran: assembly of Arctica out of the Canadian Laurentian Shield and Siberian craton - formation of Angaran Shield and Slave Province 2,440 Ma: Formation of Gawler Craton in Australia 2,400 Ma: Huronian glaciation starts, probably from oxidation of earlier methane greenhouse gas produced by burial of organic sediments of photosynthesizers. First cyanobacteria. Formation of Dharwar Craton in southern India 2,400 Ma: Suavjarvi impact structure forms. This is the oldest known impact crater whose remnants are still recognizable. Dharwar Craton in southern India stabilizes Rhyacian Period[edit] 2,300 Ma: Rhyacian period starts. 2,250 Ma: Bushveld Igneous Complex forms: world's largest reserves of platinum-group metals (platinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium and ruthenium) as well as vast quantities of iron, tin chromium titanium and vanadium appear - formation of Transvaal Basin begins 2,200–1800 Ma: Continental Red Beds found, produced by iron in weathered sandstone being exposed to oxygen. Eburnean Orogeny, series of tectonic, metamorphic and plutonic events establish Eglab Shield to north of West African Craton and Man Shield to its south - Birimian domain of West Africa established and structured 2,200 Ma: Iron content of ancient fossil soils shows an oxygen built up to 5–18% of current levels[13] End of Kenoran Orogeny: invasion of Superior and Slave Provinces by basaltic dikes and sills - Wyoming and Montana arm of Superior Province experiences intrusion of 5 km thick sheet of chromite-bearing gabbroic rock as Stillwater Complex forms 2,100 Ma: Huronian glaciation ends. Earliest known eukaryote fossils found. Earliest multicellular organisms collectively referred to as the "Gabonionta" (Francevillian Group Fossil), Wopmay orogeny along western margin of Canadian Shield 2,090 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: Eglab Shield experiences syntectonic trondhjemitic pluton intrusion of its Chegga series - most of the intrusion is in the form of a plagioclase called oligoclase 2.070 Ma: Eburnean Orogeny: asthenospheric upwelling releases large volume of post-orogenic magmas - magma events repeatedly reactivated from the Neoproterozoic to the Mesozoic Orosirian Period[edit]
- 240. 2,050 Ma:Orosirian Period starts. Significant orogeny in most continents. 2,023 Ma: Vredefort impact structure forms. 2,005 Ma: Glenburgh Orogeny (2,005–1,920 Ma) begins: Glenburgh Terrane in western Australia begins to stabilize during period of substantial granite magmatism and deformation; Halfway Gneiss and Moogie Metamorphics result. Dalgaringa Supersuite (2,005–1,985 Ma), comprising sheets, dykes and viens of mesocratic and leucocratic tonalite, stabilizes. 2,000 Ma: The lesser supercontinent Atlantica forms. The Oklo natural nuclear reactor of Gabon produced by uranium-precipitant bacteria.[14] First acritarchs. 1,900 - 1,880 Ma: Gunflint chert biota forms flourishes including prokaryotes like Kakabekia, Gunflintia, Animikiea and Eoastrion 1,850 Ma: Sudbury impact structure. Penokean orogeny. First eukaryotes. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic lineages.[15] 1,830 Ma: Capricorn Orogeny (1.83 - 1.78 Gyr) stabilizes central and northern Gascoyne Complex: formation of pelitic and psammitic schists known as Morrissey Metamorphics and depositing Pooranoo Metamophics an amphibolite facies Statherian Period[edit] 1,800 Ma: Statherian Period starts. Supercontinent Columbia forms, one of whose fragments being Nena. Oldest ergs develop on several cratons[9] Barramundi Orogeny (ca. 1.8 Gyr) influences MacArthur Basin in Northern Australia. 1,780 Ma Colorado Orogeny (1.78 - 1.65 Gyr) influences southern margin of Wyoming craton - collision of Colorado orogen and Trans-Hudson orogen with stabilized Archean craton structure 1,770 Ma Big Sky Orogeny (1.77 Gyr) influences southwest Montana: collision between Hearne and Wyoming cratons 1,765 Ma As Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent slows, Yapungku Orogeny (1.765 Gyr) begins effecting Yilgarn craton in Western Australia - possible formation of Darling Fault, one of longest and most significant in Australia 1,760 Ma Yavapai Orogeny (1.76 - 1.7 Gyr) impacts mid to south western United States 1.750 Ma Gothian Orogeny (1.75 - 1.5 Gyr): formation of tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic rocks and calc-alkaline volcanites in the East European Craton 1,700 Ma Stabilization of second major continental mass, the Guiana Shield in South America 1,680 Ma Mangaroon Orogeny (1.68 - 1.62 Gyr), on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia: Durlacher Supersuite, granite intrusion featuring a northern (Minnie Creek) and southern belt - heavily sheared orthoclase porphyroclastic granites
- 241. 1.650 MaKararan Orogeny (1.65 Gyr) uplifts great mountains on the Gawler Craton in Southern Australia - formation of Gawler Range including picturesque Conical Hill Track and "Organ Pipes" waterfall Mesoproterozoic Era[edit] Main article: Mesoproterozoic Calymmian Period[edit] 1,600 Ma: Mesoproterozoic Era and Calymmian Period start. Platform covers expand. Major orogenic event in Australia: Isan Orogeny (1,600 Ma) influences Mount Isa Block of Queensland - major deposits of lead, silver, copper and zinc are laid down. Mazatzal Orogeny (1,600 Ma - 1,300 Ma) influences mid to south western United States: Precambrian rocks of the Grand Canyon, Vishnu Schist and Grand Canyon Series, are formed establishing basement of Canyon with metamorphosed gniesses that are invaded by granites 1,500 Ma: Supercontinent Columbia collapses: associated with continental rifting along western margin of Laurentia, eastern India, southern Baltica, southeastern Siberia, northwestern South Africa and North China Block - formation of Ghats Province in India First structurally complex eukaryotes (Hododyskia, colonial formamiferian). Ectasian Period[edit] 1,400 Ma: Ectasian Period starts. Platform covers expand. Major increase in Stromatolite diversity with widespread blue-green algae colonies and reefs dominating tidal zones of oceans and seas 1,300 Ma: Break-up of Columbia Supercontinent completed: widespread anorogenic magmatic activity, forming anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite suites in North America, Baltica, Amazonia and North China - stabilization of Amazonian Craton in South America Grenville orogeny(1,300 - 1,000 Ma) in North America: globally associated with assembly of Supercontinent Rodinia establishes Grenville Province in Eastern North America - folded mountains from Newfoundland to North Carolina as Old Rag Mountain forms 1,270 Ma Emplacement of Mackenzie granite mafic dike swarm - one of three dozen dike swarms, forms into Mackenzie Large Igneous Province - formation of Copper Creek deposits 1,250 Ma Sveconorwegian Orogeny (1,250 Ma - 900 Ma) begins: essentially a reworking of previously formed crust on the Baltic Shield 1,240 Ma Second major dike swarm, Sudbury dikes form in Northeastern Ontario around the area of the Sudbury Basin Stenian Period[edit]
- 242. 1,200 Ma:Stenian Period starts. Red alga Bangiomorpha pubescens, earliest fossil evidence for sexually reproducing organism.[16] Meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single- celled eukaryotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[17] Supercontinent of Rodinia(1.2 Gyr - 750 Myr) completed: consisting of North American, East European, Amazonian, West African, Eastern Antactica, Australia and China blocks, largest global system yet formed - surrounded by superocean Mirovia 1,100 Ma: First dinoflagellate evolve: photosynthetic some develop mixotrophic habits ingesting prey - with their appearance, prey-predator relationship is established for first time forcing acritarchs to defensive strategies and leading to open "arms" race. Late Ruker (1.1 - 1 Gyr) and Nimrod Orogenies (1.1 Gyr) in Antarctica possibly begins: formation of Gamburtsev mountain range and Vostok Subglacial Highlands. Keweenawan Rift buckles in the south-central part of the North American plate - leaves behind thick layers of rock that are exposed in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Nebraska and creates rift valley where future Lake Superior develops. 1.080 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny (ca. 1.080 Gyr) forms Musgrave Block, an east-west trending belt of granulite-gneiss basement rocks - voluminous Kulgera Suite of granite and Birksgate Complex solidify 1.076 Ma: Musgrave Orogeny: Warakurna large igneous province develops - intrusion of Giles Complex and Winburn Suite of granites and deposition of Bentley Supergroup (including Tollu and Smoke Hill Volcanics) Neoproterozoic Era[edit] Main article: Neoproterozoic Tonian Period[edit] 1,000 Ma: Neoproterozoic Era and Tonian Period start. Grenville orogeny ends. First radiation of dinoflagellates and spiny acritarchs - increase in defensive systems indicate that acritarchs are responding to carnivorous habits of dinoflagellates - decline in stromatolite reef populations begins. Rodinia starts to break up. First vaucherian algae. Rayner Orogeny as proto-India and Antarctica collide (to 900 Ma.) Trace fossils of colonial Hododyskia (1500 Ma - 900 Ma): possible divergence between animal and plant kingdoms begins. Stabilization of Satpura Province in Northern India. Rayner Orogeny (1 Gyr - 900 Myr) as India and Antarctica collide 920 Ma: Edmundian Orogeny (ca. 920 - 850 Myr) redefines Gascoyne Complex: consists of reactivation of earlier formed faults in the Gascoyne - folding and faulting of overlying Edmund and Collier basins 920 Ma: Adelaide Geosyncline laid down in central Australia - essentially a rift complex, consists of thick layer of sedimentary rock and minor volcanics deposited on easter margin - limestones, shales and sandstones predominate
- 243. 900 Ma:Bitter Springs Formation of Australia: in addition to prokaryote assemblage of fossils, cherts include eukaryotes with ghostly internal structures similar to green algae - first appearance of Glenobotrydion (900 - 720 Myr), among earliest plants on Earth Cryogenian Period[edit] 850 Ma: Cryogenian Period starts, during which Earth freezes over (Snowball Earth or Slushball Earth) at least 3 times. Rift develops on Rodinia between continental masses of Australia, eastern Antarctica, India, Congo and Kalahari on one side and Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia, West African and Rio de la Plata cratons on other - formation of Adamastor Ocean. 800 Ma: With free oxygen levels much higher, carbon cycle is disrupted and once again glaciation becomes severe - beginning of second "snowball Earth" event 750 Ma: First Proterozoa appears: as creaturs like Paramecium, Amoeba and Melanocyrillium evolve, first animal-like cells become distinctive from plants - rise of herbivores (plant feeders) in the food chain. First Sponge-like animal: similar to early colonial foraminiferan Horodyskia, earliest ancestors of Sponges were colonial cells that circulated food sources using flagella to their gullet to be digested. Kaigas glaciation (ca. 750 Ma): first major glaciation of Earth - almost entire planet is covered with ice sheets up to more than a kilometer thick and identified from units in Namibia and the South China Block 720 Ma: Sturtian glaciation continues process begun during Kaigas - great ice sheets cover most of the planet stunting evolutionary development of animal and plant life - survival based on small pockets of heat under the ice 700 Ma: Fossils of testate Amoeba first appear: first complex metazoans leave unconfirmed biomarkers - they introduce new complex body plan architecture which allows for development of complex internal and external structures. Worm trail impressions in China: because putative "burrows" under stromatolite mounds are of uneven width and tapering makes biological origin difficult to defend - structures imply simple feeding behaviours. Rifting of Rodinia is completed: formation of new superocean of Panthalassa as previous Mirovia ocean bed closes - Mozambique mobile belt develops as a suture between plates on Congo-Tanzania craton 660 Ma As Sturtian glaciers retreat, Cadomian orogeny (660 - 540 Myr) begins on north coast of Armorica: involving one or more collisions of island arcs on margin of future Gondwana, terranes of Avalonia, Armorica and Ibera are laid down 650 Ma First Demosponges appear: form first skeletons of spicules made from protein spongin and silica - brightly coloured these colonial creatures filter feed since they lack nervous, digestive or circulatory systems and reproduce both sexually and asexually 650 Ma: Final period of worldwide glaciation, Marinoan (650 - 635 Myr) begins: most significant "snowball Earth" event, global in scope and longer - evidence from Diamictite deposits in South Australia laid down on Adelaide Geosyncline
- 244. Ediacaran Period[edit] 635Ma: Ediacaran period begins. End of Marinoan Glaciation: last major "snowball Earth" event as future ice ages will feature less overall ice coverage of the planet 633 Ma: Beardmore Orogeny (633 - 620 Ma) in Antarctica: reflection of final break-up of Rodinia as pieces of the supercontinent begin moving together again to form Pannotia 620 Ma: Timanide Orogeny (620 - 550 Ma) affects northern Baltic Shield: gneiss province divided into several north-south trending segments experiences numerous metasedimentary and metavolcanic deposits - last major orogenic event of Precambrian 600 Ma: Pan-African Orogeny (600 Ma) begins: Arabian-Nubian Shield formed between plates separating supercontinent fragments Gondwana and Pannotia - Supercontinent Pannotia (600 - 500 Ma) completed, bordered by Iapetus and Panthalassa oceans. Accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows for the formation of ozone layer: prior to this, land-based life would probably have required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough to permit colonization of the land 575 Ma: First Ediacaran-type fossils. 560 Ma: Trace fossils, e.g., worm burrows, and small bilaterally symmetrical animals. Earliest arthropods. Earliest fungi. 555 Ma: The first possible mollusk Kimberella appears. 550 Ma: First possible comb-jellies, sponges, corals, and anemones. 544 Ma: The small shelly fauna first appears. Phanerozoic Eon[edit] Main article: Phanerozoic Paleozoic Era[edit] Main article: Paleozoic Cambrian Period[edit] 541 ± 0.3 Ma: beginning of the Cambrian Period, the Paleozoic Era and the Phanerozoic (current) Eon. End of the Ediacaran Period, the Proterozoic Eon and the Precambrian Supereon. Time since the Cambrian explosion the emergence of most forms of complex life, including vertebrates (fish), arthropods,echinoderms and molluscs. Pannotia breaks up into several smaller continents: Laurentia, Baltica and Gondwana. 540 Ma: Supercontinent of Pannotia breaks up. 530 Ma: First fish.
- 245. 521 Ma:First trilobites 525 Ma: First graptolites. 505 Ma: Deposition of the Burgess Shale. Ordovician Period[edit] 485.4 ± 1.7 Ma: Beginning of the Ordovician and the end of the Cambrian Period. 485 Ma: First jawless fish. 450 Ma: Plants and arthropods colonize the land. Sharks evolve. Silurian Period[edit] 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma: Beginning of the Silurian and the end of the Ordovician Period. 420 Ma: First creature took a breath of air. First ray-finned fish and land scorpions. 410 Ma: First toothed fish and nautiloids. Devonian Period[edit] 419.2 ± 2.8 Ma: Beginning of the Devonian and end of the Silurian Period. First insects. 395 Ma: First of many modern groups, including tetrapods. 360 Ma: First crabs and ferns. 350 Ma: First large sharks, ratfish and hagfish. Carboniferous Period[edit] 358.9 ± 2.5 Ma: Beginning of the Carboniferous and the end of Devonian Period. Amphibians diversify. 330 Ma: First amniotes evolve. 320 Ma: First synapsids evolve. 315 Ma: The evolution of the first reptiles. 305 Ma: First diapsids evolve. Permian Period[edit] 298.9 ± 0.8 Ma: End of Carboniferous and beginning of Permian Period. By this time, all continents have fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea. Beetlesevolve. Seed plants and conifers diversify along with temnospondyls and pelycosaurs. 275 Ma: First therapsids evolve. 251.4 Ma: Permian mass extinction. End of Permian Period and of the Palaeozoic Era. Beginning of Triassic Period, the Mesozoic era and of the age of the dinosaurs.
- 246. Mesozoic Era[edit] Main article:Mesozoic Triassic Period[edit] 252.17 ± 0.4 Ma: Mesozoic era and Triassic Period begin. Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins. 245 Ma: First ichthyosaurs. 240 Ma: Cynodonts and rhynchosaurs diversify. 225 Ma: First dinosaurs and teleosti evolve. 220 Ma: First crocodilians and flies. 215 Ma: First turtles. Long-necked sauropod dinosaurs and Coelophysis, one of the earliest theropod dinosaurs, evolve. First mammals. Jurassic Period[edit] 201.3 ± 0.6 Ma: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event marks the end of Triassic and beginning of Jurassic Period. The largest dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus andBrachiosaurus evolve during this time, as do the carnosaurs; large, bipedal predatory dinosaurs such as Allosaurus. First specialized pterosaurs and sauropods.Ornithischians diversify. 190 Ma: Pliosaurs evolve, along with many groups of primitive sea invertebrates. 180 Ma: Pangaea splits into two major continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south. 176 Ma: First stegosaurs. 170 Ma: First salamanders and newts evolve. Cynodonts go extinct. 165 Ma: First stingrays. 161 Ma: First ceratopsians. 155 Ma: First birds and triconodonts. Stegosaurs and theropods diversify. Cretaceous Period[edit] 145 ± 4 Ma: End of Jurassic and beginning of Cretaceous Period. 130 Ma: Laurasia and Gondwana begin to split apart as the Atlantic Ocean forms. First flowering plants. 115 Ma: First monotremes. 110 Ma: First hesperornithes. 106 Ma: Spinosaurus evolves. 100 Ma: First bees. 90 Ma: the Indian subcontinent splits from Gondwana, becoming an island continent. Ichthyosaurs go extinct. Snakes and ticks evolve.
- 247. 80 Ma:Australia splits from Antarctica. First ants. 70 Ma: Multituberculates diversify. 68 Ma: Tyrannosaurus rex evolves. 66 ± 0.3 Ma: Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous Period marks the end of the Mesozoic era and the age of the dinosaurs; start of the Paleogene Period and the current Cenozoic era. Cenozoic Era[edit] Main article: Cenozoic Paleogene Period[edit] 63 Ma: First creodonts. 60 Ma: Evolution of the first primates and miacids. Flightless birds diversify. 56 Ma: Gastornis evolves. 55 Ma: the island of the Indian subcontinent collides with Asia, thrusting up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Many modern bird groups appear. Firstwhale ancestors. First rodents, lagomorphs, armadillos, sirenians, proboscideans, perissodactyls, artiodactyls, and mako sharks. Angiosperms diversify. 52 Ma: First bats. 50 Ma: Africa collides with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Sea. Divergence of cat and dog ancestors. Primates diversify. Brontotheres, tapirs, rhinos, and camelsevolve. 49 Ma: Whales return to the water. 40 Ma: Age of the Catarrhini parvorder; first canines evolve. Lepidopteran insects become recognizable. Gastornis goes extinct. Basilosaurus evolves. 37 Ma: First Nimravids. 33.9 ± 0.1 Ma: End of Eocene, start of Oligocene epoch. 35 Ma: Grasslands first appear. Glyptodonts, ground sloths, peccaries, dogs, eagles, and hawks evolve. 33 Ma: First thylacinid marsupials evolve. 30 Ma: Brontotheres go extinct. Pigs evolve. South America separates from Antarctica, becoming an island continent. 28 Ma: Paraceratherium evolves. 26 Ma: Emergence of the first true elephants. 25 Ma: First deer. Cats evolve. Neogene Period[edit] 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma: Neogene Period and Miocene epoch begin
- 248. 20 Ma:Giraffes and giant anteaters evolve. 18-12 Ma: estimated age of the Hominidae/Hylobatidae (great apes vs. gibbons) split. 15 Ma: First mastodons, bovids, and kangaroos. Australian megafauna diversify. 10 Ma: Insects diversify. First large horses. 6.5 Ma: First members of the Hominini tribe. 6 Ma: Australopithecines diversify. 5.96 Ma - 5.33 Ma: Messinian Salinity Crisis: the precursor of the current Strait of Gibraltar closes repeatedly, leading to a partial desiccation and strong increase in salinity of the Mediterranean Sea. 5.4-6.3 Ma: Estimated age of the Homo/Pan (human vs. chimpanzee) split. 5.5 Ma: Appearance of the genus Ardipithecus 5.33 Ma: Zanclean flood: the Strait of Gibraltar opens for the last (and current) time and water from the Atlantic Sea fills again the Mediterranean Sea basin. 5.333 ± 0.005 Ma: Pliocene epoch begins. First tree sloths and hippopotami. First large vultures. Nimravids go extinct. 4.8 Ma: The mammoth appears. 4.5 Ma: appearance of the genus Australopithecus 3 Ma: Isthmus of Panama joins North and South America. Great American Interchange. 2.7 Ma: Paranthropus evolve. 2.6 Ma: current ice age begins Quaternary Period[edit] 2.58 ± 0.005 Ma: start of the Pleistocene epoch, the Stone Age and the current Quaternary Period; emergence of the genus Homo. Smilodon, the best known of the sabre-toothed cats, appears. 1.8 Ma: Oldest known Homo erectus fossils. This species might be evolved some time before, up to 2 Ma ago. 1.7 Ma: Australopithecines go extinct. 1.5 Ma: earliest possible evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus 1.2 Ma: Homo antecessor evolves. Paranthropus dies out. 0.79 Ma: earliest demonstrable evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus 0.7 Ma: last reversal of the earth's magnetic field 0.64 Ma: Yellowstone caldera erupts 0.6 Ma: Homo heidelbergensis evolves. 0.5 Ma: colonisation of Eurasia by Homo erectus. Ancient history begins. 0.3 Ma: Approximate age of Canis lupus. Middle Stone Age begins in Africa.
- 249. 0.25 Ma:Neanderthals evolve. 0.2 Ma: Middle Paleolithic begins. Appearance of Homo sapiens in Africa For later events, see Timeline of human prehistory. Etymology of period names[edit] Period Started Root word Meaning Reason for name Siderian 2500 Ma Greek sidēros iron ref. the banded iron formations Rhyacian 2300 Ma Gk. rhyax lava flow much lava flowed Orosirian 2050 Ma Gk. oroseira mountain range much orogeny in this period's latter half Statherian 1800 Ma Gk. statheros steady continents became stable cratons Calymmian 1600 Ma Gk. calymma cover platform covers developed or expanded Ectasian 1400 Ma Gk. ectasis stretch platform covers expanded Stenian 1200 Ma Gk. stenos narrow much orogeny, which survives as narrow metamorphic belts Tonian 1000 Ma Gk. tonos stretch The continental crust stretched as Rodinia broke up
- 250. Cryogenian 850 MaGk.cryogenicos cold- making In this period all the Earth froze over Ediacaran 635Ma Ediacara Hills stony ground place in Australia where the Ediacaran biota fossils were found Cambrian 541Ma Latin Cambria Wales ref. to the place in Great Britain where Cambrian rocks are best exposed Ordovician 485.4 Ma CelticOrdovices Tribe in north Wales, where the rocks were first identified Silurian 443.8 Ma Ctc. Silures Tribe in south Wales, where the rocks were first identified Devonian 419.2Ma Devon County in England in which rocks from this period were first identified Carboniferous 358.9 Ma Lt. carbo coal Global coal beds were laid in this period Permian 298.9Ma Perm Krai Region in Russia where rocks from this period were first identified Triassic 252.17 Ma Lt. trias triad In Germany this period forms three distinct layers Jurassic 201.3Ma Jura Mountains Mountain range in the Alps in which rocks from this period were first identified
- 251. Cretaceous 145Ma Lt.creta chalk More chalk formed in this period than any other Paleogene 66Ma Gk.palaiogenos "ancient born" Neogene 23.03Ma Gk. neogenos "new born" Quaternary 2.58 Ma Lt.quaternarius "fourth" This was initially deemed the "fourth" period after the now-obsolete "primary", "secondary" and "tertiary" periods.
- 252. Table of geologictime[edit] The following table summarizes the major events and characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. As above, this time scale is based on the International Commission on Stratigraphy. (See lunar geologic timescale for a discussion of the geologic subdivisions of Earth's moon.) This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the most ancient at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time. The content of the table is based on the current official geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy,[1] with the epoch names altered to the early/late format from lower/upper as recommended by the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.[3] A service providing a Resource Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the timescale is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service[18] and at a SPARQL end-point.[19][20] [hide]Su pereon Eon Era Period[21] Epoch Age[22] Major events Start, million years ago[22] n/a[23] Phanero zoic Cenozo ic[24] Quatern ary Holocen e chrons:Subatlantic ·Subbor eal ·Atlantic · Boreal ·Preb oreal Quaternary Ice Age recedes, and the currentinterglacial begins; rise of human civilization. Saharaforms from savannah, and agriculture begins. Stone Age cultures give way to Bronze Age (3300 BC) andIron Age (1200 BC), giving rise to many pre-historic cultures throughout the world. Little Ice Age (stadial) causes brief cooling in Northern Hemisphere from 1400 to 1850. Following the Industrial Revolution,atmospheric CO2 levels rise from around 280 parts per million volume (ppmv) to the current level of 400[25] ppmv.[26][27] 0.0117[28] Pleistoce ne Late (locallyTarantian ·Tyrr henian ·Eemian ·Sangamo nian) Flourishing and then extinction of many largemammals (Pleistocene megafauna). Evolution of anatomically modern humans. Quaternary Ice Agecontinues with glaciations and interstadials (and the accompanying fluctuations from 100 to 300 ppmv inatmospheric CO2 levels[26][27] ), further intensification of Icehouse Earth conditions, roughly 1.6 Ma. Last glacial maximum (30000 years ago), last glacial period (18000–15000 years ago). Dawn of humanstone-age cultures, with increasing technical complexity relative to previous ice age cultures, such as engravings and clay statues (e.g. Venus of Lespugue), particularly in the Mediterranean and Europe. Lake Toba supervolcano erupts 75000 years before present, causing a volcanic winter that pushes humanity to the brink of 0.126 Middle (formerly Ionian) 0.781 Calabrian 1.8* Gelasian 2.58*
- 253. extinction. Pleistocene endswith Oldest Dryas, Older Dryas/Allerød and Younger Dryas climate events, with Younger Dryas forming the boundary with the Holocene. Neogen e Pliocene Piacenzian/Blancan Intensification of present Icehouse conditions,present (Quaternary) ice age begins roughly 2.58 Ma; cool and dry climate. Australopithecines, many of the existing genera of mammals, and recent mollusksappear. Homo habilis appears. 3.6* Zanclean 5.333* Miocene Messinian Moderate Icehouse climate, punctuated by ice ages;Orogeny in Northern Hemisphere. Modern mammaland bird families become recognizable. Horses andmastodons diverse. Grasses become ubiquitous. First apes appear (for reference see the article: "Sahelanthropus tchadensis"). Kaikoura Orogenyforms Southern Alps in New Zealand, continues today. Orogeny of the Alps in Europe slows, but continues to this day. Carpathian orogeny formsCarpathian Mountains in Central and Eastern Europe.Hellenic orogeny in Greece and Aegean Sea slows, but continues to this day. Middle Miocene Disruptionoccurs. Widespread forests slowly draw in massive amounts of CO2, gradually lowering the level of atmospheric CO2 from 650 ppmv down to around 100 ppmv.[26][27] 7.246* Tortonian 11.63* Serravallian 13.82* Langhian 15.97 Burdigalian 20.44 Aquitanian 23.03* Paleoge ne Oligocen e Chattian Warm but cooling climate, moving towards Icehouse; Rapid evolution and diversification of fauna, especially mammals. Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of flowering plants 28.1 Rupelian 33.9* Eocene Priabonian Moderate, cooling climate. Archaic mammals (e.g.Creodonts, Condylarths, Uintatheres, etc.) flourish and continue to develop during the epoch. Appearance of several "modern" mammal families. Primitive whales diversify. First grasses. Reglaciation of Antarctica and formation of its ice cap; Azolla event triggers ice age, and the Icehouse Earth climate that would follow it to this day, from the settlement and decay of seafloor algae drawing in massive amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide,[26][27] lowering it from 3800 ppmv down to 650 ppmv. End of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains in North America. Orogeny of the Alps in Europe begins. Hellenic Orogeny begins in Greece and Aegean Sea. 37.8 Bartonian 41.2 Lutetian 47.8* Ypresian 56* Paleocen e Thanetian Climate tropical. Modern plants appear; Mammalsdiversify into a number of primitive lineages following the extinction of the dinosaurs. First large mammals (up to bear or small hippo size). Alpine orogeny in Europe and Asia 59.2* Selandian 61.6* Danian 66*
- 254. begins. Indian Subcontinentcollides with Asia 55 Ma, Himalayan Orogeny starts between 52 and 48 Ma. Mesoz oic Cretace ous Late Maastrichtian Flowering plants proliferate, along with new types ofinsects. More modern teleost fish begin to appear.Ammonoidea, belemnites, rudist bivalves, echinoidsan d sponges all common. Many new types ofdinosaurs (e.g. Tyrannosaurs, Titanosaurs, duck bills, and horned dinosaurs) evolve on land, as doEusuchia (modern crocodilians); and mosasaurs and modern sharks appear in the sea. Primitive birdsgradually replace pterosaurs. Monotremes,marsupials and placental ma mmals appear. Break up of Gondwana. Beginning of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains. atmospheric CO2close to present-day levels. 72.1 ± 0.2* Campanian 83.6 ± 0.2 Santonian 86.3 ± 0.5* Coniacian 89.8 ± 0.3 Turonian 93.9* Cenomanian 100.5* Early Albian ~113 Aptian ~125 Barremian ~129.4 Hauterivian ~132.9 Valanginian ~139.8 Berriasian ~145 Jurassic Late Tithonian Gymnosperms (especially conifers, Bennettitales andcycads) and ferns common. Many types ofdinosaurs, such as sauropods, carnosaurs, andstegosaurs. Mammals common but small. First birdsand lizards. Ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs diverse.Biv alves, Ammonites and belemnites abundant. Sea urchins very common, along with crinoids, starfish,sponges, and terebratulid and rhynchonellidbrachiopods. Breakup of Pangaea into Gondwanaand Laurasia. Nevadan orogeny in North America.Rantigata and Cimmerian Orogenies taper off. Atmospheric CO2 levels 4–5 times the present day levels (1200–1500 ppmv, compared to today's 385 ppmv[26][27] ). 152.1 ± 0.9 Kimmeridgian 157.3 ± 1.0 Oxfordian 163.5 ± 1.0 Middle Callovian 166.1 ± 1.2 Bathonian 168.3 ± 1.3* Bajocian 170.3 ± 1.4* Aalenian 174.1 ± 1.0* Early Toarcian 182.7 ± 0.7* Pliensbachian 190.8 ± 1.0* Sinemurian 199.3 ± 0.3* Hettangian 201.3 ± 0.2* Triassic Late Rhaetian Archosaurs dominant on land as dinosaurs, in the oceans as Ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs, and in the air as pterosaurs. Cynodonts become smaller and more mammal- like, while first mammals andcrocodilia appear. Dicroidiumflora common on land. Many large aquatic temnospondyl amphibians.Ceratitic ammonoids extremely common. Modern corals and teleost fish appear, as do many moderninsect clades. Andean Orogeny in ~208.5 Norian ~227 Carnian ~237* Middle Ladinian ~242* Anisian 247.2 Early Olenekian 251.2
- 255. Induan South America.Cimmerian Orogenyin Asia. Rangitata Orogenybegins in New Zealand. Hunter-Bowen Orogeny inNorthern Australia, Queensland and New South Wales ends, (c. 260–225 Ma) 252.17 ± 0.06* Paleoz oic Permian Lopingia n Changhsingian Landmasses unite into supercontinent Pangaea, creating the Appalachians. End of Permo-Carboniferous glaciation. Synapsid reptiles(pelycosaurs and therapsids) become plentiful, whileparareptiles and temnospondyl amphibians remain common. In the mid-Permian, coal-age flora are replaced by cone-bearing gymnosperms (the first trueseed plants) and by the first true mosses. Beetlesand flies evolve. Marine life flourishes in warm shallow reefs; productid and spiriferid brachiopods, bivalves, forams, and ammonoids all abundant.Permian-Triassic extinction event occurs 251 Ma: 95% of life on Earth becomes extinct, including alltrilobites, graptolites, and blastoids. Ouachita andInnuitian orogenies in North America. Uralian orogenyin Europe/Asia tapers off. Altaid orogeny in Asia.Hunter-Bowen Orogeny on Australian continentbegins (c. 260–225 Ma), forming the MacDonnell Ranges. 254.14 ± 0.07* Wuchiapingian 259.8 ± 0.4* Guadalu pian Capitanian 265.1 ± 0.4* Wordian/Kazanian 268.8 ± 0.5* Roadian/Ufimian 272.3 ± 0.5* Cisuralia n Kungurian 283.5 ± 0.6 Artinskian 290.1 ± 0.26 Sakmarian 295 ± 0.18 Asselian 298.9 ± 0.15* Carbon- iferous[29] Pennsylv anian Gzhelian Winged insects radiate suddenly; some (esp.Protodonata and Palaeodictyoptera) are quite large.Amphibians common and diverse. First reptiles andcoal forests (scale trees, ferns, club trees, giant horsetails, Cordaites, etc.). Highest- ever atmosphericoxygen levels. Goniatites, brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, and corals plentiful in the seas and oceans. Testate forams proliferate. Uralian orogeny in Europe and Asia. Variscan orogeny occurs towards middle and late Mississippian Periods. 303.7 ± 0.1 Kasimovian 307 ± 0.1 Moscovian 315.2 ± 0.2 Bashkirian 323.2 ± 0.4* Mississip pian Serpukhovian Large primitive trees, first land vertebrates, and amphibious sea-scorpions live amid coal-forming coastal swamps. Lobe-finned rhizodonts are dominant big fresh-water predators. In the oceans, early sharks are common and quite diverse;echinoderms (especially crinoids and blastoids) abundant. Corals, bryozoa, goniatites and brachiopods (Productida, Spiriferida, etc.) very common, but trilobites and nautiloids decline.Glaciation in East Gondwana. Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand tapers off. 330.9 ± 0.2 Viséan 346.7 ± 0.4* Tournaisian 358.9 ± 0.4* Devonia Late Famennian First clubmosses, horsetails and ferns appear, as do the 372.2 ± 1.6*
- 256. n Frasnian firstseed-bearing plants (progymnosperms), firsttrees (the progymnosperm Archaeopteris), and first (wingless) insects. Strophomenid and atrypidbrachiopods, rugo se and tabulate corals, and crinoidsare all abundant in the oceans. Goniatite ammonoidsare plentiful, while squid- like coleoids arise. Trilobites and armoured agnaths decline, while jawed fishes (placoderms, lobe-finned and ray- finned fish, and early sharks) rule the seas. First amphibians still aquatic. "Old Red Continent" of Euramerica. Beginning of Acadian Orogeny for Anti-Atlas Mountains of North Africa, and Appalachian Mountains of North America, also the Antler,Variscan, and Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand. 382.7 ± 1.6* Middle Givetian 387.7 ± 0.8* Eifelian 393.3 ± 1.2* Early Emsian 407.6 ± 2.6* Pragian 410.8 ± 2.8* Lochkovian 419.2 ± 3.2* Silurian Pridoli First Vascular plants (the rhyniophytes and their relatives), first millipedes and arthropleurids on land. First jawed fishes, as well as many armouredjawless fish, populate the seas. Sea- scorpions reach large size. Tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods(Pentamerida, R hynchonellida, etc.), and crinoids all abundant. Trilobites and mollusks diverse; graptolitesnot as varied. Beginning of Caledonian Orogeny for hills in England, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and theScandinavian Mountains. Also continued into Devonian period as the Acadian Orogeny, above.Taconic Orogeny tapers off. Lachlan Orogeny onAustralian continent tapers off. 423 ± 2.3* Ludlow/C ayugan Ludfordian 425.6 ± 0.9* Gorstian 427.4 ± 0.5* Wenlock Homerian/ Lockportian 430.5 ± 0.7* Sheinwoodian/ Tonawandan 433.4 ± 0.8* Llandove ry/ Alexandri an Telychian/ Ontarian 438.5 ± 1.1* Aeronian 440.8 ± 1.2* Rhuddanian 443.8 ± 1.5* Ordovici an Late Hirnantian Invertebrates diversify into many new types (e.g., long straight- shelled cephalopods). Early corals, articulate brachiopods (Orthida, Strophomenida, etc.),bivalves, nautiloids, trilobites, ostracods, bryozoa, many types of echinoderms (crinoids, cystoids,starfish, etc.), branched graptolites, and other taxa all common. Conodonts (early planktonic vertebrates) appear. First green plants and fungi on land. Ice age at end of period. 445.2 ± 1.4* Katian 453 ± 0.7* Sandbian 458.4 ± 0.9* Middle Darriwilian 467.3 ± 1.1* Dapingian 470 ± 1.4* Early Floian (formerly Arenig) 477.7 ± 1.4* Tremadocian 485.4 ± 1.9* Cambria n Furongia n Stage 10 Major diversification of life in the Cambrian Explosion. Numerous fossils; most modern animalphyla appear. First chordates appear, along with a number of extinct, problematic phyla. Reef-buildingArchaeocyatha abundant; then vanish. Trilobites,priapulid worms, sponges, ~489.5 Jiangshanian ~494* Paibian ~497* Series 3 Guzhangian ~500.5*
- 257. Drumian inarticulate brachiopods(unhingedlampshells), and many other animals numerous. Anomalocarids are giant predators, while many Ediacaran fauna die out. Prokaryotes, protists(e.g., forams), fungi and algae continu e to present day. Gondwana emerges. Petermann Orogeny on theAustralian continent tapers off (550–535 Ma). Ross Orogeny in Antarctica. Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian Orogeny), majority of orogenic activity from 514– 500 Ma. Lachlan Orogeny on Australian continent, c. 540– 440 Ma. Atmospheric CO2 content roughly 20–35 times present-day (Holocene) levels (6000 ppmv compared to today's 385 ppmv)[26][27] ~504.5* Stage 5 ~509 Series 2 Stage 4 ~514 Stage 3 ~521 Terreneu vian Stage 2 ~529 Fortunian 541 ± 1.0* Precambrian[30] Proterozoic[31] Neoproterozoic[31] Ediacaran Good fossils of the first multi-celled animals. Ediacaran biota flourish worldwide in seas. Simple trace fossils of possible worm-like Trichophycus, etc. First sponges andtrilobitomorphs. Enigmatic forms include many soft-jellied creatures shaped like bags, disks, or quilts (likeDickinsonia). Taconic Orogeny in North America. Aravalli Range orogeny inIndian Subcontinent. Beginning of Petermann Orogeny on Australian continent. Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica, 633– 620 Ma. ~635* Cryogenian Possible "Snowball Earth" period. Fossils still rare. Rodinia landmass begins to break up. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers of<bef. 720[32] Tonian Rodinia supercontinent persists. Trace fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes. First radiation of dinoflagellate- like acritarchs. Grenville Orogeny tapers off in North America. Pan-African orogeny in Africa. Lake Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica, 1000 ± 150 Ma. Edmundian Orogeny (c. 920 – 850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia. Adelaide Geosyncline laid down on Australian continent, beginning of Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian Orogeny) in that continent. 1000[32]
- 258. Mesoproterozoic[31] Stenian Narrow highly metamorphicbelts due to orogeny as Rodinia forms. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica possibly begins. Musgrave Orogeny (c. 1080 Ma), Musgrave Block,Central Australia. 1200[32] Ectasian Platform covers continue to expand. Green algae colonies in the seas. Grenville Orogeny in North America. 1400[32] Calymmian Platform covers expand. Barramundi Orogeny, McArthur Basin, Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny, c.1600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, Queensland 1600[32] Paleoproterozoic[31] Statherian First complex single-celled life: protists with nuclei. Columbia is the primordial supercontinent. Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent ends. Yapungku Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in Western Australia. Mangaroon Orogeny, 1680–1620 Ma, on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia. Kararan Orogeny (1650– Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia. 1800[32] Orosirian The atmosphere becomes oxygenic. Vred efort and Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts. Muchorogeny. Penokean and Trans- Hudsonian Orogenies in North America. Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2000– 1700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane, Australian continent c.2005– 1920 Ma. Kimban Orogeny, Gawler craton in Australian continent begins. 2050[32] Rhyacian Bushveld Igneous Complex forms. Huronian glaciation. 2300[32] Siderian Oxygen catastrophe: banded iron formations forms. Sleaford Orogeny on Australian continent,Gawler Craton 2440–2420 Ma. 2500[32] Archean[31] Neoarchean[31] Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event. Insell Orogeny, 2650 ± 150 Ma.Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilizes by 2600 Ma. 2800[32]
- 259. Mesoarchean[31] First stromatolites (probablycolonial cyanobacteria). Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica.Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present- day Ontario and Quebec, ends by roughly 2696 Ma. 3200[32] Paleoarchean[31] First known oxygen-producing bacteria. Oldest definitive microfossils. Oldest cratons on Earth (such as theCanadian Shield and the Pilbara Craton) may have formed during this period.[33] Rayner Orogeny in Antarctica. 3600[32] Eoarchean[31] Simple single-celled life (probably bacteria and archaea). Oldest probable microfossils. 4000 Hadean[31][34] Early Imbrian[31][35] Indirect photosynthetic evidence (e.g., kerogen) of primordial life. This era overlaps the end of the Late Heavy Bombardment of the Inner Solar System. ~4100 Nectarian[31][35] This unit gets its name from the lunar geologic timescale when the Nectaris Basin and other greater lunar basins form by big impact events. ~4300 Basin Groups[31][35] Oldest known rock (4030 Ma).[36] The first life forms and self- replicating RNA molecules evolve around 4000 Ma, after the Late Heavy Bombardment ends on Earth. Napier Orogeny in Antarctica, 4000 ± 200 Ma. ~4500 Cryptic[31][35] Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4404 ± 8 Ma).[37] Formation of Moon (4533 Ma), probably from giant impact. Formation of Earth (4567.17 to 4570 Ma) ~4567
- 342. Tufail Ali Zubedi EnvironmentalConsultant Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMcpk.com/ Lecture 05: Brief Introduction to Air Pollution and its Management
- 343. Today’s Talk Atmosphere Air composition, zones Air Pollution, introduction Type of Air Pollutants Air Pollutant Episodes Pollution Management Air Pollution Management in Pakistan
- 344. Today’s Talk AirDispersion Models Gaussian Air Pollution Dispersion, Introduction AerMOD ControlTechnologies (PM, NOx, SOx,VOC,) EmergingTechnology (Bio-Filtration)
- 345.
- 346. Atmosphere http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com5 Air Composition Divided into four zones: -Troposphere - Stratosphere - Mesosphere -Thermosphere 78% 21% 0.03% 0.97% Air Composition byVolume Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water, other gases (Argon)
- 347. Atmosphere’s 4 zones http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm- Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com6 Troposphere 0km to (9km at poles, 12 km at equator), tropopause Heated by earth’s surface so it is warmest at the bottom Promotes vertical mixing Stratosphere 12km to 51 km, stratopause Temperature increases with height Ozone layer is found here.
- 348. Atmosphere’s 4 zones http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm- Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com7 Mesosphere 50km to 85km, mesopause Temp decreases with height Meteors burn in this layer Thermosphere Beyond Mesosphere Temperature raises with height and then is constant with height
- 349.
- 350. Introduction to AirPollution http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com9 Air Pollutant A substance in the air that can be adverse to humans and the environment is known as an air pollutant.1 Air Pollution Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms , or damage the natural environment or built environment.1 -------------- 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution
- 351. Types of AirPollutants http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com10 Natural vs. Man-Made Primary vs. Secondary Physical vs. Chemical vs. Biological
- 352. Sources http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com11 Natural Source Dust Methane from waste digestion Radon gas from natural radioactive decay Smoke, Carbon monoxide Vegetation Volcanic eruption
- 353. Sources http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com12 Man-Made Sources Stationary Sources Industrial areas Mobile Sources (Transportation on roads, in air, on and under sea etc.) Open burning –Agricultural fields Fugitive fumes – paints, sprays, aerosol sprays Research – Military Terrorism
- 354. Primary Man-Made Pollutant http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm- Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com13 Sulphur Oxides (SOx) Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) Carbon Monoxide Volatile Organic compounds Particulates Persistent free radicals ChlorofluoroCarbons Ammonia Odors Radioactive Pollutants
- 355. Secondary Pollutant Man-Made http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm- Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com14 Photochemical smog Ground level ozone Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
- 356.
- 357. http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com16 Air Pollution Episode: A period of abnormally high concentration of air pollutants, often due to low winds and temperature inversion, that can cause illness and death.1 1 http://www.caslab.com/Air_Pollution_Episode_Meaning/
- 358. London SMOG http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm -Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com17 1873, 1911 5 to 9 December 1952 Windless conditions > concentration of air borne pollutants from excessive coal use Low-grade, sulfurous coal lead to increase in sulfur dioxide in smoke Impaired visibility outside as well as indoors 4,000 people died prematurely. 100,000 became ill because of effect on human respiratory tract
- 359.
- 360. Pakistan http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm - Contact: Info@SPMCpk.com19 Manghopir Cement Factory Port Qasim – Bin QasimThermal Plant Jamshoro –Thermal Power Plant Islamabad – Pollen IndexWarning Air Pollutant Episode.XLS
- 361. Pollution Management http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com20 Do we understand what is meant by Pollution Management? What strategies do you think we need to apply?
- 362. Pollution Management Approach http://www.SPMCpk.com/-Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com21 Pollution Control Those measures taken to control pollution after they have been generated Pollution Prevention Those measures taken to stop pollution from being produced at source
- 363. Pollution Control http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com22 Measures to control pollution that is generated. Minimize the effect on people and environment During the process of Pollution Control, check: If more pollution is generated If more Hazardous substance is generated If a new state of pollution is generated If more population will be affected
- 364. Pollution Prevention http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com23 Waste optimization Polluter pays principal (PPP) Cradle to Grave ( Life Cycle Assessment) Precautionary Principle Duty of care Principle Discharge Permitting Sustainable Development Sustainable Consumption
- 365. Approaches to Pollution Management http://www.SPMCpk.com/-Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com24 Reactive Approach Proactive Deployed when pollution has been generated Deployed during an activity Lesser control prescribed on activity Controlled activity React &Treat Anticipate & Prevent Results in unlimited pollution generation Reduction in generation of pollution Costlier Cost effective End of the pipe treatment Clean Processes Which is a better approach?
- 366. Air Pollution Managementin Pakistan http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com25 1992: National Conservation Strategy 1997: Pakistan Environmental Protection Act NEQS-Revised.XLS 2005: Pakistan National Environmental Policy 2008:National Environmental Management Information System (NEMIS) 2010: SindhVision Plan 2030 2012-: Sindh Environmental Protection Act underway 2012-:National EnvironmentalAction Plan – Support Program
- 367.
- 368. AD Models http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com27 Box Model Gaussian Model Lagrangian Model Eulerian Model Dense gas Model
- 369. Gaussian air pollutantdispersion http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com28 Sir Graham Sutton, 1947 derived an air pollutant plume dispersion equation include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crosswind dispersion of the plume and also included the effect of ground reflection of the plume.
- 370. Tufail Ali Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/-Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Introduction to AERMOD
- 371. AERMOD http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Anatmospheric dispersion model based on atmospheric boundary layer turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including treatment of multiple ground-level and elevated point, area and volume sources. It handles flat or complex, rural or urban terrain and includes algorithms for building effects and plume penetration of inversions aloft. It uses Gaussian dispersion for stable atmospheric conditions (i.e., low turbulence) and non-Gaussian dispersion for unstable conditions (high turbulence). Algorithms for plume depletion by wet and dry deposition are also included in the model.
- 372. Development http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Initiated1991 American Meteorological Society (AMS) US-EPA Regulatory Model Improvement Committee, AERMOD in seven steps: Initial model formulation Developmental evaluation Internal peer review and beta testing Revised model formulation Performance evaluation and sensitivity testing External peer review Submission to the EPA for consideration as a regulatory model.
- 373. http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com OnApril21 of 2000, the EPA proposed that AERMOD be adopted as the EPA's preferred regulatory model for both simple and complex terrain. On November 9 of 2005,AERMOD was adopted by the EPA and promulgated as their preferred regulatory model, effective as of December 9 of 2005. The entire developmental and adoption process took 14 years (from 1991 to 2005).
- 374. Modules http://www.SPMCpk.com/ -Contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Ameteorological data preprocessor (AERMET) A terrain preprocessor (AERMAP) A steady-state dispersion model from stationary industrial sources. PRIME (Plume Rise Model Enhancements)
- 375.
- 376.
- 377.
- 378.
- 379. Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Particulate Matter Control
- 380. Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 381. Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Gravitational Settling Chambers Centrifugal Separators Scrubbers Filters Electrostatic Precipitators
- 382. Gravitational Settling Chambers Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com- Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 383. Centrifugal Separators Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 384. Scrubbers Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ SprayTower without beds Cyclone scrubber Venturi Scrubber Packed bed / floating bed scrubbers
- 385. Spray tower Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com -Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 386. Cyclone Spray tower.Orifice Spray towerTufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 387. Venturi scrubbers Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com -Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 388. Impingement or perforatedplate scrubbers Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 389. Packed bed orpacked tower scrubbersTufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 390. Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 391. Filters Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com - Contactus: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Filter Bag house
- 392. Electrostatic Precipitator Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com -Contact us: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Electrostatic Precipitator
- 393. Tufail Ali Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm Tufail.ali@spmcpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com NOx Control
- 394. What is NOx? http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com The many Oxides of Nitrogen So how many are there? Nitric Oxide NO Nitrogen dioxide NO2 Nitrous oxide N2O Nitrosylazide N4O Nitrate NO3 Trinitramie N(NO2)3 Dinitrogen trioxide N2O3 Dinitrogen tetraoxide N2O4 Dinitrogen pentoxide N205 Stable, Stable when isolated,Very Reactive, Isolated @ room temp. NOx GHG
- 395. Source: wikipedia.org Students tolearn about these compound and Discuss in next class. http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com
- 396. NOx Control http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Process Modification End of pipeline treatment NOx ControlTechnologies Combustion Control Flue GasTreatment
- 397. NOx Control Technologies http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Combustion Control Low ExcessAir Firing Over Fire Air Flue Gas Recirculation ReduceAir Preheat Reduce Firing Rate Water / Steam Injection Burner out of service Reburn Low NOx burners
- 398. NOx Control Technologies http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Flue GasTreatment Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) LowTemperature Oxidation withAbsorption CatalyticAbsorption Corona Induced Plasma
- 399. Tufail Ali Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm Tufail.ali@spmcpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com SOx Control
- 400. Sulfur Oxides http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Sulfur oxide (SOx) refers to one or more of the following: Sulfur monoxide SO Sulfur dioxide SO2 Sulfur trioxide SO3 Disulfur monoxide S2O Disulfur dioxide S2O2 Sulfurous acid H2SO3 Sulfuric acid H2SO4 Lower sulfur oxides (SnO, S7O2 and S6O2) Higher sulfur oxides (SO3+x where 0<x≤1)
- 401. Control Techniques http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Energy Industrial
- 402. Choice of Fuel http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Sulfur emissions are proportional to the sulfur content of the fuel. CONTROL Burn low-sulfur fuel such as natural gas, low-sulfur oil, or low- sulfur coal instead of high-sulfur fuel
- 403.
- 404. Fuel Desulfurization http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Coal Sulfur in coal = pyrites (FeS2), organic compound, sulfates Sulfur is upto 7 % by weight Sulfates dont pose a problem, Organic sulfure- chemically bound. Removal changes fuel nature (liquefaction, gasification) Pyritic sulfur is removed physically Control Pyrite removal – Coal Preparation Pyrite Removal – Dry Process Liquefaction Gasification
- 405. Fuel Desulfurization http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Oil Hydrodesulfurization (H-oil, ISOMAX, Gulf-HDS processes) Hydrogen treating Distillation Delayed Coking Solvent De-Asphalting
- 406. Fuel Desulfurization http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Gas Elemental sulfur and other compounds Removal if more than trace concentrations Elemental sulfur plugs equipment H2S is highly toxic and corrosive Organic sulfur (mercaptans, disulfides, carbonyl sulfides, thiophenes) = malodorous, corrosive Control Numerous methods
- 407. Flue Gas Desulfurization http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Limestone injection process Catalytic oxidation Alkalized-alumina sorption Potassium sulfite scrubbing system (Bechwell SO2 Recovery Process)
- 408. Other http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Thereare atleast 50-65 other methods of SO2 removal in various stages of development and deployment. STUDENTS to search for them.
- 409. Tufail Ali Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm Tufail.ali@spmcpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com VOC Control
- 410. Volatile Organic Compounds http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com The many definition ofVOC Have low boiling point resulting in high vapor pressure US-EPA: defined in the various laws CANADA: organic compounds that have boiling points roughly in the range of 50 to 250 °C EU: any organic compound having an initial boiling point less than or equal to 250 °C (482 °F) measured at a standard atmospheric pressure of 101.3 kPa and can do damage to visual or audible senses.[
- 411. VOC Control http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Process Changes ( to eliminate pollutant generation) End of the pipelineTreatment (recovery / destruction of off- gas pollutants) equipment Combustion Adsorption Absorption Condensation Capture Device -> Control Equipment
- 412. Process Changes http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Surface coating operations -> water borne coating, or powder coating More yield on raw materials , less waste inVO OpenVessel to CloseVessel Newer Efficient Spray techniques / robotic spraying
- 413. Combustion http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com AllVOCwill burn (If recovery is not valuable or profitable) Devices: Flaring Incinerators (Thermal or Catalytic oxidation ) Boilers Process heaters
- 414. Adsorption http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Useof porous solid material (usually carbon) to trap gas Types 1. Physical 2. Chemical (students to study these adsorption phenomenon) surface adsorption by capillary condensation VOC recovery by stripping organics from solid material (by heating with steam)
- 415. Absorption http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Useof liquid media to trap a gas Types 1 Physical 2 Chemical Extremely expensive
- 416. Condensation http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Physicalchange from vapor to liquid phase Types Constant Pressure: temp reduced E.g. Surface condensers , Contact Condensers Increasing pressure
- 417. Capture Systems http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com LocalVentilation Systems Floor Sweeps, Slotted Ducts, Partial enclosures Total Enclosures
- 418. Bio-Filtration http://www.SPMCpk.com/ for detailscontact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com ControllingVolatile Organic Compound (VOC) emissions, organic and inorganic air tonics, and odor from gaseous streams. It consists of a bed of soil or compost beneath which is a network of perforated pipe. Contaminated air flows through the pipe and out the many holes in the sides of the pipe thereby being distributed throughout the bed. A biofilter worksby providing an environment in which microorganisms thrive. The organic substrate provides the salts and trace elements for the bacteria, and theVOC provides the food source.
- 419. http://www.SPMCpk.com/ for detailscontact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com This action is an adaptation of biogdegradation in which the air cleanses itself naturally. The microorganisms are the same that degrade organic wastes in nature and in wastewater treatment plants. These microorganisms in a moist environment oxidize organic compounds to CO2 and water.
- 420. http://www.SPMCpk.com/ for detailscontact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION
- 421. Tufail Ali Zubedi EnvironmentalConsultant Email:Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com URL: http://www.SPMCpk.com/ http://www.SPMCpk.com/ for details contact Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Thank You PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION
- 422. Year Country DescriptionSimilarities Reasons 1873 UK London Smog 1911 UK London Smog 1930 Belgium 1930 Meuse Valley Fog 1939 St. Louis Smog 1943 USA 1948 USA Donora Smog 1950 Mexico 1952 UK London Smog 1953-1966 USA New York 1954 USA East Greenville, Pennsylvania protest against local casket manfacturers Manghopir Cement Factory KESC Bin Qasim Thermal Plant PQA 1960 Japan Yokkaichi Asthma 1962 Silent Spring by Rachel Carson gets published 1969 USA First Episode of wet acid rain at Indiana & East Chicago. Lawns burn, leaves finished, birds lose their feathers 1972 Japan Yokkaichi Asthma 1978 USA Wheeling, West Virginia, most acidic Rainfall recorded yet with pH 2 1982 USA Leaded gasoline is linked with higher lead levels in children blood 1983 Australia Melbourne dust storm 1984 India Bhopal Incident 1991 Kuwait Burning of Oil rig towers 1992 Brazil, Rio The Earth Summit 1997 Indonesia Southeast Asia Haze 2003 China Smog & Haze 2005 Czechoslovakia Acidified forest 2005 Malaysia Haze 2005 China Smog & Haze ?? USA Twin Tower ?? USSR Chernoboyl Incident Every year Pakistan Pollen Index Warning in Islamabad
- 423. Annex I (amended) NATIONALENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS FOR MUNICIPAL AND LIQUID INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS (mg/l, UNLESS OTHERWISE DEFINED) S.No. Parameter Existing Revised Standards Standards Into Inland Into Sewage Into Sea(6) Waters Treatment(5) 1.Temperature or Temperature Increase* 40o C =<30 C =<30 C =<30 C 2.pH value 6-10 6-9 6-9 6-9 3.Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)5 80 80 250 80** at 200 C(1) 4.Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (1) 150 150 400 400 5.Total suspended solids (TSS) 150 200 400 200 6.Total dissolved solids (TDS) 3500 3500 3500 3500 7.Grease and oil 10 10 10 10 8.Phenolic compounds (as phenol) 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 9.Chloride (as Cl′) 1000 1000 1000 SC*** 10.Fluoride (as F′) 20 10 10 10 11.Cyanide (as CN′) total 2 1.0 1.0 1.0 12.An-ionic detergents (as MBAs) (2) 20 20 20 20 13.Sulphate (SO′′)4 600 600 1000 SC*** 14.Sulphide (S′) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 15.Ammonia (NH3) 40 40 40 40 16.Pesticides (3) 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 17.Cadmium (4) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 18.Chromium (trivalent and hexavalent) (4) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 19.Copper (4) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 20.Lead (4) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 21.Mercury (4) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 22.Selenium (4) 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 23.Nickel (4) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 24.Silver (4) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 25.Total Toxic metals 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 26.Zinc 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 27.Arsenic (4) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 28.Barium (4) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 29.Iron 2.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 30.Manganese 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 31.Boron (4) 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 32.Chlorine 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Explanations: 1. Assuming minimum dilution 1:10 on discharge, lower ratio would attract progressively stringent standards to be determined by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency. By 1:10 dilution means, for example that for each one cubic meter of treated effluent, the recipient water body should have 10 cubic meter of water for dilution of this effluent. 2. Modified Benzene Alkyl Sulphate; assuming surfactant as biodegradable. 3. Pesticides include herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides. 4. Subject to total toxic metals discharge should not exceed level given at S.No.25. 5. Applicable only when and where sewage treatment is operational and BOD5=80 mg/l is achieved by the sewage treatment system. 6. Provided discharge is not at shore and not within 10 miles of mangrove or other important estuaries.
- 424. *. The effluentshould not result in t emperature increase of more than 3o C at the edge of the zone where initial mixing and dilution take place in the receiving body. In case zone is not defined, use 100 meters from the point of discharge. ** The value for industry is 200 mg/l *** Discharge concentration at or below sea concentration (SC) Note: 1. Dilution of liquid effluents to bring them to the NEQS limiting values is not permissible through fresh water mixing with the effluent before discharging into the environment. 2. The concentration of pollutants in water being used will be subtracted from the effluent for calculating the NEQS limits. Annex II (amended) NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY STANDARDS FOR INDUSTRIAL GASEOUS EMISSION (mg/Nm3, UNLESS OTHERWISE DEFINED) S.No. Parameter Source Of Emission Existing Standards Revised Standards 1.Smoke Smoke opacity not to exceed 40% or 2 Ringlemann Scale 40% or 2 Ringlemann Scale or equivalent smoke number 2.Particulate matter (1) (a) Boilers and furnaces: (i) Oil fired 300 300 (ii) Coal fired 500 500 (iii) Cement Kilns 200 300 (b) Grinding, crushing, clinker 500 500 coolers and related processes, metallurgical processes, converters, blast furnaces and cupolas 3. Hydrogen Chloride Any 400 400 4. Chlorine Any 150 150 5. Hydrogen fluoride Any 150 150 6. Hydrogen sulphide Any 10 10 7. Sulphur Oxides (2)(3) Sulfuric acid/Sulphonic acid plants 400 5000 Other Plants except power 400 1700 Plants operating on oil and coal 8. Carbon Monoxide Any 800 800 9. Lead Any 50 50 10. Mercury Any 10 10 11. Cadmium Any 20 20 12. Arsenic Any 20 20 13. Copper Any 50 50 14. Antimony Any 20 20
- 425. 15. Zinc Any200 200 16. Oxides of Nitrogen (3) Nitric acid manufacturing unit 400 3000 Other plants except power plants operating on oil or coal: Gas fired 400 400 Oil fired - 600 Coal fired - 1200 Explanations: 1. Based on the assumption that the size of the particulate is 10 micron or more. 2. Based on 1% sulphur content in fuel oil. Higher content of sulphur will cause standards to be pro-rated. 3. In respect of emissions of sulphur dio xide and nitrogen oxides, the power plants operating on oil and coal as fuel shall in addition to National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) specified above, comply with the following standards:- A. Sulphur Dioxide Sulphur Dioxide Background levels Micro-gram per cubic meter (µg/m3). Standards Criterion I Criterion II Background Air Annual Max. Max. SO2 Max. allowable Quality (SO2 Basis) Average 24-hours Emission ground level Interval (Tons per Day increment to Per plant) ambient (µg/m3) (One year Average) Unpolluted <50 <200 500 50 Moderately Polluted* Low 50 200 500 50 High 100 400 100 10 Very Polluted** >100 >400 100 10 * For intermediate values between 50 and 100 µg/m3 linear interpolations should be used. ** No projects with sulphur dioxide emissions will be recommended. B. Nitrogen Oxide Ambient air concentrations of nitrogen oxides, expressed as NO2, should not be exceed the following:- Annual Arithmetic Mean 100 µg/m3 (0.05 ppm) Emission levels for stationary source discharges, before mixing with the atmosphere, should be maintained as follows:- For fuel fired steam generators, as Nanogram (10-9 gram) per joule of heat input: Liquid fossil fuel 130 Solid fossil fuel 300 Lignite fossil fuel 260 Note: Dilution of gaseous emissions to bring them to the NEQS limiting value is not permissible through excess air mixing/blowing before emitting into the environment.
- 426. Lecture 6:Lecture 6: BriefIntroduction to Water Pollution & Management T U F A I L A L I Z U B E D I Water Pollution & Management T U F A I L A L I Z U B E D I E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N S U L T A N T T U F A I L . A L I @ S P M C P K . C O M H T T P : / / W W W . S P M C P K . C O MH T T P : / / W W W . S P M C P K . C O M
- 427. Today’s Talk Water Pollution WaterPollution Management
- 429. Water is aresource naturally recycled in naturey y through hydrological cycle. Surface water Ground water Industrialization, agricultural intensification, population increase increase water demand and usage
- 430. Pakistan rain falldata HO-01
- 431. Water consumers Domestic, industrial,agricultural consumers, , g produce large quantities of waste products for which natural water ways offer cheap and readily available d it f di lconduits for disposal. STUDENTS HOME WORK: Waste mixed with fresh water affects quality of water in terms of physicochemical conditions and the statein terms of physicochemical conditions and the state of flora and fauna. Water Quality and Water UseWater Quality and Water Use
- 432. Water Pollution Impurities accumulatedby water throughout thep y g hydrologic cycle and as a result of human activities may be in both suspended and dissolved form The presence in water, of impurities of such quantity and of such nature, as to impair the use of the water for a stated purposefor a stated purpose.
- 433. Pollution of aquaticenvironment Pollution of aquatic environment means theq introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy (heat) that result in deletrious ff t i l di h t li i (bi l i l)effects, including harm to living (biological) resources, hazards to human health (pathogens), hindrance to aquatic activities including fishing andhindrance to aquatic activities including fishing and impairment of water quality with respect to a desired consumer process such as agriculture, industry, amentiy or domestic supply.
- 434. Aquatic Pollutants Pollutants canact in atleast three waysy Settling out and smothering life Being acutely toxic and killingg y g Indirect effect on organism
- 435. Freshwater pollution Organic pollution(sewage, industrial waste,g p ( g , , agricultural) With bacteria + oxygen, they break down from complex compounds to simpler compunds. Decreases oxygen levels and its extent is known as O D dOxygen Demand. Aerobic bacteria – Anaerobic bactria (H2S, CH4, NH3)NH3) Longitudinal profile of oxygen concentration is called oxygen sag curvecalled oxygen sag curve.
- 436. Extent of sagand downstream length of riverg g (depends on pollution level)
- 439. Eutrophication Defined as theenrichment of water by inorganicy g plant nutrients. Usually nitrogen and phosphorus Eutrophication of waters is a natural process in the life history of freshwater lake systems which tend to d ll h f li t i t t higradually change from an oligotropic to a eutrophic system as they age.
- 440. Low productivity lakesystems are known asp y y oligotrophic lake (high oxygen levels and low nutrients concentrations) High productivity systems are known as eutrophic lake systems (low oxygen levels and high nutrients concentrations)concentrations) Natural (cultrual) vs artificial enrichment
- 441. Study section 4.5.2Eutrophication in Environmentaly 4 5 p Engineering – Gerard Kelly Ecological effects of cultural eutrophication ffEffects on man Study section 4 5 3 Surface water acidificationStudy section 4.5.3 Surface water acidification
- 442. Water Quality Assessment Modernapproaches to description of water qualitypp p q y utilizes three approaches: Quantitative measurements: physicochemical parameters in water, in sediments or in biological tissues Bi h i l / bi l i l t t i l di BODBiochemical / biological tests: including BOD estimation, toxicity testing etc Semi quantitative and qualitative descriptorsSemi quantitative and qualitative descriptors including biological indicators and species inventories.
- 443. Quality Parameters Physical S dd S lid Chemical Di l d S lidSuspended Solids Turbidity Color Dissolved Solids Alkalinity HardnessColor Taste Odor Hardness Metals (Toxic & Non- Toxic) O iTemperature Organics Nutrients (Nitrogen/phosphorus)
- 444.
- 445. Solids Total - Suspended–Colloidal- Dissolvedp Filterable v/s non-filterable residues Organic v/s Inorganicg / g Settleable v/s Non-Settleable suspended solids refers to particles that typically range from 10 to 100 microns in diameter (0.45 micron) O i l t fib bi l i l (b t i il )Organic = plant fibers, biological (bacteria, oil,.) Inorganic = clay silt
- 446. Turbidity turbidity is ameasure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. T bidit i i fl d b tit i d fTurbidity is influenced by quantity, size and surface characteristics of solids. (pebble example) Not a quantitative measurement of suspended solids
- 447. Color Pure water iscolorless but due to impurities inp nature, it gets colored Apparent Color = due to suspended solids l d di l d lidTrue Color = due to dissolved solids
- 448. Taste & Odor Selfexplanatoryp y
- 449. Temperature Indirectly controls biologicalactivities in ity g
- 450.
- 451. Alkalinity Alkalinity is definedas the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions. Alkalinity is a measure of the buffering capacity of water to resist change in pH.g p SOURCE: http://www.alabamawaterwatch.org/resources/chemistry_faq s.html/title/what-is-the-difference-between-hardness-and-/ / alkalinity- If the buffer is good, either acid or a base in the water will be taken up and the water will be neutralized bywill be taken up, and the water will be neutralized, by the carbonates and bicarbonates. CO3, HCO3, OH, HSiO3, HBO3, HPO4, HS, NH33, 3, , 3, 3, 4, , 3
- 452. Hardness Hardness is definedas the concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solution CO3, HCO3, OH, HSiO3, HBO3, HPO4, HS, NH3 Carbonate v/s non carbonate hardness STUDENTS to search for difference between carbonate and non-carbonate
- 453. Florides,, Metals (toxic v/snon-toxic) Non-Toxic Metals=calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, manganese, aluminum, copper, zinc. Toxic Metals=arsenic, barium, cadmium, lead, mercury, silver.
- 454. Biodegradable Organics Starches, fats,proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, esters. Microbial utilization of organic compounds. A bi O i tAerobic = Oxygen is present Anaerobic = Oxygen is absent Oxygen Demand is importantOxygen Demand is important Biochemical Oxygen Demand The amount of oxygen consumed during microbial utilizationyg g of organic compounds at 20°C for 5 days Chemical Oxygen Demand
- 455. Non-Biodegradable Organics Organics Resistantto biological degrationsg g g Tannic, lignic acids, cellulose, phenols Measurement of non-biodegradable organics is done by Chemical Oxygen Demand. Alternately Total Organic Carbon may be used.
- 456.
- 457. Biological: Pathogens Pathogenic organismsgg Bacteria, Viruses, PProtozoa Helminths Study “Wastewater Pathogens (M H Gerardi & MStudy Wastewater Pathogens (M. H. Gerardi & M. C. Zimmerman).pdf”
- 458. WATER TREATMENT A combinationfrom the following is used for waterg treatment : Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting any biological growthgrowth Aeration - along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese Coagulation / Flocculation Sedimentation for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc Filtration removing particles from waterFiltration removing particles from water Desalination Process of removing salt from the water Disinfection. for killing bacteria
- 460. Waste Water Management UnitOperations: involves removal of contaminantsp by physical forces Unit Processes: involves removal of contaminants by biological and/or chemical reactions A Wastewater treatment system is composed of unit ti d it d i d t doperations and unit processes designed to reduce certain constituents of wastewater to an acceptable levellevel.
- 461. Waste Water treatmentPlants May be divided asy Primary Treatment To remove solid materials from incoming wastewater S d T t tSecondary Treatment Usually biological conversion of dissolved and collidal organics that can be removed by sedimentation. Tertiary Treatment Involved further removal of suspended solids and/or the removal of nutrients.
- 462. Treatment Technologies Level ofTreatment What to do Primary Treatment Screening Comminution Grit Removal S d T t t S d d C lt (A ti t d Sl d &Secondary Treatment Suspended Culture (Activated Sludge & Variations) Fixed Culture (Trickling Filter, Bio-Towers, Rotating Biological Contactors)g g ) Tertiary Treatment Filtration Membrane Filtration Adsorption Gas Stripping Ion Exchange / Electrodialysis Advanced Oxidation Processes DistillationDistillation Disinfection
- 463.
- 464.
- 465.
- 466.
- 468.
- 469. Secondary Treatment Suspended Culture:Activated Sludgep g
- 470. Simplest types ofmicroorganisms of the activated sludge http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Simplest_types_of_micro organisms_of_the_activated_sludge_%28Krivbassvodokanal%29.jpg
- 471.
- 472. Secondary Treatment :Attached Culture Trickling Filterg Bio-tower Rotating Biologicalg g Contactors
- 475. Tertiary Treatment Filtration Membrane Filtration Adsorptionp GasStripping Ion Exchange / Electrodialysisg / y Advanced Oxidation Processes Distillation Disinfection
- 476. Thank YouThank You Quiz01: 10 Oct 2015Q 5 Lecture 01 to 05 (upto air pollution)
- 477. 2014-09-26 CHEATSHEET: Unit Operations,units processes and systems for wastewater treatment Contaminant Unit Operation, units process or treatment system Suspended solids Sedimentation Screening and comminution Filtration variation Floatation Chemical-polymer addition Coagulation / sedimentation Land treatment systems Biodegradable organics Activated sludge & its variations Fixed-film: Trickling filters Fixed-film: rotating biological contactors Lagoon and oxidation pond variations Intermittent sand filtration Land treatment systems Physical-chemical systems Pathogens Chlorination Hypochlorination Ozonation Ultra violet Disinfection Land treatment systems Nutrients: Nitrogen Suspended growth nitrification and denitrification variations Fixed film nitrification and denitrification variations Ammonia stripping Ion exchange Breakpoint chlorination Land treatment systems Nutrients: Phosphorus Metal-ash addition Lime coagulation / sedimentation Biological-chemical phosphorus removal Land treatment systems Refractory Organics Carbon adsorption Tertiary ozonation Land treatment systems Heavy Metals Chemical precipitation Ion exchange Land treatment systems Dissolved inorganic solids Ion exchange Reverse osmosis Electro dialysis Source: Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, disposal, reuse, 2nd edition, Mcgraw Gill, New York, 1979
- 478.
- 479.
- 480. Date Temperature °C City Province NotesReferences 26 May 2010 53.5 °C (128.3 °F)[A] Mohenjodaro Sindh It was the fourth highest temperature ever recorded on earth and the hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded in the continent of Asia. 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for four consecutive days from 24 to 27 May 2010. [1][2] 26 May 2010 53.4 °C (128.1 °F)[A] Larkana Sindh It was the fifth highest temperature ever recorded on earth and the second hottest reliably measured temperature ever recorded in the continent of Asia and it is the hottest city of Pakistan since 2010. 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for four consecutive days from 24 to 27 May 2010. [2] 26 May 2010 53 °C (127 °F) Jacobabad Sindh 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for four consecutive days, 24 to 27 May 2010.Event also occurred on 12 June 1919. [2] 26 May 2010 53 °C (127 °F)[A] Sibi Balouchistan 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for consecutive 5 days from 22 to 26 May 2010. Previously 52.6 °C (126.7 °F) was recorded on June 5, 2003.[6] [2]
- 481. 5, 2003.[6] 12 June 1919 52.8 °C (127.0 °F) Jacobabad Sindh [7][8] 31 May 1998 52.7 °C (126.9 °F)[A]Larkana Sindh It was the highest temperature in 1998. [9] 26 May 2010 52.5 °C (126.5 °F)[A] Padidan Sindh 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for three consecutive days from 24 to 26 May 2010. [2] 26 May 2010 52 °C (126 °F)[A] Nawabshah Sindh 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for consecutive 5 days from 22 to 26 May 2010. [2] 30 May 2009 52 °C (126 °F) Turbat Balouchistan 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for consecutive 5 days from 26 to 29 May 2009. [2] 19 May 2013 51.5 °C (124.7 °F) Larkana Sindh [10] 1 July 1990 51.4 °C (124.5 °F) Dalbandin Balouchistan 22 May 2010 51.3 °C (124.3 °F) Larkana Sindh [11] 9 June 2007 51 °C (124 °F) Mianwali Punjab 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for 2 days, 9 and 10 June 2007. [2] 1 June 1996 51 °C (124 °F) Rohri Sindh [12] 28 May 2010 51 °C (124 °F)[A] Dadu Sindh 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded for 2 days, 26 and 27 May 2010 . [2] 26 May 2010 51 °C (124 °F)[A] Noorpurthal Punjab 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on May 19, 2011. [2][13] 25 May 2010 51 °C (124 °F)[A] Sukkur Sindh 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for three consecutive days, 25 to 27 May 2010. [2] 50 °C (122 °F)
- 482. 10 June 2007 51 °C (124 °F) SargodhaPunjab 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded for 2 days, 9 and 10 June 2007. [2] 26 May 2010 50 °C (122 °F)[A] Rahim yar Khan Punjab 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for three consecutive days from 25 to 27 May 2010. [2] 15 May 2009 50 °C (122 °F) Lasbella Balochistan 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded for 2 days, 15 and 16 May 2009. 50 °C (122 °F) was also recorded on May 21, 2011. [2][14] 27 May 2010 50 °C (122 °F)[A] Multan Punjab Record temperature in city ; previous highest was 49 °C (120 °F) in 1956. [2] 26 May 2010 50 °C (122 °F)[A] Bahawalnagar Punjab [2] 20 May 2011 50 °C (122 °F) Pasni Balochistan [15] 18 June 1995 50 °C (122 °F) Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [16] 5 June 1978 50 °C (122 °F) Dera Ismail Khan Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [17] 10 June 2007 50 °C (122 °F) Bannu Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 50 °C (122 °F) or above was recorded for two days, 9 and 10 June 2007. [2] List of cities with temperature of 45°C or above but below 50°C Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 45 °C (113 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources.
- 483. Date Temperature °C City Province NotesReferences 4 June 2014 49.5 °C (121.1 °F)* Gwadar Balochistan Highest temperature on Makran coast. 20 June 2010 49 °C (120 °F)* Dera Ghazi Khan Punjab [2] 7 June 1991 48.5 °C (119.3 °F) Hyderabad Sindh [18] so 26 May 2010 48.5 °C (119.3 °F)[A] Bhakkar Punjab [2] 30 May 1944 48.3 °C (118.9 °F) Lahore Punjab 48 °C (118 °F) was recorded in Lahore on 10 June 2007. [19][20] 8 June 2014 48.0 °C (118.4 °F)* Gwadar Balochistan This temperature was also recorded on 9 June 2014. 10 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Attock Punjab 26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F) Faisalabad Punjab This temperature was also recorded on 24 June 2005. [2][21] 8 June 1979 48 °C (118 °F) Jiwani Balouchistan [22] 26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F)[A] Jhelum Punjab [2] 25 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F)[A] Bhawalpur Punjab [2] 9 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Mandi Bahauddin Punjab [2] 26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F)[A] Kohat Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [2] 25 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F)[A] Bhawalpur Punjab [2] 26 May 2010 48 °C (118 °F) Nok Kundi Balouchistan [2] 11 June 2007 48 °C (118 °F) Thatta Sindh 9 June 1938 47.8 °C (118.0 °F) Karachi Sindh [23] This is the highest recorded
- 484. 24 May 2013 47.4 °C (117.3 °F) Lahore Punjab recorded temperature of May in Lahore since 1954.[10] 24 June 1990 47.3 °C (117.1 °F) Drosh Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [24] 22 June 2007 47 °C (117 °F)Chorr Sindh 25 May 2010 47 °C (117 °F)[A] Okara Punjab [2] 25 May 2010 47 °C (117 °F)[A] Sahiwal Punjab [2] 24 May 2010 47 °C (117 °F)[A] Khanpur Punjab [2] 7 June 2014 48.1 °C (118.6 °F) Sialkot Punjab 24 May 2010 47 °C (117 °F)[A] Toba tek singh Punjab [2] 23 June 2005 46.6 °C (115.9 °F) Rawalpindi/Islamabad Punjab/Islamabad Capital Territory [25] 31 May 1988 46.5 °C (115.7 °F) Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir [26] 17 July 1997 46.3 °C (115.3 °F) Gilgit Gilgit Baltistan [27] 26 May 2010 46 °C (115 °F)[A] Gujranwala Punjab [2] 10 June 2007 46 °C (115 °F) Rawalpindi Punjab This temperature was also recorded on 29 June 2009. [28] 20 June 2015 45 °C (113 °F) Karachi Sindh [2] List of cities with temperature of 0°C or below Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 0 °C (32 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources.
- 485. Date Temperature °C CityProvince Notes References 7 January 1995 −24.1 °C (−11.4 °F) Skardu Gilgit–Baltistan [29] 8 January 1970 −18.3 °C (−0.9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [30] 1 February 1970 −16.7 °C (1.9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [30] 30 December 2013 −15 °C (5 °F) Kalat Balochistan [31] 5 February 2008 −15 °C (5 °F) Quetta Balochistan [32] 30 December 2013 −13 °C (9 °F) Quetta Balochistan [31] 26 December 2011 −12 °C (10 °F) Kalat Balochistan 17 January 1967 −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [33] 7 January 1970 −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [34] 17 January 1967 −2.5 °C (27.5 °F) Rawalpindi Punjab 17 January 1935 −2.2 °C (28.0 °F) Lahore Punjab [35] 21 January 1934 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) Karachi Sindh [36] List of cities with temperature of 5°C or below but above 0°C Temperature extremes in Pakistan over 0 °C (32 °F) based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2015[5] and other sources. Recordbreaking 2010 summer heat wave The hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fourth highest temperature ever recorded in the world was in Mohenjodaro, Sindh at 53.5 °C (128.3 °F) while the second hottest temperature ever recorded in Asia and the fifth highest temperature ever recorded in the world was in Larkana, Sindh at 53.4 °C (128.1 °F) on May 26, 2010. Twelve cities in Pakistan saw temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F) during the extreme heatwave of summer 2010, which lasted from May 22 to May 31, 2010.[37] On May 27, temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F) hit areas across Pakistan and at least 18 people died as a result.[38] Also, during the extreme heatwave season, 11 cities saw their highest ever recorded temperatures of 50 °C (122 °F) or above, and five cities saw temperatures of 53 °C (127 °F). 11 cities also saw extremes of more than 45 °C (113 °F) but below 50 °C (122 °F). The previous record for Pakistan and for Asia was on June 12, 1919 at 52.8 °C (127 °F) at Jacobabad.[7][39] Precipitation The standard way of measuring Rainfall or Snowfall is the standard Rain gauge, which can be found in 100mm (4in) plastic and 200mm (8in) metal varieties. The inner cylinder is filled by 25 mm (0.98 in) of Rain, with overflow flowing into the outer cylinder. Plastic gauges have markings on the inner cylinder down to 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) resolution, while metal gauges require use of a stick designed with the appropriate 0.25 mm (0.0098 in) markings. After the inner cylinder is filled, the amount inside it is discarded, then filled with the remaining Rainfall in the outer cylinder until all the fluid in the outer cylinder is gone, adding to the overall total until the outer cylinder is empty.
- 486. Heaviest Rainfall of 400 mm or above during 24 hours Recordbreaking Rainfall extremes in Pakistan over 400 millimetres (16 in) or above during 24 hours, based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2010[5] and other sources. Date Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) City Province NotesReferences 24 July 2001 620 24.4 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory 620 millimetres (24 in) Rainfall was recorded in 12 hours, on 23 July 2001 in Islamabad as a result of a Cloudburst. It is the heaviest Rainfall in Islamabad. [3][4] Heaviest Rainfall of 200 mm or above but below 400 mm during 24 hours Recordbreaking Rainfall extremes in Pakistan over 200 millimetres (7.9 in) or above but below 400 millimetres (16 in) during 24 hours, based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931– 2010[5] and other sources.
- 487. Date Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) City Province NotesReferences 11 August 2011 350 13.7 Tando Ghulam Ali Sindh [40] 24 July 2001 335 13.1 Rawalpindi Punjab Record breaking Rainfall in Rawalpindi due to Cloudburst. 7 September 2011 312 12.2 Diplo Sindh Record breaking Rainfall in Diplo. [41] 10 September 2012 305 11.8 Jacobabad Sindh Heaviest 24 hours Rainfall while 441 mm Rainfall in 36 hours in the month of September. 5 September 2014 300 11.8 Lahore Punjab Heaviest 24 hours Rainfall in the month of September. [42] 5 September 2014 298 11.7 Rawalpindi Punjab Heaviest 24 hours Rainfall in the month of September. [42] 5 September 2014 297 11.7 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [42] 10 August 2011 291 11.5 Mithi Sindh Record breaking Rainfall in Mithi. [43][44][45] 29 July 2010 280 11.0 Risalpur Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] 7 August 1953 278.1 10.95 Karachi Sindh [47] Record breaking Rainfall in Peshawar , previously
- 488. 29 July2010 274 10.7Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa previously 187 millimetres (7.4 in) mm was recorded on 10 April 2009. [16][46] 5 September 1961 264.2 10.4 Faisalabad Punjab [21] 30 July 2010 257 10.1 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [46] 29 July 2010 257 10.1 Cherat Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] 2 July 1972 256.5 10.1 Nawabshah Sindh [48] 10 September 1992 255 10.0 Murree Punjab [49] 5 September 2014 251 9.9 Mangla Punjab [42] 5 September 2014 251 9.9 Sialkot Punjab [50] 12 September 1962 250.7 9.8 Hyderabad Sindh [18] 18 July 2009 245 9.6 Karachi Sindh The Rainfall occurred in just 4 hours. [51] 5 September 2014 243 9.6 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [42] 30 July 2010 240 9.4 Kamra Punjab [46] 26 August 2011 240 9.4 Kohat Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [52] 31 August 2011 238 9.4 Padidan Sindh [52][53] 5 September 2014 234 9.2 Rawalakot Azad Kashmir [42] 27 August 1997 233.8 9.2 Murree Punjab [49] 29 July 2010 233 9.1 Kohat Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] 30 July 2010 231 9.1 Murree Punjab [46] 6 June 2010 227 8.9 Gwadar Balouchistan Record breaking Rainfall in Gwadar. [54] 7 September 2011 225 8.85 Mithi Sindh [55][56] 13 August 2008 221 8.7 Lahore Punjab [57] 20 July 2013 217 8.6 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [58]
- 489. Territory 1 August 1976 211 8.3Lahore Punjab [20] 8 July 2003 209 8.2 Larkana Sindh Heaviest Rainfall in just 12 hours. 10 September 1992 208 8.2 Muzaffarabad Azad Kashmir [59] 1 July 1977 207.6 8.1 Karachi Sindh [2] 29 July 2007 205 8.0 Sargodha Punjab 4 August 2010 202 7.9 Dera Ismail Khan Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Record breaking Rainfall in Dera Ismail Khan previously 116 millimetres (4.6 in) was recorded on 4 July 1994. [2][17] 11 August 2011 200 7.8 Tando Mohammad Khan Sindh [60] 11 August 2011 200 7.8 Tando Ghulam Haider Sindh [60] 24 July 2001 200 7.8 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [25] 27 August 1997 200 7.8 Islamabad Islamabad Capital Territory [25] Heaviest Snowfall of 40" or above during 24 hours Recordbreaking Snowfall extremes in Pakistan over 40 inches (100 cm) or above during 24 hours, based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department, 1931–2010[5] and other sources. Date Snowfall (in) Snowfall (cm) City or Station Province Notes References 4 February 2013 42 106.68 Malam Jabba Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of September 2014 Main article: 2014 India–Pakistan floods
- 490.
- 491. City Stations Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) Province Notes LahoreShahi Qila 557 21.9 Punjab Recordbreaking Rainfall for the month. Lahore Misri Shah 539 21.2 Punjab Lahore Shahdra 538 21.2 Punjab Sialkot Cantt (city) 523 20.6 Punjab Lahore Airport 518 20.4 Punjab Rawalakot 507 20.0 Azad Kashmir Sialkot Airport 439 17.3 Punjab Lahore Jail Road 437 17.2 Punjab Kotli 431 17.0 Azad Kashmir Lahore Upper Mall 421 16.6 Punjab Rawalpindi Chaklala (Islamabad Airport) 345 13.6 Punjab Record breaking Rainfall for the month. Mangla 345 13.6 Azad Kashmir Gujranwala 336 13.2 Punjab Islamabad Zero Point 331 13.0 Islamabad Capital Territory Rawalpindi Shamsabad 319 12.6 Punjab Gujrat 310 12.0 Punjab Islamabad Saidpur 298 11.7 Islamabad Capital Territory Okara 293 11.5 Punjab Kasur 284 11.2 Punjab Murree 262 10.3 Punjab Faisalabad 228 9.0 Punjab Rawalpindi Bokra 222 8.7 Punjab Jhelum 220 8.7 Punjab Islamabad Golra Sharif 211 8.3 Islamabad Capital Territory Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of September 2012 in Sindh Main article: 2012 Pakistan floods After the severe drought conditions in Sindh during the months of July & August , an intense Low pressure area developed in Bay of Bengal in last days of August. The Low pressure area moved towards Sindh & brought torrential Rains in upper Sindh while Rainfall some heavy in other parts of Sindh during the first
- 492. Supercell Thunderstorm over Larkana during the wet spell of September 2011 fortnight of September 2012. Highest Rainfall was recorded in Jacobabad with the record of 481 mm in just 7 days & 441 mm in just 36 hours. Other records are 239 mm in Larkana while 206 mm in Sukkur. Larkana division was worst hit by Heavy Rainfall. Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spell of September 2012 in Sindh Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded during the wet spell of September 5 to 11, 2012 in the province of Sindh particularly in upper Sindh based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department. City Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) Monsoon spell Notes Jacobabad 481 18.9 September 5 to 11 Recordbreaking Rainfall for the month & 441 mm in just 36 hours. Larkana239 9.4 September 5 to 11 Recordbreaking Rainfall for past few years in the month of September. Sukkur 206 8.1 September 5 to 11 Recordbreaking Rainfall for past few years in the month of September. Recordbreaking torrential Rainfall of August and September 2011 in Sindh In the month of July Pakistan received below normal Monsoon Rains; however in August and September the country received above normal Monsoon Rains. A strong weather pattern entered the areas of Sindh from the Indian states of Rajasthan and Gujarat in August and gained strength with the passage of time and caused heavy Downpour. The first Monsoon spell hit the southern parts of Sindh on 10 August. It produced record breaking widespread torrential Rainfall and resulted in floods in district Badin. The second spell hit the areas on 30 August and lasted until 2 September. In the month of September four more consecutive spells of Monsoon Rainfall devastated the southern parts of the province. The first spell of September hit the already inundated parts of the province on 2 September. Thereafter, the second spell hit on 5 September, the third on 9 September, and the fourth on 12 September 2011. The four spells of Monsoon produced even more devastating torrential Rains in the already affected areas of Sindh. Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spells of August and September 2011 in Sindh Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded in the heaviest Monsoon spell in different areas of Sindh province in the months of August and September, 2011 based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department.[61]
- 493. City Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) Monsoon Spell Notes References Mithi 76030.0 September 1 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Mithi. [62][63][64] Mirpur Khas 603 23.7 September 1 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Mirpur Khas. [62][63][64] Padidan 356 14.0 August 30 to September 4 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Padidan. [62][63][64] Nawabshah 353.2 13.9 September 1 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Nawabshah. [62][63][64] Dadu 348.1 13.7 September 1 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Dadu. [62][63][64] Badin 302.1 11.8 August 10 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Badin. [62][63][64] Chhor 268 10.6 September 1 to 14 Recordbreaking Rainfall in Chhor. [62][63][64] Hyderabad 244.2 9.6 September 1 to 14 [62][63][64] Karachi 212.2 8.3 September 1 to 14 [62][63][64] September 1 to 14, 2011 four consecutive spells of Monsoon Rains in Sindh. August 1 to 14, 2011 first spell of Monsoon Rains in Sindh. August 30 to September 4 second spell of Monsoon Rains in Sindh. Recordbreaking heavy Rainfall of July 2010 Unprecedented heavy Monsoon Rains began in the last week of July 2010 in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, GilgitBaltistan and Azad Kashmir regions of Pakistan which causes floods in Balochistan and Sindh.[65] The floods which were caused by Monsoon Rains, and were forecast to continue into early August, were described as the worst in the last 80 years.[66] The Pakistan Meteorological Department said that over 200 mm (7.88 inches) of Rain fell over a 24hour period over a number of places of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab and more was expected.[67] A recordbreaking 274 mm (10.7 inches) Rain fell in Peshawar during 24 hours,[68] previously 187 mm (7.36 inches) of Rain was recorded in April 2009.[16] Other recordbreaking Rains were recorded in Risalpur, Cherat, Saidu Sharif, Mianwali, and Kohat regions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Heavy Rainfall recorded during the wet spell of July 2010 Heavy Rainfall of more than 200 millimetres (7.9 in) recorded during the four day wet spell of July 27 to 30, 2010 in the provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Punjab based on data from the Pakistan Meteorological Department.[46]
- 494. City Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (in) Monsoon spell Province Notes References Risalpur415[B] 16.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Islamabad 394 15.5 July 27 to 30 Islamabad Capital Territory [46] Murree 373 14.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Cherat 372[B] 14.6 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Garhi Dopatta 346 13.6 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46] Saidu Sharif 338[B] 13.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Peshawar 333[B] 13.1 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Kamra 308 12.1 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Rawalakot 297 11.7 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46] Muzaffarabad 292 11.5 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46] Lahore 288 11.3 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Mianwali 271[B] 10.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Lower Dir 263 10.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Kohat 262[B] 10.3 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Balakot 256 10.0 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Sialkot 255 10.0 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Pattan 242 9.5 July 27 to 30 Azad Kashmir [46] Dir 231 9.10 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Gujranwala 222 8.7 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Dera Ismail Khan 220 8.6 July 27 to 30 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa [46] Rawalpindi 219 8.6 July 27 to 30 Punjab [46] Floods Main article: List of floods in Pakistan Pakistan has seen many floods, the worst and most destructive is the recent 2010 Pakistan floods, which swept away the 20% of Pakistan's land, the flood is the result of unprecedented Monsoon Rains which lasted from 28 July to 31 July 2010. Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and North eastern Punjab were badly affected during the Monsoon Rains when dams, rivers and lakes overflowed. By midAugust, according to the governmental Federal Flood Commission (FFC), the floods had caused the deaths of at least 1,540 people, while 2,088 people had received injuries, 557,226 houses had been destroyed, and over 6 million people had been displaced.[69] One month later, the data had been updated to reveal 1,781 deaths, 2,966 people with injuries, and more than 1.89 million homes destroyed.[70] The flood affected more than 20 million people exceeding the combined total of individuals affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake and the 2010 Haiti earthquake.[71][72] The flood is considered as worst in Pakistan's history affecting people of all four provinces and Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir region of Pakistan.[73]
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- 499. Pakistan Journal ofMeteorology Vol. 9, Issue 17: Jul 2012 37 Rainfall Trends in Different Climate Zones of Pakistan Salma, S.1 , S. Rehman1 , M. A. Shah2 Abstract In this paper, the study was conducted across the country to assess the rainfall trend in different climate zones of Pakistan over the past three decades. For this purpose dataset comprising 30 years for the period 1976 to 2005 were acquired from 30 meteorological observatories from different parts of the country. The whole data was analyzed through Analysis Of Variations (ANOVA) along Dunnett T3 test. The result has shown a decreasing trend (-1.18mm/decade) all over the country, which may be attributed to the presence of drought period during 1998- 2001. Stations located in different zones of the country mainly from North, North West, West and Coastal areas respectively show overall significant decreasing trend whereas plain areas and South West of the country have been observed with no significant trend. Adverse consequences of the rainfall have already been observed in Pakistan in the form of droughts and super floods which have badly affected human settlements, water management and agriculture sectors. Keywords: Rainfall trend, Climate zones, ANOVA test along Dunnett T3 test. Introduction The issue of climate change has emerged very strongly during the last two decades on global scale in view of its projected implications on the environment of vulnerable states. Steadily rising temperature and its impacts on the cryosphere and rainfall are evident in many regions around the world. There are indications that Pakistan has had its share of the large climatic variations that are known to have taken place in northwest India in the past. The dominant component of the climate variations was spatial shifts in the rainfall patterns, associated with fluctuations in the general circulation of the atmosphere in the region (Rodo, 2003).Changes in rainfall pattern directly affect water, agriculture and disaster management sectors. According to the report of Task Force on Climate Change (2010) in Pakistan, the country is exposed to a number of natural disasters, including cyclones, floods, drought, intense rainfall, and earthquakes. In the last couple of decades there has been an increase in the incidence, frequency, and intensity of extreme climatic events: about 40% of the people of Pakistan are highly prone to frequent multiple disasters with variations in rainfall patterns, storms, floods and droughts (Hussain et al, 2010, Oxfam Report on Climate Change, 2011). In most areas of the country, rainfall patterns have become very unreliable and unpredictable, making it difficult for communities to make necessary arrangements for their safety, crops and livestock. For instance on 29th July 2010, the country has faced super flood, after heavy monsoon rainfall hit Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Punjab and parts of Balochistan in over eighty years. In this worst flood, an estimated 2000 people were dead and has damaged or destroyed over 700,000 homes. A record-breaking 274 mm rain fell in Peshawar during 24 hours; the previous record was 187 mm of rain in April 2009. On the other hand, in 1998 to 2001 severe droughts occurred in the southern and central parts of the country. The variability of rainfall has increased geographically, across seasons, and annually in Asia over the past few decades. Decreasing trends in rainfall patterns along Pakistan’s coastal areas and arid plains have also been observed (IPCC, 2007). According to Pakistan Meteorological Department, major parts of Pakistan experience dry climate. Humid conditions prevail but over a small area in the north. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan, major parts of the Punjab and central parts of Northern Areas receive less than 250 mm of rainfall in a year. Pakistan has a reasonably good network of observatories having a century of records of the basic climate parameters of rainfall and temperature. Chaudhary (1994) attempted to construct an all- Pakistan summer monsoon rainfall series, by taking the area- weighted average of 38 stations, excluding the hilly regions of 1 Anagalious_79@yahoo.com, University of Peshawar, Pakistan. 2 Pakistan Meteorological Department.
- 500. Rainfall Trends inDifferent Climate Zones of Pakistan Vol. 9 38 the country parallel to the Himalayan mountain range, and covering about 88% of the total area of the country. Chaudhary obtained a value of 13.3 cm for all Pakistan mean summer monsoon rainfall, which accounts for about 58.5% of the annual rainfall, based on the data during 1901-1990. Another attempt has been made by Singh and Sontakke (1996). They used 34 stations for precipitation and 15 stations for temperature. The earliest records available are from 1856 for precipitation and 1876 for temperature. They computed the monthly percentage departures from the long term mean at the available stations and then average all the available months and stations to obtain the all- Pakistan mean annual rainfall anomaly series for the period 1856-1993. They obtained a low –frequency variability of all Pakistan mean annual rainfall, in terms of 31 year moving averages and decadal means of both mean rainfall and variability. Seen in the context of Pakistan, a country with very large population, agriculture based economy and high vulnerability index to natural disasters, it was important to determine trends of rainfall in different climate zones of Pakistan over the last three decades and its considerable spatial and temporal variability in the study area. The Pakistan Meteorological Department reported that in recent year there has been a slow but steady change occurred in the location where major rainfalls concentrate. In the past, monsoon rains fell most intensely over the Punjab. But slowly and steadily, the concentration of rainfall has moved north and west to Khyber Puktonkhuwa. Study Area Pakistan is geographically situated approximately between 24-37 °N latitudes and 62-75 °E longitudes in the western zone of south Asia. The distribution of rainfall in Pakistan varies on wide ranges, mostly associated with the monsoon winds and the western disturbances, but the rainfall does not occur throughout the year. Like, Khyber Pukhtonkhuwa (northern mountains) and Balochistan provinces receive maximum rainfall in the months of December to March while in Punjab and Sindh receive 50- 75% of rainfall during monsoon season (Kazi et al, 1951; FAO, 1987; Khan, 1993 & 2002; Kureshy, 1998; Luo and Lin, 1999). The precipitation received in the country can be divided into two main seasons, summer or monsoon and winter precipitation. The monsoon rainfall enters Pakistan from east and north east during the month of July to September. During this duration a good amount of rainfall is received in the north and northeastern areas of the country. Winter precipitation (December to March) are mainly received from western disturbances entering from Iran and Afghanistan. The weather systems entering from Afghanistan are called the primary western disturbances and cover only the north and north western parts of the country, whereas those approaching from the Iran are secondary and cover a large area of the country including Balochistan, Punjab, Khyber Pukhtonkhuwa, Kashmir and northern areas and sometimes Sindh province. A large amount of snowfall is received in the northern areas, upper Khyber Pukhtonkhuwa, Kashmir and northern Balochistan and is the main source of water supply for water reservoirs of the country in dry season. This water received from the snow melt and from the seasonal rains plays an important role in the agricultural and socioeconomic activities of the country. Agriculture of Pakistan is mainly climate dependant and every area has its own crops and fruits according to its climate. The country’s most important crops and fruits are grown in winter season in different areas according to its climate conditions. If there is any abnormality in the usual climate condition the nation suffers for the whole year and there is also a huge loss to the economy (Shah, 2008). Zonal Classification of the Study Area Detection of rainfall trend is subject to limitations: there is no clear altitudinal trend of rainfall. Therefore, for analysis, a dataset spreads over a period of 30 years (1976-2005) covering the whole country i.e. 30 stations from extreme north to south and east to west have been selected. The stations included in this study were selected on the basis of their latitudinal position, elevation from sea level, length of record, completeness and reliability of data so that a synoptic view of the entire country could be obtained. Further the selected stations have been divided into five different microclimatic
- 501. Issue 17 Salma,S., S. Rehman, M. A. Shah 39 zones. These zones were named A, B, C, D and E as shown in Figure 1, along with their latitudinal extent. Figure 1: Map showing the climatic zones of the study area Zone A Zone A comprises those stations having cold climate and high mountains, situated in the north of Pakistan. These stations are Chitral, Gilgit, Muzaffarabad, Said-u- Sharif, Skardu, Astor, Dir, Chilas Parachinar and Kakul. These are mostly hill stations located between 34 N to 38 N in the Himalaya, Hindukash and Koh-e- Sufaid mountain ranges. Zone B This zone has mild cold climate and Sub Mountains, located between 31N to 34 N. The stations are Sialkot, D.I.Khan, Islamabad, Peshawar, Cherat and Lahore. Zone C Climate is cold in winters and hot in summers. Most of them are mountainous stations with high elevations from mean sea level and cover an area between 27 N to 32N and 64 E to 70 E. Stations included in this zone are Quetta, Zhob, Kalat and Khuzdar. Zone D This is the hottest and dry zone of the country where highest maximum temperatures are recorded in stations of Sibbi and Jacobabad. The area is almost plain with some area included in Thar Desert. Stations included are Sibbi, Jacobabad, Bahawalpure, Khanpur, Multan and Rohri. Zone E Zone E is a big zone having many stations and coastal cities, near to Arabian Sea. The coastal part comprises only a small part of this region and climate above coastal parts in Balochistan as well as in Sindh province is mostly arid to hyper arid. The selected stations from this zone are Hyderabad, Karachi, Nawabshah and Jewani.
- 502. Rainfall Trends inDifferent Climate Zones of Pakistan Vol. 9 40 Data and Method Rainfall data of five climate zones included 30 meteorological stations spreading all over the country and covering the period from 1976 to 2005 has been used in this study as shown in Figure (1). Therefore, a simple methodology was applied by using the Mean Annual Rainfall data of the above stations and their geographic location. All the data used and processed in this study was provided by the Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD). In order to statistically analyze variations in the mean rainfall of the study area ANOVA test was applied, using SPSS version 17. For trend determination, average values were analyzed carefully by dividing the data on the basis of decades, fifteen years interval and the entire period 1976-2005 as a whole for each zone and for the whole Study area as well. During the analysis it was observed that rainfall distribution is not normal with large year to year differences. Therefore, the above mentioned data was analyzed using Dunnett T3 test along ANOVA for multiple comparison of alpha 0.05. Analysis was performed assuming unequal variances of precipitation distribution. The principle feature of these methods is that they can be used for the analysis of data sets which do not display a normal distribution. Further, for visualization of data ArcGIS software was used for the mapping based on geo-referenced plotting, editing and map-based query and analysis. Results Trend Determination 10 Years Trend (Individual Zone) In order to show the deviation of annual data from the average value, statistical indicators such as standard deviation, standard error, skewness, 5% trimmed mean and median were calculated. The descriptive statistical analysis results are presented in Tab (1) with ANOVA result of the rainfall for the whole study area in different microclimates. Table 1: Descriptive statistics and ANOVA result for rainfall Rainfall Trend in the whole Study Area (F=71.64, p=0.00) ZoneA ZoneB ZoneC ZoneD ZoneE Stations 10 6 4 6 4 30 Years Valid/Missing values 297/3 175/5 116/4 172/8 118/2 Mean All value used 66.64 66.99 32.92 22.65 32.10 5%trimmed Mean 64.72 64.42 31.74 21.76 29.62 Median 57.22 57.05 30.47 19.29 25.04 Std. Error 2.70 2.77 1.39 1.05 2.35 95%CI Lower Bound 61.31 61.52 30.16 20.58 27.45 Upper Bound 71.96 72.46 35.68 24.72 36.75 Skewness 0.46 1.12 1.56 1.15 1.45 F- Value 1.93 0.91 3.81 1.53 5.92 Sig. 0.15 0.41 0.03 0.22 0.00 In the above table, the number of valid/missing values indicate the length of data i.e., from 1976- 2005. It is evident from these statistical indicators that highest zonal means and medians were observed for zone A (66.64 mm, 57.22 mm) and zone B (66.99 mm, 57.05 mm) for 30 years average rainfall while zone D shows the lowest value of mean (22.65 mm) and median (19.29 mm) respectively. Similarly other statistics such as standard error and 95% confidence interval all are also higher for zone A and B as compared to other zones. The skewness shows positive values for all five zones with zone C and E being higher. Results of the ANOVA test are most significant (F=71.64, p=0.00) not only within each zone but also for inter-zonal analysis on decadal and inter-decadal scales. Similarly for each individual zone, analysis of variance show different results, like probability for zone A (F=1.93 p=0.15) is not found significant. The result
- 503. Issue 17 Salma,S., S. Rehman, M. A. Shah 41 shows higher value than the critical tabulated value (p > 0.05). Further, for zone B, and zone D, ANOVA test display non significant results for all of the included stations (p > 0.05 or 0.1). While in contrast the ANOVA results for the zone C (F=3.81, p=0.03) and zone E (F=5.92, p=0.00) are found most significant to the change and it is also obvious from inter decadal significance of the zones through Dunnett T3 (Table 2). Table 2: Dunnett T3 for Homogenous subset of alpha (Inter-Decadal Analysis) Zones N Mean (I) Decade (J) Decade Mean Diff (I-J) Sig. Zone A 99 62.39 1 2 -11.65 0.25 3 -0.98 1.00 100 74.04 2 1 11.65 0.25 3 10.67 0.30 98 63.37 3 1 0.98 1.00 2 -10.67 0.30 Zone B 59 72.11 1 2 8.66 0.52 3 6.71 0.73 60 63.44 2 1 -8.66 0.52 3 -1.96 0.98 56 65.40 3 1 -6.71 0.73 2 1.96 0.98 Zone C 36 35.12 1 2 -0.97 0.99 3 7.34 0.14 40 36.09 2 1 0.97 0.99 3 8.31 0.01 40 27.78 3 1 -7.34 0.14 2 -8.31 0.01 Zone D 59 23.15 1 2 -1.51 0.92 3 2.91 0.59 55 24.65 2 1 1.51 0.92 3 4.42 0.23 58 20.23 3 1 -2.91 0.59 2 -4.42 0.23 Zone E 40 34.76 1 2 -5.48 0.70 3 13.04 0.02 38 40.24 2 1 5.48 0.70 3 18.52 0.01 40 21.71 3 1 -13.04 0.02 2 -18.52 0.01 15 years trend (Single Station) In single station analysis the entire data is divided into two periods (1976-1990 and 1991-2005) for whole study area and for each single station. The average rainfall of the whole study area (country) is calculated as 50.48mm for first half period 1976-1990 and 47.50mm for the second half period 1991-2005 which become 2.98mm lower than the first half with non-significant mean variance (F=1.273, p=0.26).
- 504. Rainfall Trends inDifferent Climate Zones of Pakistan Vol. 9 42 Table 3: Single Station analysis for the determination of significant trend in two time periods Increase in Rainfall Station F Sig Mean (1976-1990) Mean (1991-2005) Mean Diff Zone Chitral 8.09 0.01 34.67 45.90 11.23 A Decrease in Rainfall Quetta 4.43 0.04 47.36 33.59 -13.77 C Karachi 3.87 0.05 42.82 28.10 -14.72 E No change in Rainfall Astor 0.04 0.84 43.31 44.32 1.01 A Chilas 2.87 0.10 16.03 22.63 6.60 A Dir 0.43 0.52 126.91 121.05 -5.86 A Gilgit 0.56 0.46 15.85 13.79 -2.06 A Kakul 1.68 0.21 121.19 111.83 -9.36 A M-abad 0.25 0.62 134.76 130.28 -4.48 A P-Chinar 0.35 0.56 66.16 68.90 2.74 A Skardu 0.62 0.44 19.64 22.03 2.38 A S-Sharif 0.02 0.91 88.42 89.51 1.10 A Cherat 0.03 0.85 54.86 53.80 -1.06 B DIK 0.27 0.61 28.73 30.43 1.70 B Isl-bad 0.91 0.35 115.58 105.41 -10.18 B Lahore 2.02 0.17 77.94 60.76 -17.18 B Peshawar 1.73 0.20 39.68 46.00 6.33 B Sialkot 0.03 0.87 91.78 93.56 1.79 B Kalat 0.00 1.00 28.48 28.46 -0.02 C Khuzdar 0.09 0.77 31.83 30.42 -1.40 C Zhob 0.01 0.92 31.19 30.85 -0.34 C B-Pur 0.48 0.49 25.12 21.26 -3.86 D Jaco-bad 3.69 0.07 27.48 15.28 -12.20 D Khanpur 0.08 0.78 16.54 15.43 -1.11 D Multan 0.09 0.77 25.03 26.25 1.22 D Rohri 0.04 0.85 25.18 26.36 1.18 D Sibbi 0.59 0.45 21.67 24.67 3.00 D H-abad 0.77 0.39 41.39 30.63 -10.77 E Jewani 1.57 0.22 29.53 22.33 -7.20 E N-Shah 0.10 0.76 33.06 29.74 -3.32 E The trend analysis for individual stations is presented in Tab.3 and Figure 2 (A and B). The intensity of the map color shows mean inter-zonal rainfall variation from 134.19 - 16.09 mm in Figure 2(A) to 130.19 - 14.26 mm (B) for different zones from the first half study period to the second half. Among the stations Chitral shows a significantly higher trend with 11.23 mm increase between the two 15-years periods while rest of the stations show an increasing trend in the range of 1 – 6 mm but with no significance value (p > 0.05). On the other hand rainfall data for Quetta (-13.77 mm) and Karachi (-14.72 mm) stations indicate a significant decrease in the mean rainfall during the second half period. Similarly Dir, Gilgit, Kakul, Muzaffarabad, Islamabad, Lahore, Kalat, Khuzdar, Bahawalpure, Khanpur, Hyderabad, Jewani, and Nawabshah stations also show decrease in the average rainfall, albeit with a non-significant trend. The overall difference in mean rainfall for each individual station is observed with a decreasing trend in the 1991-2005 as compared to 1976-90 periods.
- 505. Issue 17 Salma,S., S. Rehman, M. A. Shah 43 Figure 2: Station-wise mean annual rainfall showing significant increase, decrease and no change from the period 1976-1990 (A) to 1991-2005(B) Whole Study Area Analysis (Country wide) The data of all zones in Tab (4) and Figure (3B) showing a decrease in mean rainfall in two fifteen yearly periods. Spatial variation in mean rainfall across the country ranges from 68.23 - 23.37 mm during 1976-90 period in Figure (3A) while it decreases to 66.41- 21.91 mm during 1991-2005 period in Figure (3B). ANOVA test for the two periods is found most significant only for zone E (F=3.719, p=0.05) which indicates a negative change in the mean rainfall (-8.96mm) followed by zone C (-4.33mm) that also shows a higher decreasing trend with a relatively higher p-value (F=2.439, p=0.1) than the significant tabulated value. Figure 3: Country wide analysis of the mean annual rainfall showing significant increase, decrease and no change between the two 15-years periods; (A) 1976-1990, (B): 1990-2005. (A) (B) (A) (B)
- 506. Rainfall Trends inDifferent Climate Zones of Pakistan Vol. 9 44 Overall mean rainfall (Tab.4) is observed with downfall trend of (-3.55mm) for the two time periods and per decade (-1.18mm). Table 4: Mean difference in rainfall data for the two periods along with ANOVA result Zones F-value Sig. Mean (1976-1990) Mean (1991-2005) Mean Diff Zone A 2.483 0.12 66.85 66.42 -0.43 Zone B 0.21 0.65 68.24 65.69 -2.55 Zone C 2.439 0.1 35.16 30.83 -4.33 Zone D 0.735 0.39 23.37 21.91 -1.46 Zone E 3.719 0.05 36.66 27.7 -8.96 30 Year Trend The time series of 30 years annual mean rainfall clearly showed that the overall change is found most significant at (p<0.05) as shown in Tab. (5) along with descriptive statistics. In the Overall results in Dunnett T3 test (Tab.6) show that mean rainfall decreased with fluctuations but have the significant trend of downfall in the rainfall trend during the whole study period but this change in last two decade is more significant than the first one decade. Table 5: Descriptive statistics and ANOVA result for the whole Study Area Table 6: Dunnett T3 for homogenous subset of alpha (I) Decade (J) Decade Mean Diff. (I-J) Sig. 1 2 -3.71 0.60 3 4.71 0.36 2 1 3.71 0.60 3 8.42 0.03 3 1 -4.71 0.36 2 -8.42 0.03 Trend Forecasting After the bifurcation of data into decades, fifteen years and entire period, it was analyzed for trend forecasting. The Time Series Modeler procedure in SPSS estimates ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) model for mean annual rainfall forecast. The procedure includes an Expert Modeler that automatically identifies and estimates the best-fitting or exponential smoothing model for one or more dependent variable series. Figure (4A) forecasts a downward trend for mean annual rainfall in the real time series with included drought period of 1998-2000. But this downward trend of rainfall is just a seasonal fluctuation or variability and not a trend of average pattern change as shown in Figure (4B). This is also in line with studies by Awan, (2002) and Chaudhry, (2001, 2002) wherein they have shown that Pakistan has experienced several droughts in the past, of which the most severe one occurred in 1998-2002. Furthermore the trend generated by the software through observational data (Figure 4B) projects Whole Study Area 95% CI for Mean N F Sig. Mean Std. Dev Std. Error Upper Lower Min Max Mean Rainfall 30 3.65 0.04 48.99 7.57 1.38 46.16 51.82 32.85 63.90
- 507. Issue 17 Salma,S., S. Rehman, M. A. Shah 45 an upward trend upto 50mm till 2030 with excluded drought period from the real time series. The upper critical limit is about 64.47mm and lower critical limit is 35.51mm. Figure 4: Trend Forecasting of 30 years of mean rainfall data of the whole country with included drought period from 1998-2001 (A) to (B) with excluded drought period from 1998-2001 Discussion The analysis of rainfall data shows that zone A (mean 66.64 mm and median, 57.22 mm) and zone B (mean 66.99 mm and median 57.05 mm) show higher standard error (2.7mm). In the ANOVA test for decadal analysis, zone C and zone E were found most significant (p<0.05) and zone A slightly significant, with probability approximately 85%. The station-wise analysis suggests that Chitral was found significantly higher with mean difference of 11.23mm in the two 15-year periods while rest of the stations were observed with a increasing trend in the range of 1 to 6 mm but with no significance value (p>0.05) except for Chilas (p=0.09>0.05) with approximately 90% of probability. Quetta (-13.77 mm) and Karachi (-14.72 mm) are observed with significantly lower mean value and Jacobabad (-12.2 mm) slightly significant mean value in the second half period. Similarly Dir, Gilgit, Kakul, Muzaffarabad, Islamabad, Lahore, Kalat, Khuzdar, Bahawalpure, Khanpur, Hyderabad, Jewani, and Nawabshah have shown decrease in the average rainfall with non-significant trend. But in the decadal analysis Dir, Muzaffarabad, Skardu, and Said-u-Sharif were observed with a significant trend (p<0.05). The overall mean difference in the average rainfall for each individual station and for the country shows a decrease in from 1976-90 to the 1991-2005 periods. Zone E was found most significant in comparison between the two time series (p<0.05) with a negative change in mean rainfall (-0.97 mm) followed by zone C with slightly higher p-value approximately (p=0.1). It is also clear that zone A, zone C and zone E situated in different regions of the country showed an overall positive trend while plain areas and southwest of the country have been recorded with no significant trend during the last two decades. The negative difference observed in rainfall data for the whole country is (-3.55 mm) between the two 15- year intervals, which works out to -1.18 mm per decade. This observational decrease in rainfall data is supported by the published data in IPCC (2001) report, which talks about 0.3% average decrease in rainfall per decade for the subtropical land areas as opposed to tropical lands with 0.3% increase per decade. Similarly most parts of Europe and East Asia are observed with a positive trend in the annual maximum consecutive days having rainfall below 1.0 mm and a negative trend in the number of rainy days during 1950-1995 period (Kiktev et al, 2003). The results of Kiktev et al (2003) were found relevant with the research conducted on the Mediterranean areas by Trigo et al (2000) and Alpert et al (2002) during the period 1951-1995. Their research works, in the Mediterranean areas, indicate a larger frequency of drought periods, with associated impacts on agriculture, water resources and socio-economic (A) (B)
- 508. Rainfall Trends inDifferent Climate Zones of Pakistan Vol. 9 46 activities. Decreasing trends in annual mean rainfall are observed in Russia, North-East and North China, coastal belts and most parts of North-East India, Indonesia, Philippines and some areas in Japan. Annual mean rainfall exhibits increasing trends in Western China, South-Eastern coast of China, Arabian Peninsula, Bangladesh and along the western coasts of the Philippines (IPCC, 2007). Liu et al (2005) analyzed heavy precipitation events in China over the period 1960-2000. They found that the increased frequency of heavy precipitation events in China contributed 95% of the total increase of precipitation and only 2% increase in total precipitation was observed over that time period. Otherwise total rainy days trend was observed negative. For India, Roy and Balling (2004), found about two thirds of increasing trend for precipitation extremes during all the study period from 1910–2000 and also observed some regions with significant anomalies all over India. Conclusions From the above discussion it is concluded that rainfall data show a significant decreasing trend all over the country. The declining trend is due to relatively drier period from 1998 to 2001 in which Pakistan has faced severe drought, mainly in the southern and central parts of the country. Therefore, Autoregressive Integrated Moving Averages (ARIMA) model used for rainfall analysis predicts downward moving trend (2006-2030). But with excluding drier period from the real time series, it showed upward moving trend upto 50mm till 2030 in the mean rainfall trend for the whole study area. The overall considerable difference in the average rainfall for each individual station and for the country is observed with a decreasing trend in 1991-2005 as compared to 1976-1990 periods. The whole study area trend in two time series for zone E was found most significant (p<0.05) with change in the mean rainfall almost (-0.97mm) followed by zone C with a slightly higher p-value approximately (p=0.1). The analysis makes it clear that zone A, zone C and zone E situated in different regions of the country mainly from North, Northwest, West and Coastal areas respectively showed an overall significant decreasing trend. Plain Areas and Southwest of the country have experienced no significant trend during the last two decades. . Furthermore, the trend observed in rainfall data for the whole country is (-3.55mm) in two time intervals and per decade it became (-1.18mm) which are found in consistent with the IPCC (2001) report. From the present study it is concluded that change in the rainfall pattern and prolonged droughts will pose severe risks to agriculture and water management sectors. Therefore, the present study will be useful to detect the changes in the rainfall pattern as a baseline data for future research work in fields of hydrology, agriculture and disaster risk management. References Alpert, P., Ben-Gai, T., Baharad, A., Benjamini, Y., Yekutieli, D., Colacino, M., Diodato, L., Ramis, C., Homar, V., Romero, R., Michaelides, S., and Manes, A., 2002; The paradoxical increase of Mediterranean extreme daily rainfall in spite of decrease in total values. Journal of Geophysical Research Letters, 29, DOI: 10.1029/2001GL013 554. Awan, S.A., 2002; The Climate and Flood Northern Areas of Pakistan, Risk Potential of Commission on Science and Technology for Sustainable Development in the South. (http://www.comsats.org.pk/ main_introduction.htm). Chaudhry, Q. Z., 2001; History’s Worst Drought Hit Pakistan. Farming Outlook. Soil, Agriculture, Fertilizer and Environment (SAFE) Foundation, Pakistan. Chaudhry, Q. Z., 2002; Drought Monitoring and Early Warning System. Proceedings of the SAARC Workshop on Drought and Water Management Strategies (September 16-18, 2002 Lahore-Pakistan). Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad, Pakistan. Chaudhary, Q. Z. 1994; Pakistan summer monsoon rainfall’s association with global and regional circulation features and its seasonal prediction. Proceeding of International Conference on Monsoon Variability and Prediction, Triest, Italy, May 9-13, 136-145.
- 509. Issue 17 Salma,S., S. Rehman, M. A. Shah 47 FAO, 1987; Pakistan’s Experience in Rangeland Rehabilitation and Improvement, Food and Agriculture Organization of the UNO, 70. Hussain, A., Zulqarnain, M., and Hussain, J., 2010; Catastrophes in the South Punjab Due to Climate Change and the Role of PIDEANS IPCC, 2001; Climate change. The IPCC 3rd assessment report. The scientific basis, Houghton, J.T., Ding, Y., Griggs, D., Noguet, M., van der Linden, P., Dai, X., Maskell, K., Johnson, C.A. (eds). Cambridge: Cambridge, University Press. IPPC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007. Kazi, S. A. and Khan, M. L., 1951; Variability of rainfall and its bearing on agriculture in the arid and semi-arid zones of West Pakistan. Pakistan Geographical Review, Vol: 6(1), pp. 40-63. Khan, F. K., 2002; Pakistan Geography, Economy and People, Oxford University Press, Karachi. Khan, J. A., 1993; The Climate of Pakistan, Rehber Publishers, Karachi. Kiktev, D., Sexton, D. M. H., Alexander, L., and Folland, C. K., 2003; Comparison of modeled and observed trends in indices of daily climate extremes. Journal of Climate, Vol: 16, pp. 3560–3571. Kureshy, K. U., 1998; Geography of Pakistan, National Book Service Lahore, Pakistan Liu, W.T., and X. Xie and W.Tang, 2005; Proceedings of the international symposium in cloud- prone and rainy areas remote sensing (CARRS). Chinese University of Hong Kong Luo, Q. and Lin, E., 1999; Agricultural vulnerability and adaptation in developing countries: the Asia- Pacific region, Climatic Change, 43, 729-743. Oxfam Report on Climate Change, 2011; Six months into the floods resetting Pakistan’s priorities through reconstruction. 144 Oxfam Briefing Paper Rodo, X., 2003; Global Climate Current Research and Uncertainties in the Climate System. University of Barcelona Climate Research Group Baldiri Rexac, 4-6 , Torre D 08032 Barcelona Spain, 3-6. Roy, S. S., and R. C. Balling, 2004; Trends in extreme daily rainfall indices in India. International Journal of Climatology, Vol: 24, pp. 457– 466. Shah, S.M. 2008; Impact of climate change on minimum temperature trends of Pakistan. Ms Thesis report, Liverpool. Singh, N, and Sontakke, N. A. 1996; Climate variability over Pakistan and its relationship to variation over the India region. In: Climate Variability and Agriculture, eds: Y. P. Abrol, S. Gadgil sand G. B. Pant, Narosa publishing house, New Dehli, 69-97. TFCC, 2010; Climate change in Pakistan: TFCC (Task Force for Climate Change) recommends various adaptations, mitigation measures. Trigo, I. F., Davies, T. D., and Bigg, G. R., 2000; Decline in Mediterranean rainfall caused by weakening of Mediterranean cyclones. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol: 27, pp. 2913–2916.
- 510. TufailAli Zubedi Environmental Consultant Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com BriefIntroduction to Solid Waste and its Management
- 511. Introduction Human activitiesgenerate waste materials that are discarded because these are considered useless for them for any further use. MunicipalWaste v.s IndustrialWaste
- 512. Solid Waste Municipalsolid waste (MSW) is commonly known as trash or garbage. It comprises everyday items, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, batteries, and other consumer-related product forms. household hazardous waste (HHW) contain hazardous chemicals such as paint, solvent-based cleaners, oils, batteries, and pesticides.
- 513. Sources Residential Commercial Institutional Construction Municipal services Treatment plant sites Industrial waste Agricultural waste
- 515. Waste Characterization Characterizethe types and quantities of material disposed, Provide baseline data for municipalities Used to measure progress toward specific waste management goals. Projections of size and composition of the future MSW helps Environmental Engineers planWaste Management systems
- 516. Waste characterization studiesinclude An approach to sample collection that ensures representative sampling Four-season sorts of at least one week each Multiple waste categories (e.g., about 25), with added detail on recyclables Waste quantities by generation source An estimation of the heat value of waste ifWTE is being considered A survey of businesses, haulers, and brokers to quantify commercial recycling activities and disposal practices
- 517.
- 518. Solid waste Management Solid waste Management is a complex process of management solid waste associated with control of its generation, handling, storage, collection, transportation, processing and disposal Integrated waste management: selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies, and management programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals
- 520. Solid Waste Collection The specific issues to be addressed: 1. Logistics (collection, haulage, transfer) 2. Types of waste collection (separated/un-) 3. Types of collection systems, equipment, 4. Collection rules / routes 5. Management of collection vendors
- 523. Systems for collectionof solid waste
- 524. Systems for collectionof solid waste
- 525. Systems for collectionof solid waste
- 526.
- 528. Management of CollectionVendors Public Entity Private Entity
- 529. Solid waste managementoptions / strategies 1. Source reduction 2. Recycle, Reuse, Recover 3. WasteTransformation 1. Composting 2. Combustion (waste to energy) 4. Landfills (Dr. Mubashir’s Presentation)
- 530. Source Reduction Focuseson reducing the volume and/or toxicity of generated waste. Includes the switch to reuseable products and packaging Examples:??? Alternatively called: waste minimization, waste-to-energy, and Resource recovery and reuse or recycling. Pollution Prevention or P2 designing for the environment Dfe
- 531. HIERARCHY OF WASTEMANAGEMENT Prevention -This strategy prevents wastes from ever being formed in the first place. Recycling~Resource Recovery~Waste-to-Energy (R3WE) – Recycling and reuse of materials, the recovery of certain wastes for reuse (known as resource recovery),and the conversion of certain types of waste into useful energy such as heat, electricity, and hot water [ strategies which recover and offset costs for overall waste management.]
- 532. Treatment – strategies to reducing volumes and/or toxicity. Treatment technologies are processes that focus on stabilization of wastes, reducing toxicity, reducing volume before ultimate disposal, or in some cases creating by-products. Disposal-
- 533. Pollution and WasteManagement Strategies Hierarchy of Pollution andWaste Management Strategies
- 534. Figure illustratesthe hierarchy in a graphical format by comparing the relative risks and costs associated with each strategy. Strategies that reduce or eliminate wastes before they are even created are preferable to those that incur ongoing expenses for treating and disposing of wastes that are generated continuously because long-term risks and costs are lower.
- 535. Some companieshave begun applying principles of designing for the environment, whereby new products entering the marketplace are more environmentally friendly and generate less solid waste, are biodegradable, or can be readily recycled. This approach is based on life-cycle principles,
- 536. Behavioral Changes forPollution Prevention At the municipal level, pollution prevention requires major changes in consumer patterns and lifestyles. The general public has not received widespread education on preventive techniques, nor are there many choices in selecting more environmentally friendly consumer products. Behavioral Changes HO: Behavioral changes-citizens_guide_eng_final HO: behaviour change campaign - KeystoSuccess2 HO: HO A Study of industry motivation for pollution prevention
- 537. Green Technologies Agreen technology is an environmentally friendly, but may carry a high investment. Example, the investment in converting from a coal-fired electricity generating plant to natural gas High investment; simple payback high; cost to benfits ratio not good => not feasible ?? ISTHISTHE CASE?
- 538. Consumer Strategies forSource Reduction Strategy Examples Avoid unnecessary packaging. Choose items with least or no packaging. Purchase economy size, bulk, or concentrates. Adopt practices that reduce waste toxicity Use alternative cleaners that do not have hazardous compounds. . Use integrated pest management instead of pesticides. Choose batteries with reduced mercury. Use digital thermometers instead of mercury. Use household hazardous waste collection. Use nontoxic inks, dyes, and paints. Consider reusable products . Reusable cups, dishware, and utensils. Cloth napkins and towels instead of paper. Rechargeable batteries. Refillable detergents.
- 539. Consumer Strategies forSource Reduction Strategy Examples Maintain and repair durable products Choose long-lasting and efficient appliances and electronic equipment. . Follow proper maintenance schedule. Long-lasting tires. Mend and repair clothes, footwear, and bags. Long life fluorescent light bulbs. Reuse bags, containers, and other items. Reuse paper, plastic, and cloth bags. Reuse scrap paper and envelopes. Wash and reuse cans, jugs, and containers. Save scrap wood for projects. Borrow, rent, or share items. Rent or borrow party supplies, tools, appliances and electronic equipment, floor and rug cleaners, ladders, etc. Offer before discarding items such as cameras, tools. Share newspapers and magazines.
- 540. Consumer Strategies forSource Reduction Strategy Examples Sell or donate goods instead of throwing them out. Donate clothes, textiles, appliances, and furniture to thrift stores and charity. Sell at garage sales. Compost yard trimmings and food scraps Backyard composting. . Worm composting. Xeriscaping. Source: Adapted from U.S EPA (1996).
- 541. Waste Transformation Composting Combustion (waste to energy)
- 542. Composting Composting isreceiving increased attention as a means of solid waste (municipal solid waste, biosolids, yard trimmings, food industry wastes etc.) disposal. Composting is basically an aerobic process (i.e., it requires oxygen), Although anaerobic (without oxygen) activity also may occur to a significant extent. the heat produced in composting results from the biodegradation of organic materials with consumption of oxygen Produces carbon dioxide and water.
- 543. Factors effecting Composting Temperature (>20°C to <60°C ), Oxygen, Water, Nutrients, Remaining concentration of easily biodegradable organic materials.
- 544. Advantages Cost-effective Environmentallyfriendly Low space requirement than landfill
- 545. Types of Composting Householdlevel composting: Industrial scale composting: Composting toilet, Container composting, Vermicomposting Ecuador composting method German mound Sheet composting Trench composting Aerated Static Pile Composting, Vermicomposting, Windrow composting High fibre composting In-vessel composting Mechanical biological treatment Tunnel composting
- 546. Windrow Composting windrowcomposting is the production of compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal manure and crop residues, in long rows (windrows).
- 547. Vermicomposting Vermicompost isthe product or process of composting through the utilization of various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms, to create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste (excluding meat, dairy, fats, or oils), bedding materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end- product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of earthworm
- 548. Hügelkultur (raised gardenbeds or mounds) The practice of making raised garden beds or mounds filled with rotting wood is also called "Hügelkultur" in German. It is in effect creating a Nurse log, however, covered with dirt. Buried wood becomes like a sponge as it decomposes, able to capture water and store it for later use by crops planted on top of the hügelkultur bed. The buried decomposing wood will also give off heat for several years
- 549.
- 550. Black soldier flylarvae composting Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae have been shown to be able to rapidly consume large amounts of organic waste when kept at 31.8°C, the optimum temperature for reproduction.
- 551. Cockroach composting Inthis case the adults of any number of cockroach species (such as theTurkestan cockroach or Blaptica dubia) are used to quickly convert manure or kitchen waste to nutrient dense compost. Depending on species used and environmental conditions, excess composting insects can be used as an excellent animal feed for farm animals.
- 553. Bokashi Bokashi isa method that uses a mix of microorganisms to cover food waste to decrease smell. It derives from the practice of Japanese farmers centuries ago of covering food waste with rich, local soil that contained the microorganisms that would ferment the waste.After a few weeks, they would bury the waste.
- 555. Aerated static pilecomposting Aerated Static Pile (ASP) composting, refers to any of a number of systems used to biodegrade organic material without physical manipulation during primary composting. The blended admixture is usually placed on perforated piping, providing air circulation for controlled aeration . It may be in windrows, open or covered, or in closed containers.
- 557. Karachi Solid WasteManagement Study, Update and email. Entire Class single submission
- 558. Lahore Composting Facility The Danish Carbon Fund's (DCF) Lahore Composting Facility project is the first of its kind in Pakistan. This project is the first public-private partnership project in Pakistan on a large scale in the area of Municipal SolidWaste Management (MSW). It was set up at Mehmood Booti under an agreement with the City District Government of Lahore (CDGL). The project is expected to generate over 310,000 tons of CO2e by 2018.
- 559. Landfill Safe andreliable disposal of Municipal SolidWaste Ocean dumping Landfill: the physical facilities used for the disposal of solid wastes and SW residuals in the surface of soils of the earth. Sanitary Landfill refers to an engineered facility for the disposal of MSW designed and operated to minimize public health and environmental impacts
- 565.
- 568.
- 569. Handouts Assignmentvia email by Oct 09, 2015: examples of RRR, 5 Landfill site of Karachi,.
- 572. Karachi Solid WasteManagement September 2006 Karachi Master Plan 2020
- 573. EXISTING SOLID WAS TEGENERATION AND STRENGHT IN KARACHI Total Garbage (Town wise) 6858.00 tons/day Estimated Garbage 2005 9009.43 tons/day CDGK 80% Area (only 40% capacity) DHA, CD, SITE. 20% Area Vehicles 567 Cost of Disposal at Landfill Rs. 92.00 per ton Cost of Collection and Transportation Rs. 294.00 per ton Community Bin 4085 nos Manpower 4170 Available information regarding manpower and Distbins (Table-1) S.No. TOWNS MANPOWER NUMBER OF DUSTBINS 1. Kaemari 449 76 2. SITE - 200 3. Baldia 292 586 4. Orangi 51 187 5. Lyari 173 210 6. Saddar 155 108 7. Jamshed 866 230 8. Gulshan-e-Iqbal - - 9. Shah Faisal 9 - 10. Landhi 89 - 11. Korangi - - 12. North Nazimabad 194 - 13. New Karachi 470 874 14. Gulberg 25 24 15. Liaquatabad 110 - 16. Malir 44 - 17. Bin Qasim 11 - 18. Gadap 272 - TOTAL 4170 4085
- 574. GARBAGE GENERATION PART I:EXISTING SITUATION COMPOSITION OF WASTE The types of wastes or garbage generated are: household, commercial, institutional and street sweepings. Sanitary workers sweep streets and provide a primary waste collection service. Major markets where organic waste is generated are: Vegetable market: 100 tones per day (TPD) and Empress market: 70 TPD High-income localities generate garbage: Organic Waste: 60% Garden Waste: 12% Recyclable 8% Low-income localities generate garbage: Garden Waste: maximum 5% Organic Waste: 40% The composition of garbage generated in Karachi is given in the Table 1 below. Recyclable: 15% Table 1: Composition of garbage generated in Karachi. Components of solid waste % Total Quantity Tons/day Recoverable Tons/day Rate Rs / Ton Amount Rs (mil) / day Amount Rs mil/yr Paper Metal Plastic Bone Glass Textile Bio Waste Others 6.00 0.30 6.00 2.00 0.70 6.50 30.00 50.00 480 24 450 160 56 360 2400 4040 240 12 240 100 28 0 0 0 2000 24000 15000 6000 1000 0 0 0 0.48 0.288 3.60 0.60 0.028 0 0 0 175.2 105.12 1314.00 219.00 10.22 0 0 0 Total 99.50 8000 520 11000 4996 1823.5 In addition to the above-mentioned amount, another few millions can be added from the sale of bones, leather, rubber, etc and composing of Bio-waste Generation rate – per person
- 575. According to surveycarried out in 1005: Waste generation rate: 300 grams/person/day At another place the rate is given as: 0.5 kg / capita / day It is also given that garbage generation ranges from 0.2 to 18 kg / capita / day in various Town Municipalities (TMAs). This variation in generation rates data poses an anomalous situation. Also given is: 300 grams in document Another approach is to have garbage generation rate per capita as: Generation rate, g/person/day for: (1) Average and (2) low-mid-high income groups Then population has to be found for: (1) low-mid-high income groups and (2) total population Population Data The population data of Karachi is as given in Table 2 below. Also population figures from various sources are given. 1 14 million 2 15.12 million ECIL, KMP team, 2006 3 15 million Jawed K, 2005 Population 14 million Annual Population growth rate 4.5 % Table 2 tentative Population Projections of Towns of Karachi – Scenario – B (Provincial) S.No. Towns Population in 1998 Unaccounted/ Adjusted (7%) Adjusted Population of 1998 Population Projection for 2005 at 5.00% AAGR. 1 Keamari 384,378 26,906 411,284 583,640 2 SITE 467,560 32,729 500,289 709,944 3 Baldia 406,165 28,432 434,597 616,722 4 Orangi 723,694 50,659 774,353 1,098,859 5 Lyari 607,992 42,559 650,551 923,176 6 Saddar 607,992 43,131 659,282 935,565 7 Jamshed 733,821 51,367 785,188 1,114,235 8 Gulshan-e-Iqbal 625,230 43,766 668,996 949,351 9 Shah Faisal 355,823 23,508 359,331 509,914 10 Landhi 666,748 46,672 713,420 1,012,392 11 Korangi 546,504 38,255 584,759 829,813 12 North Nazimabad 496,194 34,734 530,928 753,422 13 North Karachi 684,183 47,893 732,076 1,038,865 14 Gulberg 453,490 31,744 485,234 688,580 15 Liaquatabad 649,091 45,436 694,527 985,581 16 Malir 398,289 27,880 426,169 604,763 17 Bin Qasim 316,684 22,168 338,852 480,854
- 576. 18 Gadap 289,56420,269 309,833 439,675 19 Cantonment 306,165 21,432 427,597 464,882 20 Defence 250,000 17,500 267,500 379,601 TOTAL (IN MILLION) 9.96 0.70 10.65 15.12 Garbage generation rate – tons/day and tons/year Total household waste generated: 4500 TPD Total City waste generated: 7259 TPD Total city lifting capacity: 1880 TPD/450 vehicle/ 3 trips Amount of Sold Waste Generated, (Present) 9000 tons/day Number of Towns 18 Number of UCs 178 Average Solid Waste Generation / Town 400 tons/day Average Sold Waste Generation / UC 40 tons / day Solid Waste generation excluding industrial and Biological SW Based on 6113 TPD 6113 TPD Generated / lifted SW Generated = 6113 TPD 6113 / 5057 TPD SW lifted = 5157 TPD 8000 TPD City Household Waste = 4500 TPD 7250 TPD 2.70 TPD Table-3: Solid waste generation in Karachi – 2006 at household level S. No. Town Garbage Generation per day in Tons Actual Lifting per day / ton Backlog per day 1 Keamari 220 180 40 2 SITE 167 153 14 3 Baldia 400 302 99 4 Orangi 346 240 106 5 Lyari 350 300 50 6 Saddar 500 454 46 7 Jamshed 330 525 78 8 Gulshan-e-Iqbal 400 318 82 9 Shah Faisal 105 105 - 10 Landhi 370 324 46 11 Korangi 360 272 88 12 North Nazimabad 375 336 39 13 North Karachi 365 280 85 14 Gulberg 330 330 0 15 Liaquatabad 800 594 206 16 Malir 280 270 10 17 Bin Qasim 65 27 38 18 Gadap 350 320 30 TOTAL 6113 5057 1057
- 577. Source: SWM CDGK Wastesource-reduction and segregation No information is available on this subject. It is unlikely that this activity is done here as a normal practice by wide section of the population in Karachi. There are three types of wastes: domestic, industrial and Hospital commercial Garden wastes. Waste primarily falls into two categories: hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste (for municipal solid waste – MSW). Waste that does not fall into these two categories is called special or other waste. The Waste Hierarchy Waste hierarchy means classification, according to the facet of ‘desirability’, of waste management strategies. The strategies could be to reduce waste or to reuse recovery waste or inaheration to recycle waste, the ‘3 Rs’ of waste management. Another recent strategy is to ‘Re-think’ or review the present system for an improved system. Whatever the classification, the main and sole object of waste management is to treat and dispose waste completely or minimize if from the environment, to safeguard the health of the community. Concurrently, the supplementary object is to extract maximum benefits from the waste by turning it in to a useful product. COMPOSITION OF WASTE In future, there will be increasing quantities of plastic, non-disposal waste and toxic waste in our households, which will require new and much more expensive ways of disposal. Waste generation industries, i.e. industries that make non-degradable products are a problem of SWM. Waste type-quality: Use of urban waste could decline due to the contamination in it, particularly of plastics. Research to be conducted on the quality of waste as soil amendment, generation and on recovery and treatment of solid waste. Take the case of UK. The composition of house waste (8% of total) is given in the figure below, which shows: Kitchen waste 17%, garden waste 21%, paper waste 18%, i.e., 56% of total. Types of wastes The various types of wastes, which are generated, are: ‘Municipal waste’ includes: household waste, street litter, municipal parks and gardens waste, offices waste and some commercial and industrial wastes. The originators, to separate ‘ recyclable or compositing’ wastes, sometimes sort out municipal waste. The remaining waste, called ‘residual waste’, is collected in special containers, provided by the local authority.
- 578. Table – Householdwaste S.No. Type of waste Percent 1 Kitchen waste 17% 2 Soil and other organics 3% 3 Fines 3% 4 Paper and board 18% 5 Dense plastic 4% 6 Plastic film 3% 7 Textiles 3% 8 Glass 7% 9 Wood 5% 10 Nappies 2% 11 Misc. non-combustibles 5% 12 Metal packaging 3% 13 Scrap metal /white goods 5% 14 Garden waste 21% 15 Other combusibles 1%
- 579. B. Population The populationprojections are as follows: EXISTING AND TENTATIVE POPULATION PROJECTION FOR THE TOWNS OF KARACHI FOR THE YEAR 2005, 2010, 2015 & 2020 (SCENARIO – D) Declining Average Annual Growth Rate from 5.0% to 3.5% (Table-4) S.No. Towns Population Projection for 2005 at 5.00% AAGR. Population Projection for 2010 at 4.5% AAGR. Population Projection for 2015 at 4.5% AAGR. Population Projection for 2020 at 3.50% AAGR 1 Keamari 583,640 730,905 892,730 1,063,461 2 SITE 709,944 889,079 1,085,923 1,293,602 3 Baldia 616,722 772,336 943,333 1,123,742 4 Orangi 1,098,859 1,376,126 1,680,805 2,002,252 5 Lyari 923,176 1,156,114 1,412,081 1,682,136 6 Saddar 935,565 1,171,630 1,431,032 1,704,712 7 Jamshed 1,114,235 1,395,382 1,704,323 2,030,268 8 Gulshan-e-Iqbal 949,351 1,188,893 1,452,117 1,729,829 9 Shah Faisal 509,914 638,578 779,961 929,126 10 Landhi 1,012,392 1,267,840 1,548,544 1,844,697 11 Korangi 829,813 1,039,193 1,269,273 1,512,017 12 North Nazimabad 753,422 943,528 1,152,428 1,372,826 13 North Karachi 1,038,865 1,300,995 1,589,038 1,892,936 14 Gulberg 688,580 862,324 1,053,245 1,254,674 15 Liaquatabad 985,581 1,234,265 1,507,535 1,795,845 16 Malir 604,763 757,358 925,039 1,101,949 17 Bin Qasim 480,854 602,184 735,509 876,173 18 Gadap 439,675 550,614 672,521 801,138 19 Cantonment 464,882 582,183 711,079 847,071 20 Defence 379,601 475,382 580,633 691,766 TOTAL (IN MILLION) 15.12 18.93 23.13 27.55 C. Waste generation rates GPD/person, TPD/zone & TPY/zone Waste type – Quantity: Waste generation is related with consumption and consumption is related with income. Rural consumers consume less so lesser waste is generated than urban consumers. Composition of solid waste and generation is shown in this report. Solid Waste generation is calculated on the basis of population projection. 1. Declining Average Annual growth rate scenario – D
- 580. 2. Estimate grosspopulation capacity 3. combination of annual growth rate and gross population capacity for the new towns. Amount of waste Solid Waste Management and Disposal has been design on the basis of population projection option – II AS shown in this report however the calculation are shown of all the three options for comparison purpose. In advance countries the amount of waste generated is enormous. We cannot emulate them because of our backwardness. But, it is useful to know a bit about how their waste is dealt with. We could try to establish basic systems, as in advance countries, for our future generations to come. Take the case of UK. ‘It is estimated that nearly 36 million tones / yr of municipal waste was generated in the UK in 2002/03. A total of 30 million tones/yr of this waste was collected from households. That’s about 500 kg/yr or half a tonne of household waste per person! (2003)’. It is important to note that in Karachi 200 kg per year of solid waste can not be dealt.
- 581. Garbage collection PART I EXISTINGSITUATION The population of Karachi is 15.15 million in 2005 and it has an area of 425,529 acres. The number of agencies involved with solid waste management (SWM) are a total of 210, the break up being as follows: Town Municipal Administration (TMA): 18 Union Councils (UCs): 178 City District Government Karachi (CDGK): 1 Cantonment Boards: 11 Karachi Port Trust: 1 Pakistan Steel Mills: 1 Port Qasim: 1 Sindh Industrial Trading Estate: 1 Export Processing Zone: 1 A. Garbage collection services In Karachi, in 18 towns, 2006: (refer Table 2) estimated garbage collected: 5057 TPD (tons per day) estimated garbage not collected: 1057 TPD Annual Expenditure Rs 800 million Lifting Capacity 50% In each Town and UC, B. Garbage collection – primary collection One stage collection Primary stage collection of garbage is from house hold to dust bin sites, (‘kachra kundi’). This is done in the following ways:
- 582. Garbage is collectedin stages, which ultimately lead to its collection at one point for a fixed zone. From this point, garbage is disposed to landfill sites. But this may not be case for all cities. For instance, in Karachi, the garbage collection system is as follows: Stage 1: From house → resident travels to dispose garbage → to dust bins Stage 2: From dust bins → municipality vehicles dispose of garbage → to landfill sites OR → to unofficial dumping ground (Primary transportation, 2-3 trips a day, long trips) This is the most uneconomical way of SWM because the distance to landfill site is long and several vehicles have to make this long trips several times a day. Considering the large amount of waste and the cost of fuel and O&M, not all waste is disposed of. Table 2: Details of garbage collection The following problems arise in Karachi in primary collection: Poor attendance of sanitary workers. Gradual decrease in number of dust bins, as a large number of garbage containers (Katchra Kundi) are in the workshop for repairs. Haphazard accumulation of garbage on streets, in open spaces and in drains. Primary stage collection, from house hold to dust bin sites, involves the following problems: It may be mentioned that the uncollected waste usually finds it way in sewers, is eaten by the cattle, or left to rot in the open, or burnt on roadsides. These are harmful practices. Two stage collection Garbage collection-record Garbage collection equipment Vehicles 550 Garbage collection manpower Staff 15188 Poor attendance of sanitary workers. Privatized transport system Benefits of privatization: Regarding a successful contract in Shah Faisal Town, the contractor has performed well and lifted 100% garbage. He used less than 50% of TMA’s garbage vehicles, which were rented to him. He ensured a minimum of three trips daily by each vehicle
- 583. to the landfill.There was no intervention of labor unions. Prompt redresses of public complaints were undertaken. Short Comings: The tonnage rate of Rs 269 /ton is on the higher side as compared to some of the other TMAs. The contractor dumped garbage at undesignated and un-monitored landfill sites. TMA, Gulshan-e-Iqbal awarded a contract in 2006 for transportation of garbage from a temporary garbage transfer station to landfill site. This contract is still in force.
- 584. HOSPITAL WASTE MANAGEMENT Forhospitals: Generation rate is : 3 to 4 kg/bed/day in document. 900 beds at one place it is given 900. At another place, total beds = 4367 in 143 hospitals and 1094 HCUs = 1237. Which is correct? Needs investigation. Hospital waste: The handling of hospital waste, or ‘Bio-Medical Waste;, has assumed importance because of spreading such dangerous disease as AIDS. On way to manage this important issue is to make the hospital personnel aware of the dangers and the need for seriously taking the management of this waste for safe handling and disposal. Internet could be used very effectively for this purpose. A web site could be established to disseminate information for the doctors and hospital staff to read it at any time at their convenience. 2. HOSPITAL WASTE Ref. CDGK SWM Expert, “Presentation on Karachi’s solid waste system”, 2006. Total no. of hospitals in Karachi 200 Total no. of beds 900 Waste generation rate of hospital 3-4 kg/bed/day Approximately generation of hospital waste 2700 kg/day Hazardous waste component 540 kg/day Non hazardous waste component 2160 kg/day Health care units (HCU) identified by TMAs 1379 The table-1 below gives the details of HCUs. Only 140 HCU dispose off their waste through incineration plants run by City Government (CG). The remaining HCU dispose off their waste along with the municipal waste. This poses a health hazard. The reasons of health hazards are –a- Non-registration of HCUs either with Health Department Government of Sindh or with City Govt. and –b- Non-presence of Environment Protection Agency of Sindh at grassroot level. Incinerators The CD installed two incineration plants at Mewa Shah in 1996. Each has a capacity of 1000 kg/hour. Incineration take place at 800 ˚C in 10 minutes. At present 140 hospitals/clinics are incinerating their waste through these incinerators.
- 585. A contractor, M/sAbaseen International, operates both the plants for 2 years. Their responsibilities include collection of waste from hospital and clinics, transport and incinerate the waste, operate and maintain the plants. They are running only at 12- 15% capacity due to non-registration of all HCUs. Service charges for incineration and transportation are collected from registered HCUs and deposited in the CG account. Services charges component of 22.2% is retained by CG and the balance is paid to the contractor. The table-2 below gives the services charges rates. Table-1: HCU details in Karachi Towns – 2006 S.No. Towns No. of HCU (3) No. of Hospitals (4) No. of Beds Total 3&4 1 Keamari 184 27 0 211 3 Baldia 0 4 0 4 4 Orangi 211 9 167 220 7 Jamshed 256 26 564 282 10 Landhi 14 0 10 14 11 Korangi 71 10 540 81 13 North Karachi 54 15 260 69 14 Gulberg 66 20 507 86 15 Liaquatabad 10 4 850 14 16 Malir 110 17 502 127 17 Bin Qasim 39 01 50 40 18 Gadap 79 10 917 89 TOTAL 1094 143 4367 1237 Not listed: 2-Site, 5-Lyari, 6-Saddar, 8-Gulshan, 9-Shah Faisal, 12-N.Nazimabad
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- 599. The Citizens’ Guideto Pollution Prevention PP22 A PROJECT OF THE
- 600. Acknowledgements The publication ofthis Guide was made possible through the financial support of the National Office of Pollution Prevention of Environment Canada. A great number of people contributed expertise, advice and comments to the Guide. The Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy (CIELAP) thanks the Canadian Centre for Pollution Prevention (C2P2) for their research and writing team: Kady Cowan,Tania Del Matto, Deb Foster, and ChrisWolnik.Thanks also go to Josephine Archbold for writing the introduction to this Guide. And thanks to the members of CIELAP who contributed variously to this Guide: Alison Chafe, Susan Holtz, Anne Mitchell, Iana Nikolova and Jolanta Rasteniene. CIELAP would like to thank the reviewers: Heather Birchard and Lynne Robinson-Lewis from the National Office of Pollution Prevention of Environment Canada; Ray Côté, Professor of Environmental Studies and Director, Eco-Efficiency Centre, Dalhousie University; and Elise Houghton, Environmental Education Ontario. For more information concerning this publication contact: Anne Mitchell, Executive Director Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy 130 Spadina Avenue, Suite 305 Toronto, ON M5V 2L4 info@cielap.org ISBN# 1-896588-51-4 © Canadian Institute for Environmental Law and Policy, 2005 CIELAP is an independent, not-for-profit environmental law and policy research and education organization, founded in 1970 as the Canadian Environmental Law Research Foundation. Our mission is to provide leadership in the research and development of environmental law and policy that promotes the public interest and sustainability.
- 601. Part I: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Part II: What is Pollution Prevention (P2)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Part III: How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Part IV: Pollution and You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Part V: Conclusions and Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Part VI: Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Contents
- 602. Part I: Introduction 4THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 "You must be the change you wish to see in the world." — Mohandis K. Ghandi The Purpose of this Guide With the forty-year anniversary of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring, we are reminded that individuals can have a formidable impact on pollution prevention. The last four decades have seen many pollution prevention success stories, resulting in the reduction of several toxic pollutants in the environment (e.g., persistent organic pollutants like DDT and PCBs). We believe that Canadians can learn from and build on these successes. The purpose of this guide is to harness the citizens’ ability to prevent pollution. Citizens can prevent pollution through individual actions, consumer behaviour, and by applying pressure on industrial and commercial operations, and institutions (e.g., our governments) to practice the principles of pollution prevention (P2). The Citizens’Guide to Pollution Prevention is designed to give citizens (you!) the knowledge to start realizing your P2 goals. And if you are already practicing P2, it will guide you to the next level, providing you with strategies to introduce the principles of P2 to your neighbourhood and work place. By understanding the principles of P2 that are applied by different industrial and commercial operations and institutions, citizens can begin to integrate those same principles of P2 into their ways of thinking and acting such as supporting sustainable production and consumption. For the reduction of significant pollution in the environment to occur, new ways of thinking about the production, transport and consumption of goods and services must take root in Canadians’ awareness. The scope of this Guide is toxic pollution (e.g., mercury, dioxins, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), etc.). Part VI of this Guide provides references to guidance information on preventing other types of pollutants like greenhouse gases (GHG: e.g., CO2, methane). It should be noted that in many cases action to reduce GHGs also reduces toxic pollution (e.g., reduction in single occupancy vehicles will reduce both CO2 and air pollution); however, the strategies to address GHGs are different than toxic pollution. Why Should Citizens Care about P2? Human Health and the Environment Pollution affects us all. But most of all it affects the most vulnerable in our society: the young, the elderly and the poor. Pollution does not follow political or geographic boundaries, so regardless of where it was released, pollutants can end up in our soil, air, food and water. Some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can travel thousands of kilometers, so pollution is never just someone else’s problem. Some pollutants are toxic in small quantities (e.g., low level ozone (O3), a smog constituent) or can build up over time to levels of concern (e.g., lead, mercury). Daily, we are exposed a toxic soup of low levels of hundreds of pollutants. Scientists do not yet understand the effect of this toxic soup on our health and the health of our environment. Some scientists believe that the earth may be experiencing “a death by a thousand tiny cuts”.1
- 603. Some pollutants areendocrine disruptors (otherwise called “gender benders”) that can affect the development of a fetus, resulting in deformations and birth defects. There is evidence in the Great Lakes of these gender benders causing the feminization of amphibians and fish2 . The complexity of ecosystems is not completely understood and little is known of the effects of pollution on predator-prey relationships. We may not be able to completely understand the effects of pollution until well after the effects can be avoided or quickly remedied. The principles of P2 teach us that we can reduce pollution and save money by making our production and consumption of products and services more efficient and sustainable. P2 makes sense for our pocket books, our health and the health of our environment. The Role of the Citizen: Individual Action and Catalyst for Change There are many pollutants that can be reduced by changes in our day-to-day activities. These include pollutants like the cosmetic use of pesticides, car exhaust, and components of household cleaning supplies. There are other pollutants that are emitted by industries and commercial operations in the production of consumer products. These are pollutants like VOCs from solvent usage in printing, surface coating and degreasing operations, flame retardants integrated into textiles and plastic products (polybrominated diphenyl ethers PBDEs), pthalates in plastic products, and dyes used in paper and textile production. Other pollutants are emitted by industries that produce energy and raw materials. Examples of these pollutants are radioactive waste from nuclear plants, emissions from waste incinerators, and byproducts from mining and smelting operations. There are also some toxic chemicals that are intentionally released into the environment. Examples include pesticides used in agriculture, forestry and aquaculture, and salt and other de-icing agents used in the de-icing of roads and planes. Depending on the origin of the pollutant, citizens can practice P2 in a number of ways. Individual action can result in the reduction of some pollutants, and citizens can advocate for changes in industrial, commercial and institutional policies. Harnessing Citizens’ Power to Prevent Pollution “Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world: Indeed it's the only thing that ever has” — Margaret Mead Individual and community-based action is an effective way to address P2 and many other environmental issues. The Guide provides the necessary information for Canadians to identify pollution sources in their communities, practice P2 on a daily basis and pressure industry, companies and governments for the abatement of these emissions. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 5
- 604. How to Usethis Guide The Guide is organized into the following 5 sections: Part II: What is Pollution Prevention (P2)? This section explains the basics of P2. It describes what P2 is, who the main players are and where you fit into the picture. Part III: How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sectors in Canada? This section describes how P2 works in the industrial, commercial and institutional sectors. After reading this section you should have a good idea of the types of activities that are taking place, what sort of activities you should expect and can advocate for from industry, commercial operations and institutions. Part IV: P2 and You! This section is where the rubber hits the road! After reading this section you should have some tools to initiate P2 into your daily life, enhance your existing P2 activities, and advocate for P2 in your community and at work. Part V: Conclusions and Next Steps This section summarizes all the important points made throughout the Guide and describes some next steps for enhanced P2 activities in Canada. Part VI: Resources This section provides you with all the resources you need to start your P2 adventure! 1 Professor E.O. Wilson, an evolutionary biologist, ecologist and professor at Harvard University. 2 http://www.ec.gc.ca/eds/fact/index.htm 6 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 605. It might seemodd that we even have to ask the question “what is pollution prevention?” After all, everyone knows what pollution is. Everyone knows what prevention means. Of course, we are taking the time to ask this question because there is a lot more to the idea of pollution prevention than is clear in the simple meaning of the words. Pollution prevention forces us to rethink how we do things; everyday things like washing the car, and not-so-everyday things like how we make cars. First, let’s define pollution: Pollution arises from human activities that put unwanted or waste substances in the environment – the air, the land, the water – that contaminate the surroundings, disrupt natural systems and make the environment less healthy for people and other living things. Second, let’s define prevention: Prevention is a process whereby proactive action is taken, this involves communication, planning and solving problems at the source of where they occur. Prevention also embraces the philosophy of continual improvement. Now that we know what pollution is and what prevention is, we can look at the definition of pollution prevention. Pollution Prevention: The use of processes, practices, materials, products, substances or energy that avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and waste, and reduce the overall risk to human health or the environment. In other words, people can prevent pollution by changing how they do things, and by changing the materials they use. By making these changes you can eliminate or minimize the amount of waste you produce, which reduces or eliminates the chance that you will harm the environment.1 Environmetal Protection Hierarchy Environmental protection activities are depicted as a hierarchy of practices, with pollution prevention at the top. Approaches that anticipate and prevent the creation of pollutants and wastes are preferred to other methods, such as treatment, re-use and recycling. The latter methods are still important in our overall environmental protection efforts, but even the best waste management practices are not the same as avoiding the creation of waste in the first place.1 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 7 Part II: What is Pollution Prevention? (P2)
- 606. Pollution Prevention vs.Prevention of Pollution Pollution prevention is more than capturing the pollution before it enters the environment: it seeks to eliminate the causes of pollution, rather than to treat the pollution once generated. It involves continual improvement through design, technical, operational and behavioral changes. What is Not P2? Controlling or treating pollution is NOT pollution prevention. For instance, when wastewater from homes or factories is treated, the water is cleaner, but the treatment facility is left with a sludge or by-product that must be disposed of. Another illustrative example is the use of scrubbers to clean the emissions coming out of smokestacks; the air coming out may be cleaner, but the facility is still left with dirty wastewater to dispose of. The result is that pollution and waste have been removed from the air (but not prevented at the source) and have been transferred to water (or land, depending on the outcome of scrubber waste). Pollution control and treatment often moves the pollution from one medium (air, water, land) to another medium. The same amount of waste is created, but we are simply moving it from one place in the environment to another. Pollution prevention aims to reduce the total amount of waste or pollutants created before they have to be treated or controlled. In summary, pollution prevention is NOT: • Off-site recycling • Waste treatment or management • Concentrating hazardous waste to reduce volume or toxicity • Dilution of waste to reduce concentration • Transfer of waste from one medium to another (i.e. wastewater contaminant becomes air emission problem) Why is Off-site Recycling Not P2? Off-site recycling still generates pollutants in the transportation of the material for recycling, and the process itself does not alter the life cycle impact of the material on the environment. For instance, off-site recycling such as sending used oil, antifreeze or other material to a separate facility for reclamation generates pollutants in transporting these substances, and does not reduce the potential impact these substances would have if released into the environment. 8 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 607. Highlight – SelectPollutants Mercury Mercury is a naturally occurring element. It is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature, and can easily change chemical states allowing it to circulate in air, water and soil. Mercury conducts electricity and expands at a constant rate in response to changes in pressure or temperature. Due to these properties, mercury has been widely used in household products – electrical switches, fluorescent lamps, old batteries, thermometers and thermostats – and has been commonly used in commercial, medical and industrial applications. Elemental mercury is converted by microorganisms into methyl mercury, the most toxic form of mercury. Methyl mercury bioaccumulates in invertebrates and the fish that feed on them, which in turn allows methyl mercury concentrations to build up as it moves up the food chain in fish-eating mammals and other wildlife. 2,3 Mercury can be inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin, and can have severe health effects: • High levels of acute mercury exposure can cause severe health problems; memory loss, heart disease, loss of vision, loss of sensation and tremors • Accumulation of low quantities of mercury is a risk for future mothers, nursing mothers, babies and the developing fetus • Mercury primarily affects neurological health, including the brain and central nervous system • The kidneys and lungs are also at risk for serious damage from mercury exposure • Methyl mercury can affect learning ability and neuro-development in children4 Mercury releases occur during manufacturing, when products break, and when they are disposed of in landfills, incinerators, and sewage treatment plants. In terms of pollution prevention, the preferred option is to select alternative mercury-free products. For instance, substitute digital thermometers in place of mercury filled thermometers. In instances where no viable substitute exists, such as fluorescent lamps, use best practices. This would involve such things as selecting the product or device that contains the least amount of mercury, and also ensuring safe storage, handling, use, transport, spill response and recycling. For more tips on mercury pollution prevention please check out the resources section at the end of this Guide. Nonylphenol (NP) and its Ethoxylates (NPEs) Products that contain NPEs are used in many sectors including textile, oil and gas recovery and power generation. They can also be found in paints, resins and protective coatings, and pest control products. NP and NPEs are mostly used in cleaning products, degreasers and industrial detergents, as well as in several consumer products such as cosmetics, cleaners and paints. Their presence in the environment is solely a consequence of human activity. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 9
- 608. • Many toxiceffects of NP have been reported in a variety of aquatic biota, including fish, invertebrates and algae. As well, NP and NPEs may interfere with normal endocrine system function in aquatic organisms by binding to the oestrogen receptor. However, the relative importance and significance of these estrogenic responses in aquatic organisms to the individual or population are not currently well-understood. NP and NPEs enter the environment primarily via industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plant effluents (liquid and sludge), but also by direct discharge. NP and NPEs may also enter the environment from their application in pesticide formulations.5,6 Environment Canada has prepared, with stakeholder input, pollution prevention planning requirements under Part 4 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 for products containing nonylphenol and its ethoxylates and textile mills using wet processes. In terms of pollution prevention, the preferred option is to identify those products that contain NP and NPEs and substitute them for NP and NPE-free products. For example, organizations can substitute cleaning products that contain NP and NPEs with safer, environmentally-preferable cleaning products. For more tips on NP and NPE pollution prevention please check out the resources section at the end of this Guide. Synergy between P2 and other Environmental Objectives – Sustainability, Climate Change, Sustainable Consumption P2 and Sustainability – A Natural Fit Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland Commission Report, released in 1987, examined the question of how the world could maintain economic growth without seriously damaging the environment. The report proposed what is now the most popular definition of sustainability: “… development that serves to meet the needs of present generations but that does not jeopardize the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.7 Every sector of society has a role to play if sustainability is to be attained. So how do we use P2 to move towards attaining sustainability? Pollution prevention evolved as a practical, easy to grasp concept – an industrial waste reduction strategy that focused further up the pipe, at the source of the waste. Over the years, advocates have broadened the meaning of pollution prevention to include pesticide management, energy efficiency, green transportation and product redesign, to name a few. At the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, the terminology “sustainable consumption and production” was used to encompass pollution prevention activities. Pollution prevention can play a lead role in attaining sustainability. Pollution is not only a detriment to the environment, it is also a sign of an inefficient process. P2 programs have always promoted resource conservation and production efficiencies that encourage sustainable industrial activities. Pollution prevention 10 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 609. is a conceptthat helps educate others about the principles of sustainability. Pollution prevention provides a practical set of useful tools to make corporate and community sustainability practical .8 Where do climate change and sustainable consumption fit in? Many energy efficiency advocates have combated climate change by focusing solely on the energy savings aspects of their projects, and similarly, many pollution prevention practitioners neglected energy use as a pollution source. More and more, however, the synergies between these two approaches are becoming apparent. There are ways to reduce pollution while combating climate change. For instance, less energy used in the home results in reduced use of fossil fuels that contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. GHGs trap heat in the atmosphere and increase the Earth’s temperature, leading to unpredictable climate change. Less energy used also has the added benefit of reducing emissions related to smog, a leading cause of poor air quality. Sustainable consumption is “the use of goods and services that respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life, while minimizing the use of natural resources, toxic materials and emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations.”9 Pollution prevention is about making smart choices — both in what we buy and in how we use products. The less you purchase, the less waste and pollution you create, and the less energy and fewer resources you consume. By taking a pollution prevention approach, consumers can change their consumption patterns towards those products and services that have significantly lower impacts throughout their life cycle, thereby moving closer towards sustainable consumption. Globally, if everyone were to consume at the rate of the average North American, we would need four Earths to sustain everyone’s needs. The reality is that we only have one Earth. Many people fear that measures to scale back on our consumption will generate unemployment and inflict hardship on working people and their families. These fears are understandable, but making the transition to less wasteful, ecologically-sound ways of living will lead to an economy that generates green job growth. Pollutants By Any Other Name Pollution comes in a variety of forms from an array of sources. Becoming familiar with some of the common classification terms can help to reduce the risk of exposure and unnecessary harm to your health and the environment. For examples of how pollutants can affect the health of individuals, see highlight on select pollutants on page 9. TOXIC substances are both found in nature and manufactured by humans. Toxicity is a measure of the biological strength of a poison. Some substances are only toxic if they are encountered in a specific volume or concentration; others are LETHAL and cause death in the smallest amount. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 11
- 610. The dominant categoriesof potentially toxic substances are ORGANIC, METAL and RADIOACTIVE pollutants. Organic pollutants by definition contain carbon. They can be formed with natural products from plants, animals, coal and oil or synthesized artificially to produce such compounds as industrial solvents, pesticides, explosives, resins, plastics and fibers. Lead and mercury, metal pollutants, are the two most commonly found toxic metals in the home. Mercury is commonly found in thermometers while lead is common in older paints. Radioactive pollutants emit radiation (energy in the form of electromagnetic waves or moving particles) to the air, water or soil through improper disposal, accidents or explosions. Many organic, metal and radioactive pollutants are also PERSISTENT pollutants. These substances are highly resistant to degradation by any means. They remain in the environment for extended periods of time and are able to accumulate in the fatty tissue of plants and animals faster then they can be eliminated. This process, called BIOACCUMULATION, permits persistent pollutants to be passed along a food chain from eaten to eater. Plants and animals, especially those at the top of the food chain, can contain these pollutants in harmful and lethal doses. Pollution originates from various sources. POINT SOURCE pollution comes from a specific originating point – a pipe from a factory, or wastewater discharge from a treatment facility. NON POINT SOURCE pollutants mainly come from municipal and agricultural sources, but include a wide range of activities. These pollutants are carried by run-off and end up in rivers, streams and lakes in elevated concentrations. AREA SOURCE is a system used to report small pollution emissions by category rather than individual source. Examples include dry cleaners, gas stations, fuel combustion, landfills and wastewater treatment.10 Who Contributes to Pollution Prevention? All types of individuals and organizations whether they be governments, industry, institutions or citizens, contribute pollution to the environment. The toxicity or volume generated may vary as for some, it may be only waste paper or dirty water; for others, it may be hazardous or toxic wastes that require special handling and disposal. Below is an overview of operations within government, industry, institutions and households that contribute to pollution and how these groups have taken leadership in pollution prevention. Government The Government of Canada is committed to preventing pollution and protecting the environment as it carries out all its activities. The Sustainable Development in Government Operations initiative focuses on seven priority areas of operations: Energy Efficiency/Buildings, Human Resources Management, Land Use Management, Procurement, Vehicle Fleet Management, Waste Management as well as Water Conservation and Wastewater Management. 12 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 611. In 2003, theFederal House in Order initiative issued a leadership challenge to all federal departments, agencies and Crown Corporations to undertake a greenhouse gas reduction program in the areas of buildings, vehicle fleets, outside emissions (i.e. employee commuting and business travel) and energy efficient procurement. As members of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, the provincial/territorial and federal governments released the National Commitment to Pollution Prevention in 1993. Several provinces/territories developed formalized Pollution Prevention Programs while others have elements of P2 in their existing environmental protection programs. Municipal governments have significant influence over the environmental well-being of Canadians through municipal responsibility for water and sewage treatment, solid waste management, land use, transit, parking and municipal roads. Several municipalities have developed municipal by-law changes towards pollution prevention in areas such as sewer use discharges (City of Toronto Sewer Use Bylaw) and pesticide reduction (Halifax Regional Municipality Pesticide Bylaw). Industry In Canada, there are several agreements between government and industry to facilitate voluntary action with a desirable outcome of reducing the generation of pollutants. The most notable agreements include those made with Canadian vehicle manufacturers, auto parts manufacturers, chemical producers, metal finishers, dry cleaners and the printing and graphics industry. These agreements address issues such as energy efficiency, smog, toxic emissions, wastewater effluents and greenhouse gas emissions. Manufacturers of complex products, such as automobiles, aircraft, ships, electronics, and appliances, depend on a broad network of suppliers for parts and assemblies. Many of the suppliers in these supply chains are small and medium sized companies. When a company imposes environmental conditions on the products and processes of its suppliers, it is called Greening the Supply Chain. Through the supply chain, many larger businesses are now mentoring smaller businesses in a manner that will significantly reduce the environmental impact and encourage innovation across a wider range of business activities in Canada. There is a range of opportunities for companies to green their supply chains, for example, requesting the certification of products and processes from their suppliers. Signals such as these within a large company’s purchasing policies can stimulate suppliers to innovate and improve their environmental performance. Institutions Institutions such as schools, libraries, and hospitals are typically small quantity waste generators that have a high degree of influence in local communities. Wastes generated from schools and libraries include office paper, food wastes, laboratory wastes, and inefficient use of water and energy. These institutions are highly visible members of the community, and pollution prevention provides the opportunity to set an example for the community by establishing highly visible recycling, composting or green procurement programs. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 13
- 612. Health care facilitiesgenerate a multitude of wastes: solid, hazardous, chemical, biomedical, and various levels of contaminated wastewater. Healthcare facilities are recognized community leaders and are powerful symbols of health. It is incompatible with the mission of health care that institutions devoted to healing be significant consumers of resources and sources of environmental harm. Thus, reducing health care’s environmental impact has both a symbolic and practical significance. A number of leading healthcare facilities across Canada are incorporating pollution prevention measures in their operations (see Canadian Coalition for Green Healthcare at http://www.greenhealthcare.ca). Citizens Although the quantities are very small, every citizen generates various wastes such as solid wastes (food, paper, packaging, etc.), hazardous wastes (paints, oils) and wastewater. Canadian households and businesses generated more than 31 million tonnes of non-hazardous solid waste in 2002.11 Households alone produced 38% of these waste materials, on average 382 kilograms for each Canadian, which is 15 kilograms more per person than in 2000.12 How does that compare to other developed countries? The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an international research organization, provides comparative economic and social statistics about its 30 member countries. These statistics help establish the relative position of Canada to other nations on a number of social and economic issues. In terms of hazardous waste, Canadians produce an average of 190 kilograms annually while only the United States, Hungary and Luxembourg generate more among OECD nations.13 Also, compared with other OECD nations, Canada’s emissions of greenhouse gases per person are among the highest and Canadians rank second in the world for consumption of water per person.14 Evident in the above figures, action is needed. Community-based action involving ordinary Canadians is happening on issues such as water conservation, proper sewage disposal, air pollution, pesticide use, oil spill prevention, wood stove purchasing, vehicle idling and personal transportation choices. When buying products, consumers should look for eco-labels such as Environmental ChoiceTM and Energy StarTM . These labeling programs are helping individuals make informed purchasing decisions on products such as appliances, cleaners, electricity and paints, with the end objective of reducing their environmental impacts. Mobility and convenience are two words that come to mind when thinking about personal transportation. Choosing to own a personal vehicle certainly achieves mobility and convenience. The choice of owning a car also comes with environmental responsibility. Driving a personal vehicle produces high volumes of GHGs from fuel combustion. Choosing a fuel-efficient vehicle that suits your everyday needs can reduce GHG emissions by up to one tonne a year. Driving just 10% less by choosing services close to home or work, carpooling, walking, cycling and using public transportation reduces your GHG emissions, and saves time, money and fuel. Having a fully tuned vehicle with correct tire pressure uses up to 50% less fuel and therefore produces 50% fewer emissions. 14 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 613. Highlight – EconomicSectors Agriculture – Hog Farms The mention of hog farms immediately brings thoughts of bad odour and tonnes of waste manure. Hog farms are an important part of the agricultural economy of Canada, and therefore need to operate with as positive a public perception as possible. The Canadian Pork Council together with the Canadian Standards Association have developed a federal standard (CAN/CSA Z771) for all types of hog operations in Canada. This standard outlines how hog operations can be improved to protect the environment. Hog operations are also typically involved with fertilizer, pesticide and petroleum handling and storage, as well as the creation of dust. Mishandling and poor management can lead to spills and effluent being released to the water, soil and air in toxic concentrations. To avoid and minimize these events there are several regulations in the federal Fisheries Act, 1985 and the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 that apply to hog operations. With the new standard it is now easier for hog operators to comply with the pre-existing regulations by identifying areas for improvement. The benefits achieved from a thorough examination of the practices and protocols of hog operations are numerous. Better awareness, understanding, control, monitoring and correction of pollution problems results in significant environmental improvements leading to better compliance, less clean-up, a positive public image and a healthier environment. P2 in Canada Introduction to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA 1999) The shift to pollution prevention began in Canada in the late 1980s with the introduction of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1988 (CEPA 1988). CEPA 1988 was the first piece of Canadian legislation that recognized the necessity of moving from what was primarily an end-of-pipe, control oriented approach to more preventive means of environmental protection. In March 2000, the Government enacted a renewed and stronger Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA 1999) with pollution prevention as the cornerstone. CEPA 1999 gives the government new powers to require pollution prevention planning for substances declared toxic under the Act. The tools provided by CEPA 1999 include new measures such as pollution prevention planning requirements, and range from regulatory action to voluntary instruments. The mandatory review of CEPA 1999 in 2005 will provide an opportunity to review progress, identify where modifications are warranted and identify opportunities for improvement. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 15
- 614. CCME Commitment toP2 Within Canada, federal, provincial, territorial, municipal and Aboriginal governments share jurisdiction for the environment. The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) is comprised of environment ministers from the federal, provincial and territorial governments. Its mandate is to improve environmental protection and promote sustainable development in Canada. In 1993, the CCME contributed to the evolution of pollution prevention in Canada by releasing a National Commitment to Pollution Prevention. In May 1996, the CCME again addressed pollution prevention by releasing A Strategy to Fulfill the CCME Commitment to Pollution Prevention. This strategy sets out a shared vision, mission and goal statement as well as guiding principles for the implementation of pollution prevention by all provinces, territories and the federal government. Other Policy Initiatives The federal government’s Toxic Substances Management Policy (TSMP) puts forward a preventive and precautionary approach to deal with substances that enter the environment and could harm the environment or human health. It provides decision makers with direction, and sets out a framework to ensure that federal programs are consistent with the objectives of the TSMP. This policy underscores the need to apply pollution prevention principles to programs administered by the government to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with toxic substances. Another Environment Canada program is the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI), which tracks and provides Canadians with access to information on the releases and transfers of key pollutants and related pollution prevention activities by industrial and commercial facilities located in their communities. Beginning in the 2002 reporting year, the NPRI reporting form now asks facilities to report on their pollution prevention planning activities. The promotion of pollution prevention through a mix of regulatory and non-regulatory means will continue as P2 entrenches itself as the environmental protection strategy of choice in Canada. The Benefits of P2 More Economic and Efficient Production Pollution really is just waste, and waste is expensive. Waste is something that you had to pay for at some point, and now you can’t use. It costs money to take waste away. It costs money to store waste. And wastes, such as what’s found in the landfill, continue to take their toll on the environment by, for example, leaking pollutants into water tables and emitting greenhouse gases such as methane. Production methods that reduce the amount of waste generated mean that more raw materials are put to good use, and less waste needs to be hauled away, treated, transported and stored somewhere where it may damage the environment for years to come. In the Canadian Printing Industry there are many examples of 16 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 615. companies across thecountry taking the lead on waste reduction. Process modifications such as eliminating the use of solvents in pressroom clean-up routines, using electronic imaging to eliminate the need for film and film developing solvents, reusing inks, and training staff are just some of the ways companies are avoiding the generation of waste. Depending on the size of the company, savings from reduced purchases and reduced need for disposal and waste handling can range from just a few hundred dollars to many thousands of dollars. The Benefits of Pollution Prevention (P2) As all good solutions to serious problems do, pollution prevention creates many benefits. The Benefits of Pollution Prevention: • Minimizes or avoids the creation of pollutants • Avoids the transfer of pollutants from one medium to another • Accelerates the reduction and/or the elimination of pollutants • Minimizes health risks • Promotes the development of pollution prevention technologies • Uses energy, materials and resources more efficiently • Minimizes the need for costly enforcement • Limits future liability with greater certainty • Avoids costly clean-up in the future • Promotes a more competitive economy From: The Canadian Council of Minister of the Environment, 1996 Reduced Impacts on the Environment Waste is not always hauled away. Sometimes it enters the environment by escaping up a smokestack, or by being dumped into water. Air and water pollution cause many problems: smog, acid rain, closed beaches for swimming, lung-related health problems and climate change. Hormone-mimicking chemicals from processing plants and farm run-off disrupt endocrine systems, and can cause deformities in aquatic animals and birds.15 Reducing or eliminating emissions to the air and water by pollution prevention creates the benefit of reducing these and other impacts on the natural environment. Green dry cleaning operations have found unique ways to eliminate or greatly reduce the use of the hazardous air pollutant Perchloroethylene (Perc). Improved operating and maintenance procedures, more efficient equipment and a range of alternative cleaning products and methods result in less employee exposure to this toxic compound and fewer emissions to the environment. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 17
- 616. Elimination of ToxicEmissions The most serious form of pollution is toxic pollution which poses the greatest threat to the health of ecosystems and people. Pollution prevention sets everyone the challenge to remove toxic substances from the things they do and make, either by using a non-toxic substitute, or by changing the process so the toxic material is no longer required. Prior to 2003 many vehicles manufactured in North America came with mercury containing light switches installed under the hood or in the trunk. Automotive recyclers traditionally crush vehicles without removing the mercury switches thus releasing the mercury into the environment. In Canada there are between 13 and 15 tonnes of mercury in vehicles on the road.16 Car manufacturers now use alternative light switches not containing mercury in their vehicles. This is a first step in making vehicles on our roads mercury free. Why More Organizations Aren’t Implementing P2 Here are some common barriers to pollution prevention that organizations face: • Economic: A business case may need to be made where P2 measures require capital investment. • Administrative: Without full and visible management support a P2 program or measure may have limited success. • Operational: Implementation of P2 measures often requires time, technical expertise, money and personnel, all of which are in short supply. • Regulatory: The activities of some organizations are not subject to regulations and therefore do not receive priority amongst management. Overcoming Barriers to P2 – How you can bring about change Although the benefits for pollution prevention are evident, implementation can be inhibited by certain barriers such as a general lack of concern or awareness. Engaging co-workers, colleagues, friends, and family in a discussion about pollution prevention is an important first step to positive change. The following are tips on what can be done to overcome common barriers and will help you to motivate others while avoiding potential conflict. Obtained Information: Many organizations and individuals are skeptical about the potential benefits of pollution prevention. Become informed about the basic issues and always be ready to refer interested people to relevant books, websites, government offices and environmental organizations. In circumstances where pollution prevention measures require time and capital investment, be prepared to outline a business case highlighting long-term savings. 18 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 617. Develop Partnerships: Skepticswho are resistant to change will be difficult to deal with. Focus on the interests and concerns you share as a means to build respectful and productive relationships. For pollution prevention to work, people will have to look at the way they do things with a fresh eye. Forget that “it’s always been done that way.” You have to be willing to experiment a bit to get the kinks out, and test new ways of doing things. Set Realistic Goals: Taking on too much at once may doom your momentum from the start. Set a goal and pace yourself. Try simple options first. As you gain experience and have some successful projects under your belt, look at more difficult options. Build Support: Believe it or not, many people and groups share your interest and concerns. Joining forces with others results in shared knowledge and skills and intensified moral support. At the workplace, you can demonstrate management support by developing a written company policy on pollution prevention, setting goals for reducing waste, and publicizing and rewarding success. If you are aware of the barriers and plan for them, your chances of preventing pollution will be greater. 1 Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 2 Pollution Probe. 2003. Mercury in the Environment. From: http://www.pollutionprobe.org/Reports/mercuryprimer.pdf 3 Environment Canada, Ontario Region. Pollution Prevention Fact Sheet #21. From: http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/pollution/fpd/fsheets/4021-e.html 4 Environment Canada. Mercury in the Environment. From: http://www.ec.gc.ca/MERCURY/EN/index.cfm 5 World Wildlife Fund. Nonylphenol Ethoxylates Briefing. From: http://www.ngo.grida.no/wwfneap/Publication/briefings/Nonylphenol.pdf 6 Environment Canada, CEPA Registry. Backgrounder: Nonylphenol Ethoxylates. From: http://www.ec.gc.ca/CEPARegistry/subs_list/NPE_BG.cfm 7 World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987 8 Geiser. K. (2000). The Role of Pollution Prevention in Achieving Sustainability. Lowell Center for Sustainable Production. Lowell, MA. 9 Symposium-Sustainable Consumption. Oslo, Norway: January, 1994. 10 Canadian Centre for Pollution Prevention. 2001. Pollution Prevention Program Manual: P2 Planning and Beyond. 11 Statistics Canada. 2004. Waste management industry: Business and Government Sectors (The Daily, June 16, 2004). 12 Ibid 13 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). 1999. Canada vs. the OECD: An Environmental Comparison (Downloaded at: http://www.environmentalindicators.com). 14 Environment Canada. 2004. EnviroZine Magazine (Downloaded at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/EnviroZine). 15 “The main effects of organochlorine contaminants are now thought to occur in the offspring of exposed individuals across a variety of species (Bishop et al. 1991; Wren 1991; Fox 1993), including humans. The observed effects in various species are thought to be the result of the ability of organochlorines and some other chemicals to modulate, mimic, or block activity of naturally occurring estrogen and androgen hormones (Colborn and Clements 1992; Colborn et al. 1993).” Environment Canada, The State of Canada’s Environment—1996. 16 “Mercury In Vehicles”. Clean Air Foundation Website. Retreived on January 20, 2005 from: http://www.cleanairfoundation.org/switch_out/html/e_switchout_hgvehicles.asp THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 19
- 618. This section willdescribe the steps organizations follow to achieve pollution prevention. There are various means to achieve pollution prevention – P2 programs, P2 audits/assessments, P2 projects and P2 planning. For the purposes of this section, P2 planning will be highlighted. Various tools that organizations use to address environmental performance are highlighted as well. Finally, included are a number of pollution prevention success stories. They describe what was achieved by practicing pollution prevention. The Elements of P2: Information and Action There are three important parts to every pollution prevention plan: obtaining commitment, information gathering, and action. The value and importance of management commitment to pollution prevention planning cannot be overestimated. Information is very important to pollution prevention. Organizations seeking to make changes that will improve environmental performance need to know what substances and processes they are using, costs, relevant legal requirements, community concerns, and the purpose the substances serve and the results they achieve. They also have to know what happens to substances during and after their use: how much of the substance is used, how much is left over as waste, where does the waste go, and so on. Without this information, it will be difficult to demonstrate to senior management that pollution prevention opportunities exist. Information also serves as a basis for demonstrating success, progress and accomplishments of the pollution prevention program. Developing a Pollution Prevention Plan A pollution prevention plan is an organized, comprehensive and continual effort to reduce or eliminate pollutants and wastes at the source, throughout an organization or at a specific facility. Pollution prevention planning varies between facilities. However, all pollution prevention plans have several key elements in common such as planning, budgeting, resource allocation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Step 1: Creating Organizational Commitment to P2 and a Dedicated P2 Team For P2 plans to be successful, an organization needs strong commitment from senior management and a dedicated team. Senior management support is needed to ensure that pollution prevention becomes an organizational goal and that appropriate resources are allocated. P2 plans work best with participation and commitment from people at every level of a company: senior executive, management and staff. Organizations select a champion from each of these groups to comprise the P2 team. 20 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 Part III: How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada?
- 619. Step 2: BaselineReview Every P2 plan begins with a baseline review to understand an organization’s most significant sources of pollution and waste. The review focuses not only on toxic and hazardous materials used in or produced by in-facility processes, but on facility-wide processes themselves. The P2 team takes an inventory and draws a big picture of a facility’s input and output. The data collected during the review will help to establish priorities for the P2 program. An example of a process flow diagram, a key component of the baseline review, for a car wash facility is illustrated in Figure I. Eco-mapping is another type of tool which is a visually creative process of “scanning” environmentally relevant topics and practices directly on the “shop-floor” of a small business. This tool would also be helpful in a baseline review. Step 3: Initiate planning Once the review has been completed, the P2 team identifies priority sources of pollution, assesses priorities, establishes objectives/targets and develops a set of possible pollution prevention options. The next phase involves evaluating each option based on technical, environmental, economic, social and corporate criteria. Criteria for setting priorities range from “what is obvious” to “what are the substances of greatest concern”. Obvious choices for priority action are regulated substances or those identified for future regulatory initiatives such as the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 – Toxics Substances List. Step 4: Set Goals/Timelines and Implementation Once planning activities have been established, the P2 team sets implementation goals and timelines, assigns responsibilities and allocates resources for achieving the goals. Quantifiable goals are preferable because they are specific, measurable and provide a clear guide for the program’s expectations. The goals can cover areas such as waste quantities and waste toxicity reduced, waste reused or cost savings. Once in place, the team THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 21
- 620. implements the changesrequired to meet the goal in the given time, including implementation strategies such as training and integration with existing systems. Step 5: Measurement and Communication Another important task of the pollution prevention team is to measure the progress and success of the pollution prevention program. As the result of leading legislation such as the City of Toronto’s Sewer Use Bylaw and Part 4 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, reporting the results of pollution prevention strategies is becoming more commonplace. Reporting results informs people—workers, shareholders, executives, the community and the government—of a company’s performance. Most importantly, reporting helps build the momentum of pollution prevention efforts. For instance, communicating cost savings and reduced chemical use will advertise success. Reporting to the public and/or customers can improve an organization’s image and demonstrate a commitment to environmental responsibility. Step 6: Evaluation and Review Pollution prevention planning is not a linear process, but rather an ongoing cycle of continual improvement. In order to make progress on pollution prevention, senior management must review pollution prevention achievements, determine whether objectives are appropriate and determine what improvement is necessary. How Organizations and Facilities Take Action on Pollution Prevention There are many different techniques that can be used to achieve pollution prevention. Industries may focus on: • Eliminating or reducing their use of substances of concern; • Achieving efficient use and conservation of natural resources; • Emphasizing reuse and recycling of materials on site; • Substituting materials and feedstock; • Increasing operating efficiencies; • Improving staff training; • Changing purchasing techniques; • Changing product design; • Changing production processes; • Reformulating products; • Modifying equipment; • Achieving clean production. Refer to P2 Success Stories later on in this section for examples of some of these different techniques. Tools and Techniques These short highlights introduce some of the tools available to the industrial, commercial and institutional sectors in Canada. These tools are used to improve products, processes, services and management with consideration for the environment. 22 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 621. Design for theEnvironment Design for the Environment (DfE) is a powerful tool for affecting environmental improvements throughout a product’s life cycle. DfE is based on the philosophy that additional effort invested to address specific issues at the design stage results in the elimination of numerous problems further downstream. DfE is a proactive approach to integrating pollution prevention and resource conservation strategies into the development of more ecologically and economically sustainable products.1 DfE can involve reducing the toxicity of a product, extending the life of a product, extending the life of the material used, improving the selection of materials, reducing the energy and material intensity required to produce, use and dispose of the product.2 Interface Flooring in Belleville, Ontario adopted a DfE approach for the nylon carpet tiles that they manufacture. They reduced the backing weight of the tiles, which resulted in improved product quality and performance; reduced material and energy costs in manufacturing and transportation; fewer air emissions and less solid waste. Interface’s DfE allows them to practice product responsibility by leasing their carpet tiles to customers and completely reusing the returned product at its end of life. This way the company, customer and the environment all benefit from their new design.3 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique for systematically identifying, quantifying and assessing the potential environmental impacts of a product, process, or service throughout its entire life cycle; from the point of extraction from the earth to return to the earth, i.e. “cradle-to-grave”.4 LCA is one of a range of tools that support life cycle management. LCA can help evaluate options to ensure that material substitution or process changes do not shift environmental and financial impacts to another stage along the life cycle.5 In 2003 the North American automotive industry stopped using mercury switches in new cars. This prevents End of Life Vehicle (ELV) handlers such as scrap metal dealers and smelters from releasing mercury into the environment during the reprocessing of old cars.6 Green Procurement Green procurement means purchasing products or services that have a reduced environmental impact. Considering products that are energy efficient, limit the use of toxic elements and reduce waste are some of the criteria for buying green. A consumer must also consider the pollution generated by making and transporting the product, the packaging, ultimate disposal, resource use, recycled content, reusability, and durability.7 Increasingly, corporate and institutional consumers are incorporating environmental requirements into their product and packaging specifications. These specifications can relate to a wide range of attributes, including THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 23
- 622. product or packagingcontent, labeling, design features, reusability of the product and take-back of off-spec or spent products.8 Eco-Labelling Eco-labelling is a communication and marketing tool for industry which uses labels to distinguish products and services meeting established environmental criteria. Eco-labelling has a dual purpose; one, to encourage manufacturers and suppliers to select environmentally preferable products and two, to help consumers make informed purchasing choices.9 Products and services that meet the environmental criteria are credited by an insignia from a benchmark organization such as the EcoLogoTM from the Environmental Choice Program and the EnergyStarTM symbol managed by Natural Resources Canada. The Environmental Choice Program is recognized in Canada and the United States and certifies products and services ranging from adhesives to food packaging to vehicle dismantling services.10 The EnergyStarTM label also recognized in Canada and the United States marks products such as refrigerators and office equipment that are the most energy-efficient on the market. EMS-ISO 14001 An environmental management system (EMS) enables facilities to systematically control the impact of their activities on the environment. An environmental management system is a structured systematic approach used by organizations to identify, prioritize and manage the environmental aspects associated with their operations, products and services. An environmental management system is a tool that helps engage management in recognizing that managing environmental issues can be accomplished strategically. As of December 2003, over 1200 Canadian facilities have adopted and successfully implemented an environmental management system based on the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 14001 environmental management standard.11 The ISO 14000 standards are designed to provide an internationally recognized framework for environmental management, measurement, evaluation and auditing.12 Industrial Ecology Industrial Ecology is a discipline which focuses on the design, development, operation, renewal and decommissioning of industrial facilities as ecological systems, with an emphasis on the optimization of resource efficiency.13 By looking at the industrial process through an ecological lens, wastes become resources and all components of the system must work together to thrive. An example of industrial ecology in action is the creation of eco-industrial parks where various industries work together to minimize their individual impacts on the environment by working in a collective. Wastes from one process are used as inputs elsewhere throughout the entire system. 24 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 623. This diagram showsthe material and energy flows joining an industrial ecology network in Kalundborg Denmark. Some of the network partners include a gyproc factory, a pharmaceutical firm, a fish farm, a coal-fired electrical power station, a refinery and the municipality of Kalundborg. Kalundborg has the world’s oldest and most elaborate industrial ecosystem. Some of the energy exchanges include: excess gas from the refinery supplied to the gyproc factory, excess steam from the power station supplied to the municipality, the pharmaceutical firm and the refinery, hot water produced as a byproduct from the cooling process at the power station is supplied to the fish farm. Some of the material flows in the network include; sludge and yeast from the pharmaceutical firm are supplied to farmers for fertilizer and pig food respectively, and fly ash and gypsum from the power station are supplied to the cement factory and the gyproc factory.14 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 25
- 624. P2 Success Stories FEDE RA L GOVE R N M E NT – Progress in Pollution Prevention Pollution Prevention – A Federal Strategy for Action is the Government of Canada’s policy framework for advancing pollution prevention as the priority approach to environmental protection. Approved by Cabinet in June 1995, the strategy elaborates on government policy, and sets priorities for action based on five goals involving partnerships with federal departments and agencies, other orders of government, the private sector, individual Canadians and the international community. So far, twenty-five federal government departments have demonstrated leadership in developing and setting best practices as well as specific performance measures through policies, programs and internal environmental management systems.17 Below are some examples of what federal departments and facilities are doing: EnviroclubTM for federal facilities is a pilot project coordinated and delivered by Environment Canada – Quebec Region. Its main objective is to help federal facilities involved in environmental or operations management carry out pollution prevention (P2) projects within their organization. In total, the 11 federal partners achieved the following reductions in just two years: 20 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent18 , 7 500 litres of gasoline, 330 litres of varsol, 3.5 kilograms of nonylphenol and its ethoxylates, 435 litres of hazardous waste, 205 litres of sulfuric acid and 42 kilograms of 2-butoxyethanol.19 PRODUCT AMOUNT REDUCED EQUIVALENT carbon dioxide 20 tonnes 5 cars driving one year gasoline 7 500 litres Fill up an average car 100 times varsol 330 litres 1.6 drums nonylphenol and its ethoxylates 3.5 kilograms Weight of a small cat hazardous waste 435 litres 2.1 drums sulfuric acid 205 litres 1 drum 2-butoxyethanol 42 kilograms Weight of a young teenager The Federal Vehicles Initiative helps federal departments improve the operational efficiency of their vehicle fleets, reduce emissions from federal operations and promote the Alternative Fuels Act, 1995 within the federal fleet. In the federal fleet there are now battery electric vehicles, propane vehicles, natural gas vehicles, and hybrid vehicles.20 The initiative now has vehicles in the Ottawa area operating on E-85 fuel, (85% ethanol) and five E-85 fueling sites.21 On average, E-85 reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 75% compared to regular gasoline. The federal government annually purchases several billion dollars worth of consumer, commercial and industrial goods. The purchase of environmentally responsible goods and services (e.g. less toxic, energy conserving and waste reducing) presents a significant opportunity to have a positive effect on Canada’s domestic market for environmental goods and services. Canadian taxpayers will also benefit from the savings that more energy-efficient buildings and vehicles generate. 26 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 625. IN D USTRY — Alcoa Aluminerie de Deschambault, Deschambault-Grondines, Québec Alcoa is the world’s leading producer of primary aluminium, fabricated aluminium and alumina. With operations in 41 different countries, Alcoa has facilities in 14 Canadian cities. The Alcoa Deschambault smelter located between Quebec City and Trois-Rivières started aluminium production in 1992 and produces 250 000 metric tonnes per year. Alcoa has always had a management philosophy based on workforce participation. Alcoa has always had a strong commitment to deploying state of the art, environmental technology. This plant was registered to ISO 14001 in 1997. To minimize their impact on the environment even farther the plant implemented technological upgrades and improved on site work practices. New bath bin lids and anode tray covers, both used in the smelting process, help Alcoa achieve their goals of increased aluminium production and decreased fluoride emissions. With consideration and investment in the environment, Alcoa Aluminerie de Deschambault is now experiencing its best performance since the beginning of operation. INDUSTRY — Zep Manufacturing Company Canada – Edmonton, Alberta and Montreal, Quebec Zep Manufacturing Company of Canada (Zep Canada) is a leader in the supply of industrial and institutional maintenance and sanitation products. Zep Canada manufactures and imports products for a wide range of industries which include: Janitorial, Automotive, Hospitality, Housekeeping, Food Service, and Aviation. In November 2004 Environment Canada published a Canada Gazette Notice requiring companies in Canada who manufacture and/or import soap and cleaning products which contain Nonylphenol (NP) and its Ethoxylates (NPEs) to prepare and implement a pollution prevention (P2) plan. The objective of the P2 Planning Notice is to significantly reduce or eliminate the quantity of NP and NPEs contained in products used in Canada. The P2 Planning Notice requirements are to reduce NP and NPEs by 95% by 2010 compared to base year values. In accordance with the notice Zep Canada has developed an 80 page P2 plan. Prior to the Canada Gazette Notice, Zep Canada had implemented strategies to reduce or eliminate NP and NPEs in their products. In 2003 Zep Canada exceeded the requirements of the P2 Planning Notice for their facility in Edmonton by reducing NP and NPEs from soap and cleaning products manufactured and imported on-site by 98.9%. In the same year the Montreal facility had reduced the total NP and NPEs use on-site by 91% of their base year (2000) levels. Zep Canada will meet the national objective to reduce or eliminate NP and NPEs through several pollution prevention activities including; product redesign or reformulation, spill and leak prevention, on-site reuse, recycling or recovery, good operating practices or training and formalizing its Environmental Management System (EMS) to ISO 14001 standards. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 27
- 626. INDUSTRY — FarnellPackaging Ltd. - Dartmouth, Nova Scotia Farnell Packaging located within the Burnside Industrial Park in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, has been manufacturing a variety of thin and flexible plastic packaging, bags, and films in a range of sizes for over 40 years. Farnell’s quality systems are ISO 9002 registered and their products are sold across North America. In 2003 Farnell Packaging was the first Canadian company to be granted the “Compostable” logo from the Biodegradable Products Institute. Farnell’s 5 mm thick bags have been designed to fully biodegrade to biomass, water and carbon dioxide in a commercial composting environment in 180 days. Farnell’s commitment to environmental sustainability includes in-house reuse and recycling programs, which have reduced waste sent to landfill by more than 20%. They sell a portion of their waste plastic to a local company that turns it into chips for lumber or filler. In 2000 this resulted in nearly 5000 kg of material being diverted from landfill. In 1999 Farnell replaced an inefficient system that used cold municipal water only once to cool machinery with a re-circulating glycol-based cooling system. This new process has reduced municipal water consumption by 85%. Farnell remains a leader in Nova Scotia industry for implementing sound environmental practices and seeking cutting-edge, eco-efficient solutions for their business. IN ST ITUT ION — Canadian Coalition for Green Health Care The Canadian Coalition for Green Health Care is a coalition of member groups concerned with, and dedicated to, minimizing the adverse environmental and human health impacts of Canada’s health care system. To achieve its mission, the Coalition works with health care facilities, health care professionals, governments, non-governmental organizations, and the private sector. The Coalition for Green Health Care communicates with and educates health care decision-makers and staff about the environmental impacts of health care and how to operate in an environmentally responsible manner. They identify products and services that are environmentally preferable and advocate for the development of policies and practices that will reduce the environmental and human health impacts of the health care system. The coalition is a catalyst for success in the Canadian health care system. All health care institutions, facilities, organizations, associations and professionals benefit from the current environmental information and resources the coalition provides. Many partner institutions have been nationally and internationally recognized for their pollution prevention successes. Cambridge Memorial Hospital (2001), St. Mary’s General Hospital, Kitchener (2002) and Trillium Health Centre, Mississauga (2004) have achieved registration to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) environmental management system standard , ISO14001. They are among the few hospitals worldwide to achieve this accomplishment. 28 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 627. The Hospital forSick Children in Toronto is a recognized leader in green healthcare. The implementation of a multimedia pollution prevention plan has helped the hospital achieve reductions in volatile organic compounds and carbon dioxide emissions, remove 2.5 kg of mercury from the hospital and realize significant energy and water savings. Winnipeg Health Sciences Centre has committed to continuously reduce its energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions by investing in energy reducing technology and adopting an Environmentally Responsible Procurement policy. Summary and Conclusion This section has described how firms in the industrial, commercial and institutional sectors, and government can organize themselves to achieve pollution prevention success. As you see from the description of tools, the means to achieve pollution prevention range from very straightforward and simple to technical and complicated. The commitment to achieve pollution prevention is essential for an organization to make progress toward sustainability. The next section of the guide will help you to organize yourself to make pollution prevention a reality in your own home and your community. 1 Ecology Centre – Great Lakes United. Toxics in Vehicles: Mercury. University of Tennessee Center for Clean Products and Clean Technologies. January 2001. 2 Pollution Prevention Planning Handbook 3 Environment Canada - Pollution Prevention Success Stories. From: http://www.ec.gc.ca/pp/en/storyoutput.cfm?storyID=42 4 École Polytechnique de Montréal. From: http://www.polymtl.ca/ciraig/ciraig_eng_content_01.html 5 Pollution Prevention Planning Handbook 6 Great Lakes Binational Toxics Strategy – Mercury. From: http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/bns/reports/stakejun2004/Jun17_merc.pdf 7 A guide to green products and services. From: www.buygreen.com 8 Pollution Prevention Planning Handbook 9 Pollution Probe Policy Considerations (2004) 10 Environmental Choice Website www.environmentalchoice.ca 11 ISO World. Retrieved Oct 22, 2004 from http://www.ecology.or.jp/isoworld/english/analy14k.htm 12 Pollution Prevention Planning Handbook 13 World Business Council for Sustainable Development 14 Indigo Development. The Industrial Symbiosis at Kalundborg, Denmark. Retrieved Oct. 29, 2004 from http://www.indigodev.com/Kal.html 15 Pollution Probe policy consideration 16 Responsible Pest Management from: www.pestinfo.ca 17 Progress in Pollution Prevention 2002-2003 18 Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) is a standard measure for greenhouse gas emissions, which include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and sulphur hexafluoride. 19 Progress in Pollution Prevention 2002-2003 20 Progress in Pollution Prevention 2002-2003 21 Progress in Pollution Prevention 2002-2003 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 29
- 628. So far, thisGuide has discussed the concept of pollution prevention and what governments and industry have been doing to shift their emphasis from controlling pollution to preventing it. Now we are going to talk about how individuals and families can work to achieve pollution prevention in their homes and in their communities. Citizen Chain of Change Every citizen has a part to play in preventing pollution. Each of us has an effect on the environment every day. The key is to make this impact a positive one as it is of great importance to protect our environment for the well being of future generations. One way of doing that is changing our approach to decision making. The concept of ‘Seven Generations’ originates from the culture of Aboriginal Canadians and calls for making decisions that consider the needs of seven generations into the future. That is equivalent to about 200 years. Seven generations can be seen as those individuals who had great grandparents when they were born and knew their grandparents, parents, themselves, their children, their grandchildren and their great grandchildren. Looking so far ahead into the future removes individual self-interests from public decision-making and expands our capacity to think about, empathize with, and take active consideration towards future generations. We must take responsibility for our actions, whether as individuals, or as members of a community or an organization. As citizens we need to protect nature, not just buy, sell and consume it. As you will read in this section, many Canadians have already put their concern about the environment into action, but we need to do much more, and get everyone involved. Environmental citizenship is a personal commitment to learning more about the environment and to taking responsible action such as practicing pollution prevention. The challenge of learning about and protecting the environment may at first seem overwhelming. You may find yourself saying, “but I’m just one person out of many …what difference can I make?” This guide will show you that the effort of each individual can help achieve change. Environmental citizenship is an idea that can rally and mobilize the support of many people and governments. Leaders within the community are needed in order to enlist the broader support of the community and to have the community take ownership of the process. When citizens, governments and industry come together to build a partnership for the environment, they are taking a big step toward ensuring sustainability. Community-Based Social Marketing – A Toolbox for Changing Behavior A central aspect of sustainability is widespread behaviour change, and psychology has a central role to play in fostering more sustainable behaviour. Citizens who directly catalyze behaviour change through their community work are often using community-based social marketing (CBSM). CBSM is an initiative to foster healthy sustainable communities through behaviour change in community members. CBSM is a promising new way of promoting environmental citizenship and pollution prevention activities using psychological knowledge regarding behaviour change. Identifying the environmental activities to be promoted and the barriers that impede individuals from taking action are the essential initial steps to CBSM. A strategy is 30 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 Part IV: Pollution and You
- 629. then designed consistingof one or more behaviour change tools used to overcome these barriers. The behaviour change tools consist of commitment, prompts, norms, communication, incentives and convenience. Unlike many information-intensive campaigns, community-based social marketing has been shown to have a much greater probability of promoting sustainable behavior.1 In general, CBSM will be useful to any individual or institution interested in engaging citizens, citizens groups, and communities in partnerships with governments to protect and conserve the environment. Four Steps to P2 Individuals and families can achieve pollution prevention by following a four-step plan: taking inventory; examining options and choosing priorities; making and implementing the plan; and telling your neighbours. This plan is similar to the five-step P2 plan used by businesses described in the Part III. Taking inventory requires you to look at the energy, materials and substances you use, and the procedures and practices you follow to do everyday things such as caring for your lawn and cleaning your home. Examining your options and choosing your priorities requires learning about the environmental effects of the way you do things. Informing yourself about alternatives – different products and different ways of doing things – will reduce the environmental impact of your actions. Once you have set priorities, you can make and implement your plan. Set out a time line for what you want to achieve, and set out how you will achieve it. Finally, you will want to tell your neighbours about your pollution prevention plan because the more people who practice pollution prevention, the greater the benefits are. Highlight – Four Steps to P2: Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) Step #1: Take Inventory Examine: • How many and what kind of over-the-counter and prescription medications are being brought into your home? • What personal care products are already at home and what new products are you bringing in? • Are these products getting entirely used up? • How are you disposing of these products? THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 31
- 630. Step #2: Examineyour options and set your priorities As consumers we release PPCPs into the sewers when we flush unused medication down the toilet or sink, and when we rinse soaps, shampoos and cosmetics down the drain when we bathe. Look for products without detergents, perfumes and additives. Chemicals in these products have the potential to impact entire ecosytems as well as re-enter the human body through drinking water. Increasing concern about antibiotic resistance and endocrine (hormonal) disruption in wildlife and humans has directed attention to previously unidentified or under-appreciated aspects of chemical pollution. Step #3: Make and implement your plan Reducing the quantity of unused drugs and disposing of excess PPCPs safely is more ecological and economical than trying to filter them from the water after the fact. Return unused pharmaceuticals or medications to your pharmacy or the Household Hazardous Waste depot. Behaviour changes geared at reducing inappropriate use, over-use and abuse of PPCPs is the best way to prevent disposal problems and risks to public health and ecosystems. Step #4: Tell your neighbours Share your efforts with others you know-friends, family and neighbours. Shifting thinking to new ways of doing things is difficult. However, small efforts can have a meaningful impact on the environment in the long run. Source: Batt, Sharon. “Full Circle: Drugs, the Environment and our Health.” Women and Health Protection. 2004. From: http://www.whp-apsf.ca/en/documents/fullCircle.html#top P2 Focus at Home: Toxic Substances and Waste This section will outline just some of the areas where you can practice pollution prevention in your daily life. In the life cycle of a product or service, we as consumers can have a significant influence on the initial and final stages. Making smart and informed choices about the products you buy and how you use and dispose of them can have a tremendous impact on pollution prevention. In Part VI of this Guide you will find resources listed for all of the key activities discussed in this section. Home cleaning and maintenance Hundreds of common consumer products such as furniture polish, window cleaner, paint and some glues all have hazardous constituents. Every product is slightly different. It is important to know how to identify hazardous products and the risks associated with using them. There are many alternative household cleaning and maintenance products available on the market. When possible, the least toxic products should be considered. 32 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 631. ISSUES TO THINKABOUT WHEN BUYING HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS Questions to ask Major Environmental and Health Concerns What are the major constituents? Toxic, flammable, corrosive or explosive elements Where was the product manufactured? Transportation related emissions Is the product packaged appropriately? Waste going to landfill and natural resources to produce packaging Is the packaging recyclable or returnable? Waste going to landfill The unused or unwanted portion of many home cleaning and maintenance products, when disposed or used improperly, can be a significant source of toxic pollution, harming human health and the environment. Educating yourself about proper handling, use, storage and disposal methods will prevent pollution at the source. Only buying products you absolutely need, and using up the entire quantity, is the best way to avoid disposal problems. The best way to keep toxic products out of the home is to not buy them. If it is impossible to avoid the use of toxic products, it is critical to be aware of the hazardous waste collection options available in your community or municipality. The key is to keep toxic products out of the regular garbage stream, going to landfill, being incinerated or dumped down the drain. Personal care products A growing concern is developing in the area of chemical pollution from the overuse and improper disposal of personal care products such as cosmetics, sunscreens, fragrances, insect repellants, medications, contraceptives and pharmaceuticals. Chemical compounds in these products are entering the environment and being detected in many water bodies throughout North America.2 Chemicals in these products have been identified as reproductive toxins and/or carcinogens, and lead to antibiotic resistance in a wide range of species including humans. In addition to physical stressors, elevated chemical concentration in soils and waterways is contributing to the alteration of natural community structure through habitat disruption and fragmentation. Unused pharmaceuticals, medications and other personal care products should not be disposed of down your sink drains or in the toilet. Return unused pharmaceuticals or medications to your pharmacy or your municipality/township’s Household Hazardous Waste program. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 33
- 632. Sustainable Consumption Sustainable consumptionhas evolved from a need to put more emphasis on the demand side of products and services since the environmental gains obtained by strategies such as clean technologies, pollution prevention and eco-efficiency have been overtaken by the exponential increase of consumption. Tools such as life-cycle thinking, including assessments, eco-design and eco-labeling are increasingly seen as one way to help tackle the problem of unsustainable consumption. Sustainable consumption encourages changing consumption habits and patterns globally to maintain natural resources, reduce stress on the environment, ensure that resources are consumed fairly and that basic human needs are met. Successful sustainable consumption requires that all stakeholders – consumers, producers, retailers, and governments – embrace and understand the need for efficient, conscious and appropriate consumption patterns.3 Sustainable consumption should be applied to food, shelter, water, sanitation, health care, clothing, transportation and energy use, and can be achieved by improving efficiency of resource use, substituting goods, reducing consumption, shifting transport modes, reducing water and energy consumption, and reducing waste production. An example of a sustainable consumption activity in Canada is the Green Dry Cleaners initiative. Many dry cleaners are taking small measures such as improving operating practices, modernizing equipment, changing dry cleaning solvents or initiating recycling programs to protect the environment in their communities. Green dry cleaners offer consumers environmentally preferable cleaning processes such as cleaning clothes in water instead of solvents (wet cleaning) as well as phasing out the use of perchloroethylene, collecting and reusing hangers and recycling plastic bags.4 Many tools and strategies are available to help individuals change their consumption habits and participate in the global effort to improve quality of life. The North American Sustainable Consumption Alliance (NASCA) is a strategic partnership of people and organizations who are working to promote more sustainable consumption patterns in Mexico, Canada and the United States. NASCA facilitates information exchange, communication and outreach and collaborative action to achieve sustainable consumption.5 Pesticide-free lawn care and gardening Maintaining a healthy and beautiful lawn or garden can be achieved without toxic pesticides and herbicides. Many municipalities have imposed by-laws banning the use of pesticides, requiring and encouraging citizens to change lawn care and gardening habits. Learning techniques to prevent pest problems is an effective strategy to reduce the need for pesticides. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and plant health care are two common practices used to achieve this goal. 34 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 633. The central componentof IPM is planning and managing ecosystems to prevent organisms from becoming pests. Techniques include frequent lawn inspection for early detection, and correct identification of pest problems. Treatments are used that are least hazardous to human health, least toxic to non target organisms, least damaging to the environment, most likely to produce long-term results and most cost effective over time.6 Plant health care includes appropriate plant selection for site conditions, proper planting and optimal plant maintenance. Keeping your lawn healthy and less susceptible to pest problems requires using good maintenance practices. Use compost for nutrient recycling, aerate compacted soil, and water deeply and infrequently to promote deep roots.7 Naturalizing your lawn or garden by keeping native plants reduces the need for frequent watering. There are many guides and resources available on pesticide free lawn care and gardening, some of which are listed at the back of this guide. Finding new ways to maintain your lawn or garden will improve public health and reduce environmental impacts on soil, water and air. Your vehicle and boat In 2003 there were 18.9 million vehicles on the road in Canada.8 The collective impact of these vehicles on resource and energy consumption during manufacture, road infrastructure and land use development, demand for fossil fuels, vehicle maintenance and end-of-life disposal is enormous. Compounds required to keep vehicles operating such as motor oil, battery acid, gasoline antifreeze, transmission and brake fluid, degreasers, rust preventatives, radiator flushers and cleaning and waxing products all contain toxic chemicals. If used carelessly and disposed of incorrectly they can create extreme stresses on the environment. To minimize environmental impacts from motorized vehicles, owners must keep vehicles properly maintained and encourage end-of-life recycling of materials, design for the environment and product take-back by manufacturers. Individuals engaging in sustainable commuting options such as the SMART movement program,9 car pooling, public transit, active transit and car sharing can avoid expensive car ownership, reduce the number of cars on the road, and minimize vehicle-related impacts on the environment. Car sharing associations that lease cars by the hour are emerging in many urban areas across Canada. This service meets the needs of individuals who only need a vehicle occasionally. Boat users also must consider how they manage fuelling, repairs and maintenance, cleaning, painting and sewage and litter disposal. Toxic compounds present in boating products even in small quantities can accumulate in sediment and be dangerous to human health and aquatic plants and animals. Using non-toxic boat paints, eliminating in-water hull cleaning, using phosphate-free, biodegradable cleaning agents, and avoiding gasoline spills are simple and effective pollution prevention actions you can take to reduce mishandling of toxic products. Always look for marinas that are eco-certified or participating in a clean marina program. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 35
- 634. Highlight The Ontario MarineOperators Association (OMOA) formed the Clean Marina Program to provide an opportunity for all boaters to choose a certified, environmentally responsible homeport for their boats. In unfamiliar waters the Eco-Rating flag lets boaters choose a destination marina knowing they are doing all they can to preserve the lakes and rivers. Eco-Ratings are determined by the results of an audit covering more than 200 environmental practices. This audit is completed by Terra Choice Environmental Services licensed by Environment Canada. Results are then converted to a rating system of green anchors, with a low of one and a high of five. Clean Marina Information http://www.omoa.com/clean_marine_faq.asp Choosing high quality sanitation devices and not pumping your sewage overboard, especially in anchorages, marinas, protected inlets, aquaculture sites or swimming areas, using rapid-dissolving marine toilet paper and using non-toxic disinfectants and going ashore whenever possible to use the washroom facilities will keep waterways healthy and marinas clean. In your community There are hundreds of ways to participate in pollution prevention activities in your community. Informing yourself about the tools to initiate change in your life and the lives of people around you is a vital first step. Getting involved with organizations that coordinate P2 efforts in areas such as transportation, climate change and energy and water conservation in places such as schools, neighbourhoods and municipalities is a way to impact the health of your community directly. Volunteering, event planning, letter writing and fundraising are just some of the activities you can participate in to help improve your community. At the cottage With over half a million cottages across Canada, cottagers can have an impact on the environment because cottages are usually located on or near the banks of rivers or on the shores of lakes or oceans.11 Moreover, the rural location of a cottage is not supported by the same infrastructure we are accustomed to in suburban and urban environments. Taking care to dispose of garbage and waste properly, which may require taking it off site to recyclers and composting, is an effective way to bring your P2 habits to the cottage. Leaky, improperly installed and poorly maintained oil tanks can quickly contaminate soil and groundwater.12 If you use wood heat remember to “Burn it Smart”.13 Use high-efficiency, low emission stoves, burn only dry seasoned wood and never burn garbage. Keep septic systems well maintained and consider purchasing a biological toilet. The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) that you practice in the city is equally important at the cottage to avoid using toxic pesticides. Using appropriate products for cleaning and maintenance is also a key factor in P2 at the cottage. Reducing overall waste by choosing products wisely and conserving water and energy are excellent ways to practice P2 at the cottage. 36 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 635. The following twoexamples highlight two different community initiatives that encourage citizens to gain and share pollution prevention knowledge to make their surroundings cleaner and healthier. EcoAction Teams, an Earth Day Canada program In 2002, twenty groups of friends and neighbours from communities across Ontario and from a variety of socio-economic levels, geographic locations and dwelling types participated in a new program. This was the beginning of the EcoAction Teams Program, a neighbourhood-based initiative developed by Earth Day Canada (EDC). Today, more than 800 hundred individuals and eighty teams are involved in the initiative. EcoAction Teams is a province-wide program that provides tools and solutions to help Canadians in both urban communities and rural areas deal with the volumes of information and incentives available to them when addressing issues of household resource efficiency. The program is designed to help people understand that making the right decisions makes good economic and environmental sense in areas such as household energy efficiency, water usage, transportation alternatives, household waste, and sustainable food and gardening habits. The program’s Web-based tools provide immediate, online calculations of a participant’s financial and environmental savings. By mid-2004, the average annual greenhouse gas savings per household was 1.2 tonnes. Average water and waste savings were 105 000 litres and 15 tonnes respectively. By 2007, the program expects to achieve annual savings of 1 350 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions, 415 000 kg of waste from entering the solid waste stream and 37 500 000 L of water. Other supporting elements of the program include a Web-forum, online sign-up form and a constantly updated resources and links section. EcoAction Teams staff offers support whenever needed and act as a resource for local teams. Options are available for independent, self-directed participation or as part of a team that meets four to six times a year. Please visit www.ecoactionteams.ca for information about participation. Toronto Chinese Environmental Ambassadors (TCEA) Toronto Chinese Environmental Ambassadors (TCEA) is a non-profit organization established and run by community volunteers. Initially trained by the Toronto Chinese Health Education Committee – Environmental Subcommittee, TCEA is dedicated to improving and protecting the environment through education in the Chinese community. TCEA is the only Chinese green group in the Greater Toronto Area. They work with other Chinese community groups to provide environmental education programmes such as workshops, seminars, exhibits and public radio talk shows. Five to eight community events per year attract anywhere from 30 to 500 participants. Over 20 000 people tuned into the eight radio talk shows that were hosted in 2003. A wide range of environmental topics such as air quality, climate change, nature conservation, water pollution, energy saving, pesticides, waste reduction and health are covered. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 37
- 636. Engaging the Chinesecommunity in a culturally sensitive manner with language specific education raises environmental awareness for individuals who may not be reached by other means. TCEA has partnered with many local environmental groups for tree planting events, promoting free energy-efficiency home visits and advocating the Aluminium Recovery Project. TCEA has worked extensively on the Green Restaurant Project. This initiative is designed to help Chinese restaurants in Toronto identify ways to improve waste management practices and reduce energy consumption. TCEA has produced a number of Chinese language educational materials including pamphlets called: Air Pollution and You: Outdoor Air, Air Pollution and You: Indoor Air, Solar Radiation and Health, Energy-Saving, What is Climate Change, and a booklet called the Green Book. They have also translated numerous brochures and posters on many topics to share the environmental awareness and protection message across the Chinese community. 1 McKenzie-Mohr, D. and W. Smith, Fostering Sustainable Behaviour: An Introduction to Community-based Social Marketing. (1999) Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers. 2 EPA. Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) as Environmental Pollutants http://www.epa.gov/nerlesd1/chemistry/pharma/index.htm 3 UNEP. “Sustainable Consumption: a Global Status Report. September 2002. From: http://www.uneptie.org/pc/pc/pdfs/Sus_Cons.pdf 4 Canadian Centre for Pollution Prevention. “Green Dry Cleaners” From: http://www.c2p2online.com/main.php3?section=139&doc_id=295&session= 5 NASCA. Retrieved from: http://nasca.icspac.net/about/whatis.aspx November 10, 2004 6 Government of British Colombia. “Integrated Pest Management”. From: http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/epd/epdpa/eripm/landshtm/Chap1.htm#treatments 7 Health Canada. “Healthy Lawn Tips”. From: www.healthylawns.net 8 Statistics Canada, CANSIM, table 405-0004. 9 SMART (Save Money and the Air by Reducing Trips) Movement is Pollution Probe’s workplace trip reduction program. http://www.pollutionprobe.org/whatwedo/Smart.htm 10 Nova Scotia Environment and Labour. “Pollution Prevention Program – Past Projects”. From: http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/envin/p2/g_craft.asp 11 Environment Canada-National Office of Pollution Prevention. P2 Fact Sheet; P2 & You at the Cottage. http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2cottage.cfm 12 Nova Scotia Environment and Labour. “Pollution Prevention Program – Oil Tank Safety”. From: http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/envin/p2/oiltank.asp#prob 13 www.burnitsmart.org 38 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 637. Summary of MainPoints Part II • Pollution prevention involves continual improvement through design, technical, operational and behavioural changes. These changes help move toward sustainability. • Pollution prevention is one of the key components of environmental, economic and social sustainable development. Sustainable consumption not only prevents pollution, but also combats climate change. • All types of stakeholders – governments, industry, institutions or citizens – contribute to pollution and have to take leadership to prevent pollution. • Pollution prevention implementation can meet with impediments in the sort-term, but leads to long-term benefits. Part III • Different types of industry should implement pollution prevention through gaining commitment, information gathering and taking action. The commitment to achieve pollution prevention is essential for an organization to make progress toward sustainability. • The means to achieve pollution prevention range from very straightforward and simple to technical and complicated. • Increasingly both businesses and regulators are realizing that pollution prevention is a powerful and economical strategy. Business managers are finding that they can save money by preventing pollution in the first place, while increasing efficiency. Part IV • Environmental citizenship should be a personal commitment of each citizen to take responsible actions and practice pollution prevention. • Community-based social marketing could help individuals and organisations to change their behaviour. Recommendations for Next Steps GOVE R N M E NT Improving the development and implementation of policies and regulations could advance pollution prevention. Pollution prevention should continue to be a national priority based on CEPA, 1999. The review of this Act in 2005 should evaluate the progress in the field of pollution prevention, identify where modifications are warranted and map the road for improvement. Governments should take responsibility for maintaining and improving opportunities for exchanging ideas and facilitating the coordination of efforts to enhance pollution prevention between different stakeholders. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 39 Part V: Conclusions and Recommendations
- 638. IN D USTRY Every organization or facility should be committed to pollution prevention. Subsequent steps, such as information gathering and action, should be incorporated into a business management plan to help practice pollution prevention. Information sharing among industry representatives is one of the most important elements in developing innovative methods to enhance pollution prevention. Pollution prevention planning should be an on-going process within every business. IN ST ITUT ION S Institutions are highly visible members of the community and should practice pollution prevention to set an example for the community. CIT IZ E N S Every citizen should be responsible for making smart and informed choices about the purchase and disposal of products. Informing yourself and others about environmentally friendly products and ways of doing things would help reduce our impact on the environment. 40 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 639. The references thatfollow will provide you with a lot of information about hazardous substances, alternatives to hazardous substances and other information to help you with your pollution prevention projects. These references are not an exhaustive listing. These will give you a head start. You may expect to find many more sources as you go. For a more comprehensive list of pollution prevention resources, please visit CIELAP’s web site: www.cielap.org. General Information Environment Canada Inquiry Centre Environment Canada Inquiry Centre 70 Crémazie Street Gatineau, QC K1A 0H3 Telephone: 819-997-2800 or 1-800-668-6767 Fax: 819-994-1412 E-mail: enviroinfo@ec.gc.ca Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention Web Site http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/ http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/fr/index.cfm (French) This web site is an excellent source of information on Pollution Prevention (P2). The National Office of Pollution Prevention has developed several P2 fact sheets, which cover topics including: pollution prevention activities; best practices; and activities that individual Canadians, companies, and government departments can incorporate into everyday life. For individual Canadians, the fact sheets have pollution prevention tips for: home, work, school, driving, shopping, the yard, the cottage, and energy efficiency. Health Canada – Safe Environments http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/hecs/sep/index.htm Health Canada’s Safe Environments site provides a wealth of information on Radiation Protection, Environmental Contaminants, Water Quality and Health and Health Impacts. Green Lane http://www.ec.gc.ca/ (English and French) For information about Canadian programs, pollution prevention success stories, and other initiatives and tips, a good place to start is on Environment Canada’s Green Lane. Canadian Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse (CPPIC) http://www.ec.gc.ca/cppic (English and French) Environment Canada’s CPPIC is an online database and comprehensive resource that provides Canadians with the information they need to put pollution prevention (P2) into practice. Search over 1,200 P2 references ranging from fact sheets to case studies with the quick text search, Advanced Search or more specific industrial Sector Search. Pollution Prevention World Information Network (P2WIN) http://www.p2win.org/main/ns/55/doc/60/lang/EN http://www.p2win.org/main/ns/55/doc/60/session//lang/FR (French) The Pollution Prevention World Information Network (P2WIN), is an Internet-based network which connects and serves as a virtual meeting place for pollution prevention roundtables, cleaner production networks and other organizations committed to promoting and advancing pollution prevention and sustainability issues. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 41 Part VI: Resources
- 640. At Home –General Tips P2 & You @ HOME www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2home.cfm This is one of Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention P2 fact sheets. This gives you tips on what you can do in your home to save energy and water and reduce the amount of waste created, while at the same time saving your family money. P2 & You – Energy Efficiency www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2Energy.cfm This is one of Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention P2 fact sheets. This gives you tips on how to save energy. Home & Family Guide: Practical Action for the Environment http://perc.ca/waste-line/rrr/home/ This US-based guide provides eighty pages of practical, positive advice and action tips. It takes a room-by-room approach to help you save energy and water, reduce waste and find alternatives to hazardous products. Hazardous Substances Safer Alternatives for Toxic Products http://www.rco.on.ca/factsheet/fs_b10.html This site lists safer substitutes for some household toxics. Generally, the products can be bought in grocery stores. Toxic Toolkit http://www.rcbc.bc.ca/resource/toxictools.htm This is a reference guide to household hazardous waste. Household Hazardous Waste (HHW) Fact Sheet http://www.rco.on.ca/factsheet/hazardous.htm This site lists household hazardous wastes (HHW), provides statistics, outlines health and environmental concerns associated with HHW, and provides information on how to identify HHW. Health and Safety Information on Household Products http://householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov What’s under your kitchen sink, in your garage, in your bathroom, and on the shelves in your laundry room? This website provides information about what’s in these products, the potential health effects, and safety and handling instructions. Hazardous Products in the Home http://www.epa.gov/grtlakes/seahome/housewaste/house/mainmenu.htm This US-based resource helps you identify potentially hazardous products in a home on a room-by-room basis and provides a comprehensive listing of household products and their constituents with actual or potential hazards, as identified. Yard P2 & You in the YARD www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2Yard.cfm This is one of Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention P2 fact sheets. It provides a few tips on how you can make your yard "greener" by saving water and preventing pollution from ending up in our air, water, and soil. Healthy Lawns http://healthylawns.net (English and French) This website is where gardeners, lawn care service providers and green space professionals will find information on reduced risk pest management and pest prevention strategies for lawn and turf grass. 42 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 641. Personal Care Products ProperUse and Disposal of Medication http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/iyh/medical/med_disposal.html http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/francais/vsv/aspect_medical/medicaments_defaire.html (French) This Health Canada web site outlines the risks associated with the improper disposal of medication and provides information on how to properly dispose of medication. Campaign for Safe Cosmetics http://www.newdream.org/consumer/safecosmetics.html This US-based site is run by the Campaign for Safe Cosmetics, a coalition of public health, educational, religious, labor, women’s, environmental and consumer groups. The coalition’s goal is to protect the health of consumers and workers by requiring the health and beauty industry to phase out the use of chemicals that are known or suspected carcinogens, mutagens and reproductive toxins. Green Shopping Environmental ChoiceM Program http://www.environmentalchoice.com/ Environmental ChoiceM is Canada’s eco-labelling program. Products and services certified by the Environmental ChoiceM have been proven to have less of an impact on the environment because of how they are manufactured, consumed or disposed of. The website provides access to access to environmentally preferable products and services. Be, Live, Buy Different – Make a Difference http://www.ibuydifferent.org/ This campaign is to help young people learn how they can make a difference by buying differently. The US-based website, designed in a youth-oriented style, features a variety of tools and materials to help youth learn about the connections and actions that make a difference. Good Stuff? A Behind-the-Scenes Guide to the Things We Buy http://www.worldwatch.org/pubs/goodstuff If you’ve had questions about the environmental and social impacts of the products you buy and use, Good Stuff is for you. It contains many of the tips, facts, and links you’ll need to start making more informed purchases that benefit your health and the environment. At the Cottage P2 & You @ the Cottage http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2cottage.cfm http://www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/fr/p2cottage.cfm (French) This is one of Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention P2 fact sheets. It provides ways in which you can practice P2 while at the cottage. Camp Green, Canada!om http://www.campgreencanada.ca/ This national campaign encourages recreational vehicle (RV) users to use non-toxic, biodegradable products for the treatment of RV effluent and odour control in on-board holding tanks. It also raises awareness among campground owners of the economic and environmental benefits of declaring their dumping facilities chemical-free. Fish Lead Free http://www.cws-scf.ec.gc.ca/fishing/ (English and French) This Environment Canada site provides facts on lead fishing sinkers and jigs, information on regulations and outreach activities, tips on where to find lead-free alternatives, and information on wildlife research. You can also order a hardcopy of the Fish Lead Free brochure. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 43
- 642. Green Home andCottage http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0013-e.pdf http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0013-f.pdf (French) This brochure is a quick reference guide to ’green living’ for shoreline property owners. Your car, motorcycle and boat Automotive P2 & You and DRIVING www.ec.gc.ca/nopp/docs/fact/en/p2Drive.cfm This is one of Environment Canada’s National Office of Pollution Prevention P2 fact sheets. It provides a few tips on how you can reduce your car’s impact on the environment. Environmental Implications of the Automobile http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/products/factsheets/93-1.cfm http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/Francais/products/factsheets/93-1.cfm (French) This fact sheet (SOE Fact Sheet No. 93-1) is part of the Environment Canada’s State of the Environment Database. It discusses: the Car and the Economy; the Car and the Environment; and The Car and a Sustainable Environment. Green Cars: A Guide to Cleaner Vehicle Production, Use and Disposal http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?ContentID=928 This US-based site by Environmental Defense provides information on what happens in each stage of a vehicle’s life-cycle and how you can help prevent pollution. National Resources Canada’s Office of Energy Efficiency: Personal Transportation http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/personal/index.cfm?text=N&printview=N http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transports/personnel/index.cfm?attr=8 (French) This site provides information on how you can use less energy, save money and be kinder to the environment when running your vehicle. RiverSafe CarWash Campaign http://www.riversides.org/riversafe/ This campaign aims to educate Canadians about the environmental impacts of at-home car washing and to promote alternatives. Boating Protecting the Marine Environment: A Boater’s Guide http://www.tc.gc.ca/BoatingSafety/pubs/pme/menu.htm http://www.tc.gc.ca/securitenautique/pubs/pme/menu.htm (French) This Transport Canada site is a boater’s guide to protecting the marine environment. Eco-Friendly Boating Fact Sheet http://www.deq.state.mi.us/documents/deq-ead-p2-marina-boating.pdf This is a checklist for good boating and clean water, published by the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality. Take the Green Craft Challenge http://www.gov.ns.ca/enla/envin/p2/g_craft.asp This site is published by the government of Nova Scotia’s Environment and Labour department. It provides information on how boaters can reduce environmental impact. 44 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 643. In Your Community CommunityPrograms: Resource Materials http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/community/resources.html http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/community/resources_f.html (French) This website provides links to environmental information of interest to communities in the areas of Public Policy; Fundraising; Health and Environment; Strategic Planning; Research; and Tools for Building Sustainable Communities. Down-to-Earth Choices: Tips for making where you live one of Canada’s Healthy Neighbourhoods http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/community/down_to_earth_choices/index_e.html http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/community/down_to_earth_choices/index_f.html (French) On this site, Environment Canada offers tips for making where you live one of Canada’s Healthy Neighbourhoods. The site is simple to use and offers hundreds of tips and suggestions on environmentally sensitive habits for individual Canadians to practice every day, everywhere. Eco-Action Community Funding Program http://www.ec.gc.ca/ecoaction/ (English and French) Environment Canada’s Eco-Action program has provided financial support to community groups for projects that have measurable, positive impacts on the environment. Eco-Action encourages project submissions that will protect, rehabilitate or enhance the natural environment, and build the capacity of communities to sustain these activities into the future. Green Communities Association http://www.gca.ca/ The Green Communities Association (GCA) is the national umbrella for local non-profit organizations that bring environmental solutions to Canadian households and communities. On this site, you can learn more about the GCA, its member organizations, and their menu of innovative programs. Sustainable Communities Resource Package http://www.law.ntu.edu.tw/sustain/intro/ortee/ The Ontario Roundtable on Environment and Economy’s Sustainable Communities Resource Package is intended for communities and groups working on sustainability in all its forms, including environmental, social, health and economic initiatives in Ontario. National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/ (English and French) The National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) is the only legislated, nation-wide, publicly accessible inventory of its type in Canada. It provides Canadians with access to information on the releases and transfers of key pollutants in their communities. Pollution Watch http://www.pollutionwatch.org/ The PollutionWatch web site is based on NPRI data and provides information about the toxic pollution that facilities release in your community. On this website, you can search for polluters in your area using your postal code, obtain information about the health effects associated with specific pollutants and groups of chemicals, and more. THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 45
- 644. Acid rain: Acidrain is a generic term used for precipitation that contains an abnormally high concentration of sulfuric and nitric acid. These acids form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions combine with water, and have negative impacts on the environment and human health. Air quality: Scientists collect and analyze samples of air in different regions of Canada on a regular basis to determine pollutant levels. This information is not only used by decision-makers to pinpoint the sources of air pollution and determine strategies for reducing it, but also to produce daily air-quality forecasts that warn Canadians when smog levels are high. CFC (chlorofluorocarbon): A greenhouse gas that causes depletion of the atmospheric ozone layer. CFCs are various halocarbon compounds consisting of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine, once used widely as aerosol propellants and refrigerants. (Sources: David Suzuki Foundation, The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) Climate Change (UF Global Warming): Human activities are altering the chemical composition of the atmosphere through the build-up of greenhouse gases that trap heat and reflect it back to the earth’s surface. This is resulting in changes to our climate, including a rise in global temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events. Conservation: Environmental conservation is a general term that refers to the preservation of the natural environment— including wildlife, habitat, and the ecosystems they are a part of. Contamination (Water): Water is considered contaminated if it contains chemical or biological pollutants that are harmful to human health or the environment. Design for the Environment (DfE): The Design for Environment approach is grounded in comparing performance, costs, and the risks associated with alternatives. It uses cleaner technologies substitutes assessments (CTSAs) and life cycle tools to evaluate the performance, costs, and environmental and human health impacts of competing technologies. A goal of DfE is to encourage pollution prevention, front-end, innovations through redesign rather than relying on end-of-pipe controls to reducing potential risks to human health and the environment. Eco-Labelling: A communication and marketing tool for industry which uses labels to distinguish products and services meeting established environmental criteria. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part III – How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada?) Ecology (Industrial): A discipline which focuses on the design, development, operation, renewal and decommissioning of industrial facilities as ecological systems, with an emphasis on the optimization of resource efficiency. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part III – How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada?) Ecosystem: A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. Effluent: Something that flows out or forth, such as a stream flowing out of a body of water, an outflow from a sewer or sewage system or a discharge of liquid waste, as from a factory or nuclear plant. (Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) Emission: A substance discharged into the air (Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition) Energy (Industry): The energy industry includes businesses that produce power through such means as hydroelectricity and nuclear energy, as well as those that extract and refine energy-producing fossil fuels. Others are involved in the development of alternative energy sources, such as solar and wind power, and fuel cells. Environmental Assessment: Carrying out an environmental assessment means determining or estimating the value, significance or extent of damage to a particular ecosystem or aspect of it. Environmental Citizenship: A personal commitment to learning more about the environment and to take responsible action such as practicing pollution prevention. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part IV – Pollution Prevention and You) 46 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 Glossary of Terms
- 645. Environmental Management System(EMS): Tool that enables facilities to systematically control the impact of their activities on the environment by identifying, prioritizing and managing the environmental aspects associated with their operations, products and services. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part III – How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada?) Environmental monitoring: Monitoring, or making systematic geo-referenced observations of the environment-such as measuring water level or counting trees-is essential to detecting changes in ecosystems over time. Greenhouse Effect: The greenhouse effect is the phenomenon whereby certain gases that absorb and trap heat in the atmosphere cause a warming effect on earth. Greenhouse Gases: Greenhouse gases are gases that absorb and trap heat in the atmosphere and cause a warming effect on earth. Some occur naturally in the atmosphere, while others result from human activities. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). Green Procurement: Green procurement is to purchase products or services that have a reduced environmental impact. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part III – How Does P2 Work in the Industrial, Commercial and Institutional Sector in Canada?) Hazardous Waste: Discarded material which, because of its inherent nature and quantity, requires special disposal techniques to avoid crating health hazards, nuisances or environmental pollution. Hazardous waste can physically be solid, liquid, semi-solid or gaseous. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): Life cycle assessment is a specific method for systematically identifying, quantifying and assessing inputs and outputs (i.e. sources of environmental impact) throughout a product’s life cycle. It is one of a range of tools that support life cycle management, but is not a prerequisite for life cycle management. Life Cycle Management (LCM): Life cycle management is about minimizing environmental burdens throughout the life cycle of a product or service. The life cycle includes all activities that go into making, using and disposing of a product. Ozone: Ozone is a naturally occurring gas, formed from normal oxygen, that protects the earth by filtering out ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Most of the world’s ozone is concentrated in the stratosphere, 10-50 kilometers above the earth’s surface. Pollutant (Organic): Organic pollutants, by definition, contain carbon. They can be formed with natural products from plants, animals, coal and oil or synthesized artificially to produce such compounds as industrial solvents, pesticides, explosives, resins, plastics and fibers. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part II – What is P2) Pollutant (Metal): Toxic metals, such as lead or mercury. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part II – What is P2) Pollutant (Radioactive): Chemicals that release radiation to the air, water or soil through improper disposal, accidents or explosions. (Source: Citizens’ Guide to Pollution Prevention, Part II – What is P2) Pollution (Industry): Any substance that is present in or has been introduced into the environment and has harmful or unpleasant effects. Pollution comes in many forms, and may be present in air, land, water, or organisms. Although some pollution is from natural sources, most is produced by human activities. Pollution (Water): Any substance introduced into water or a body of water that has unpleasant or harmful effects. Although water pollution often comes from direct sources, such as effluent emitted into lakes and rivers by industries, it may also fall out of the atmosphere or seep in from surrounding land. Pollution prevention: Pollution prevention refers to the use of processes, practices, materials, products or energy that avoid or minimize the creation of pollutants and waste, and reduce the overall risk to human health or the environment. Recycle: Taking an unwanted material, processing it, then producing a useful product, again. Aluminum cans may be melted (processed), then reformed as aluminum cans or made into other aluminum products. Other examples include newspaper made into insulation, auto body steel made into bridge abutments, or milk jugs made into park benches. (Source: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory http://www.inel.gov/pollution-prevention/define.shtml) THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005 47
- 646. Reduce: BEFORE generatingthat waste stream, try minimizing the quantity or toxicity of waste by substituting non-toxic chemicals, use both sides of paper or e-mail. (Source: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory http://www.inel.gov/pollution-prevention/define.shtml) Reuse: Materials that are unwanted by one party, then used for its intended purpose by another party. Hand-me-down clothes, using unwanted paint, refilling a gas can are examples of reuse. (Source: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory http://www.inel.gov/pollution-prevention/define.shtml) Risk Assessment: A risk assessment is an estimate of the chance that environmental or health problems will result from a particular activity. Risk assessments play an important role in determining controls for the manufacture, use and transportation of toxic chemicals. Risk Management: The process of selecting and implementing management actions on assessed risk, taking into account a wide range of legal, economic and social factors. Smog (Ground-level ozone): Smog is formed in the Earth’s lower atmosphere, near ground level, when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources react chemically in the presence of sunlight. Ninety per cent of all smog found in urban areas is made up of ground-level ozone-the same chemical found in the stratosphere. In large enough quantities, ground-level ozone can cause respiratory problems in humans and other animals, and damage to plants and building materials. Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In other words, development is essential to satisfy human needs and improve the quality of human life. At the same time, development must be based on the efficient and environmentally responsible use of all of society’s scarce resources – natural, human, and economic. Toxic Substances (Water): Substances that have or may have an immediate or long-term harmful effect on the environment or human health. Toxic substances from industrial and agricultural activities often enter water and have been linked to health problems in animals and humans. Treatment (Water): The treatment of wastewater or contaminated water using chemical, physical or biological agents to make it safe for drinking and other uses. Waste (Water): Wastewater is water that has been used for a human activity and allowed to run away-usually into the environment or into a treatment facility. Waste (Sanitary): Solid wastes, such as garbage, that are generated by normal housekeeping activities and are not hazardous or radioactive. (Source: Idaho National Engineering and Environmental Laboratory http://www.inel.gov/ pollution-prevention/define.shtml) Waste Management: Disposal, processing, controlling, recycling, and reusing the solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes of plants, animals, humans, and other organisms. It includes control within a closed ecological system to maintain a habitable environment. Some of the waste materials involved are hazardous while others are simply so voluminous that their permanent disposal becomes a problem. Water conservation: Water conservation means reducing water usage or using water more efficiently, in order to reduce pollution and health risks, lower water costs, and extend the useful life of the existing supply and waste-treatment facilities. Water quality: The quality of water as determined by its chemical and bacterial composition. To ensure the safety of drinking water in Canada, maximum allowable limits exist for all potentially harmful contaminants. Sources: unless otherwise indicated, the definitions above are from Environment Canada’s web site: http://www.ec.gc.ca/glossary_e.html and http://www.ec.gc.ca/cppic/aboutp2/en/glossary.cfm) 48 THE CITIZENS’ GUIDE TO POLLUTION PREVENTION 2005
- 647. How to Builda Successful Behavior Change Campaign When designing your behavior change program it’s important to be intentional in the design. Spending time developing these key elements will make implementing your project easier and accelerate its results. A great program will include each of these elements in its framework. IDENTIFY THE SPECIFIC BEHAVIOR TO CHANGE WHY: It’s not effective to simply say “We want you to reduce energy use.” People need clear and direct actions that they can take to achieve your program’s goal. HOW: Identify a small selection of specific behaviors or actions that will lead to achieving your hoped for outcome. Make them specific; for example: turn off the light when you leave a room; Ride the bus to work 2 days a week. Best Practice Example: Cool Mom’s “No Idle Campaign” sought to change one aspect of parents picking up their kids at school – turn the engine off while they were waiting in line for their children. Learn more GO AFTER A SPECIFIC AUDIENCE WHY: The shotgun approach to campaigns dilutes your message and ultimately your results. HOW: Pick a specific target audience you want to influence and set a boundary around that. It may be your local church parish, the three blocks around your house, or all of the fast food restaurants in your neighborhood. Best Practice Example: UTK’s launch for its Make Orange Green initiative targeted freshman students as their first audience for their “Power Down Pledge”, holding the launch party in the central freshman quad. Learn more
- 648. Page 2 SET ACLEARLY DEFINED GOAL WHY: We all need to know in which direction we are headed. Setting a big goal for your project will make individual actions feel like a part of something bigger and can engage a sense of team. HOW: Make your goal clear and concise: “75% of homes pledge to…” or “500 collective bus rides in 2 months.” A good goal provides clear direction, making it easier to measure progress. Best Practice Example: Cool Mom set out to convince 65% of parents and guardians picking their children up to turn off their car at pick up zones at school. Learn more THE CHANGE SHOULD BE EASY WHY: Studies find that once someone has agreed to and achieved a simple action, they are far more likely to maintain that change, and then accomplish a larger or more difficult request. HOW: Spell it out. Pick a manageable change to make and then show step by step how to make it. Best Practice Example: “Ride in the Rain” asks participants to choose biking for short, one way commutes. The change is easy to digest, and since it tracks one way trips, total trips add up faster, showing quicker progress. Learn more DEFINE METRICS AND INDICATORS WHY: How will we know we have succeeded? In order to show progress, we need to know what outcomes we expect and exactly what we are going to measure on the way there. HOW: Clear metrics depend on having a clear goal. If your goal is a certain number of increased bike commutes, consider all the different direct and indirect metrics you could use such as the number of rides taken or even increased neighborhood bike sales or tune ups, respectively. Best Practice Example: Tallying the total number of trips eliminated, the miles saved, the money saved on gas, and the pounds of emissions reduced, the Clear the Air Challenge finished with a very compelling, and specific, success story. Learn more
- 649. Page 3 CREATE ACOMMUNICATIONS PLAN WHY: The communication plan enables your team to identify overlapping messages, messages with no clear audience or developer, overlapping mediums, mediums that have been overlooked and potential timing issues or opportunities to take advantage of. HOW: With your target audience in mind, decided which media you will use for outreach and the message you want to convey. Make it specific, attention getting and if possible set near the location where the action should take place. Best Practice Example: UTK utilized a communications plan to deliver a consistent message across campus through outlets such as email, social media surveys, sports events and the campus radio station. Learn more CREATE AN EVALUATION PLAN WHY: To set a clear path as to how you will plan and document progress and results from your project, using the metrics and indicators you developed, resulting in a complete success story. HOW: Ask. “how will we know we were successful?” Then list your metrics, identifying any others that may be affected by your efforts, and list exactly how and when you will collect and track results for each. Best Practice Example: To report their impact, the “Power Down Pledge” systematically planned how, when and why primary and secondary data would be tracked including: surveys, news stories, Facebook likes and campus energy consumption. Learn more ESTABLISH YOUR BASELINE WHY: Progress and results can only be shown if you know exactly where you and your audience are starting from. HOW: Using your metrics as a guide, measure what your target audience is currently doing in relation to your program goal. This can be done with a survey, focus groups, or as part of the pledge. Best Practice Example: Before implementing the “No Idle” campaign, CoolMom volunteers stood in school drop-off circles measuring the number of cars that sat waiting and how long they sat in idle. Learn more
- 650. Page 4 HAVE APUBLIC PLEDGE OR COMMITMENT WHY: Research shows that people who make a written or verbal public pledge are far more likely to follow through on it. And it gives you one more data point to track for your program. HOW: Pledges can be verbal, on-line, or a check box on paper. But no matter the medium, make the pledge easy to understand, and provide options. Best Practice Example: Not only do signatories sign a public pledge in person, but they also commemorate the signing by putting their thumbprint on a pledge tree in green paint, and sign their name next to it. The tree is displayed in the student center. Learn more FOLLOW UP WHY: Establishing a new behavior doesn’t happen overnight; it takes time and reinforcement. Target audiences need to understand why they should do something, the impact of their behaviors, and how they can best go about doing something HOW: As part of your communications plan, share on-going progress and program results with everyone who signed up or contributed. Be visual with your representations. Best Practice Example: “Ride in The Rain” organizers follow up with participants in two way: 1) A website where trips and stories can be reported, and 2) Awards for Most Trips, Most Commute Miles, and of course, Most Rides in the Rain. Learn more
- 721. Tufail Ali Zubedi 0300-3538024 Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Skype:Zubeditufail Effects of Pathogen and Toxins on Health
- 722. The Six Kingdomsof Living Things Living things are classified in six kingdoms based on structure (cells). Cells are classified by fundamental units of structure and by the way they obtain energy. By way of structure: Prokaryotes Eukaryotes A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus A Eukaryote an organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is DNA in the form of chromosomes contained within a distinct nucleus. Eukaryotes include all living organisms other than Prokaryotes. HANDOUT 1: 6 Kingdoms of Life
- 723.
- 724.
- 725. Microorganism Within prokaryotes,which appeared 3.5 billion years ago, are the kingdoms Monera (Eubacteria) andArchaea. Within eukaryotes, which evolved 1.5 billion years ago, are the kingdoms Protista, Plantae, Fungae,Animalia. By way of Energy Autotrophs Heterotrophs Autotrophs ("self feeders“) use light or chemical energy to make food. Plants are an example of autotrophs. Heterotrophs ("other feeders") obtain energy from other autotrophs or heterotrophs. Many bacteria and animals are heterotrophs.
- 726. Prokaryotes v/s EukaryotesHandout2 / Video
- 727.
- 728.
- 729.
- 730. Classification of Organisms The large diversity of organisms is classified into many categories according to the characteristics they share with other organisms such as structure, genetics, biochemistry etc. The major categories that are use to classify organisms consist of the following: Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
- 731.
- 732. Pathogens A pathogenis usually a microorganism that can produce disease in its host. Microorganism can be bacteria, fungi, protozoans, helminths (worms), viruses, prion (an infectious protein particle similar to a virus but lacking nucleic acid), allergens, and toxins. The host may be an animal, a plant, a fungus or even another microorganisms.
- 733. Pathogen Classification Pathogenscan be classified with respect to its origin: Water borne, Food borne, Blood borne [hepatitis B virus and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)], and STD (SexuallyTransmitted diseases).
- 734. Pathogenic Diseases Diseasescaused by organisms in humans are known as pathogenic diseases. Some of the diseases that are caused by viral pathogens include Smallpox, Influenza, Mumps, Measles, Chickenpox, Ebola and Rubella.
- 735. Viruses (Table1.1) Pathogenic bacteria (Table 1.2) Pathogenic fungi (Table 1.3) Parasitic protozoans (Table 1.4) Parasitic helminths (Table 1.5) These handouts will not be covered from an exam POV Handout X:Tables
- 736. Health Hazards Pathogensin wastewater and sludge represent health hazards to individuals working at wastewater treatment facilities and sludge disposal sites. The pathogens also represent health hazards to community members living downwind of wastewater treatment facilities and near sludge disposal sites.
- 737. Pathogens of wastewater The pathogens of greatest concern to wastewater personnel are enteric viruses, enteric bacteria, especially Campylobacter, the bacterium Leptospira, the fungusAspergillus, the protozoans Giardia and Cryptosporidium, and the tapeworm Hymenolepis.
- 738. Classification : Newhierarchies New hierarchies consist of the following categories: Kingdom Phylum Subphylum Superclass Class Subclass Cohort Superorder Order Superfamily Family Subfamily Tribe Genus Subgenus Species Subspecies
- 739. Viruses Viruses areultramicroscopic agents.They are observed with an electron microscope. Viruses are inert or nonliving and lack mobility. Viruses have two basic physical components that make up all viruses. Genetic material (core = RNA or DNA) and A protein coat or capsid (cover to provides a protective layer for the virus) The protein coat “recognizes” the correct host cell to be attacked. When the genetic material of the virus is introduced into a host cell, the genetic material takes control of the reproductive mechanism of the cell and causes the cell to produce viruses, not cells. In addition to these two basic components, some viruses have an additional protective layer, the lipid envelope.
- 740. Viruses arenot capable of independent growth or reproduction, and therefore they are not living organisms. Viruses increase in number through replication. For replication to occur, the virus must first attach to or enter a living host cell, for example, a bacterial or human cell, and then must transfer its genetic material (RNA or DNA) to the cell. Because viruses cannot replicate outside of a host, detection of viruses depends on cell infection assays or molecular techniques for the presence of viral DNA or RNA.
- 741. Examples of PathogenicVirus Hepatitis B Hepatitis C HIV
- 742. Bacteria Bacteria aresimple, unicellular organisms. Bacteria range in size from 0.1 to 15mm. The shape of most bacteria is either rod (bacillus), spherical (coccus), or spiral (spirillium) Bacteria are found in water, soil, organic matter, and living bodies of plants and animals. They have a wide variety of nutritional requirements and with respect to the manner by which they obtain their nutritional requirements , may be : autotrophic parasitic saprophytic
- 743. autotrophic (Ofor relating to organisms (as green plants) that can make complex organic nutritive compounds from simple inorganic sources by photosynthesis) parasitic (living off another) saprophytic (Obtaining food osmotically from dissolved organic material) They reproduce asexually, usually by splitting in half, and may be found as individual cells or as clusters or filaments. Most bacteria are motile and move by means of flagella.
- 745. Patterns ofbacterial growth.There are several common patterns of bacterial growth. These patterns include individual (a), Pairs (b), irregular clusters (c), chains or filaments (d), Groups of four or tetrads (e), cubes or sarcinae (f). There are three basic cell shapes.These shapes are spherical or coccus (a), rod or bacillus (g),and spiral or spirillum (h).
- 746. Bacteria aregrouped according to several characteristics including cell shape, response to Gram staining , response to free molecular oxygen. Bacteria are surrounded by a rigid cell wall that provides protection.The cell wall is made of two layers of lipids surrounded by a sturdy carbohydrate capsule. With few exceptions, the cell wall of bacteria reacts to the Gram stain.The Gram stain is a differential stain that is used to identify bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall made mostly of peptidoglycan. Gram-positive bacteria stain blue. Gram-negative bacteria have a thinner cell wall and stain red.
- 747.
- 748. Gram Staining Technique Gram staining consists of the application of four reagents or solutions to a smear of bacteria.The bacteria in the smear respond to the solutions as Gram positive (blue) or Gram negative (red). In the Gram staining technique a smear of bacteria is made on a clean microscope slide (a). Once the smear has dried (bacteria fixed to the slide),crystal violet is applied to the smear (b). All bacteria appear blue after the crystal violet application.After crystal violet,a mordant or iodine is applied to the smear (c). All bacteria appear blue after the iodine application.Next,a decolorizing agent or alcohol wash is applied to the smear (d). The crystal violet-iodine complex is“washed”from the Gram-negative bacteria.After the alcohol wash,Gram- positive bacteria remain blue,whereas Gram-negative bacteria become colorless. To better observe the Gram-negative bacteria,a counter stain or safranin solution is applied (e).After the safranin application Gram-positive bacteria remain blue,whereas Gram-negative bacteria stain red.
- 749. Most bacteriaare free living. However, there are bacteria that infect humans and animals. These bacteria are pathogenic organisms. Pathogenic bacteria usually enter a host through ingestion, inhalation, and invasion (Table 9.6). Numerous, significant pathogenic bacteria are found in wastewater (Table 9.7). The most common bacterial pathogens found in raw wastewater are Salmonella and Shigella. Escherichia coli generally is not considered to be a true pathogen because it is a normal inhabitant of the gastrointestinal tract.
- 750. There aretwo types of pathogenic bacteria. True & Opportunistic “True” pathogens such as Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae are aggressive and are transmitted from person-to-person and contact with animals and their wastes “Opportunistic” pathogens such as Aeromonas hydrophilia,Escherichia coli,Mycobacterium avium,and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are typically found on or in the human body and do not cause disease unless the body’s immune system is weakened by injury, a “true” pathogen, or physiological disease.
- 751. Examples of PathogenicBateria Handout 4: Diseases caused by Pathogenic Bacteria
- 752. Pathogenic Bacteria Associatedwith Waste water
- 753. Fungi Fungi area diverse group of organisms. Important characteristics that are used to classify or group fungi are their means of reproduction and their life cycles (Table 11.1). Fungi such as molds and mushrooms are multicellular, whereas some, such as yeast, are unicellular. Fungi are saprophytes.They obtain their nourishment from dead organic matter or living organisms. fungi are not obligate parasites, because all fungi can obtain their nourishment from dead organisms. When fungi infect a living organism, they kill cells and obtain their nourishment as saprophytes from dead cells.
- 754. Major Groups orPhyla of Fungi
- 755. Fungal (lessthan 50 species) infections or mycoses are either superficial or systemic. Superficial mycoses occur on the hair, nails, and skin, whereas systemic mycoses commonly occur in the respiratory tract. Candidiasis is a superficial mycosis caused by Candida albicans. Aspergillosis is a systemic mycosis caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. These two fungi,especially Aspergillus fumigatus,are of particulate concern to wastewater personnel. Wastewater personnel at composting operations are exposed to Aspergillus fumigatus as well as Blastomyces spp.and Histoplasma spp. These fungi cause respiratory tract disease and runny nose. Aspergillus fumigatus is the causative agent for aspergillosis or “farmer’s lung.”The disease is a chronic, debilitating allergic lung disease.
- 756. Protozoans The term“protozoan” is a common name of single-celled, eukaryotic organisms that are either animal-like, fungus-like, or plant-like. Protozoans also can be distinguished or grouped by their inability or ability to move with cilia (ciliates), flagella (flagellates), or pseudopodia (amoebae). Protozoans that have no direct locomotive ability are coccidians.
- 758. Disease Transmission and Body defenses Handout5: DiseaseTransmission and Body defenses
- 759. Coliform Bacteria and IndicatorOrganisms Coliform bacteria (coliforms) are Gram-negative organisms that are normal inhabitants of the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. Coliforms may be aerobes or facultative anaerobes that are non-spore- forming, bacillus-shaped bacteria. Coliforms usually are sparsely concentrated in most habitats (soil and vegetation) except fecal waste. In fecal waste they are highly concentrated.Therefore, the presence of coliforms is considered to be an indicator of fecal contamination. Coliform bacteria belong in the Family Enterobacteriacae (Table 23.1)
- 761. Qualities of GoodIndicator Organisms
- 762.
- 763. • Scientists lookat the evolutionary history of organisms to divide them into kingdoms. For awhile, there has been 5 kingdoms, but many scientist are now using 6 kingdoms. • Criteria/Questions: – What type of cell? • Prokaryote or Eukaryote • Unicellular or Multicellular – What type of organism? Producer, Consumer, or Decomposer – Reproduction? Asexually or Sexually – What is its genetic structure and function most like?
- 764. Let’s Examine the 6Kingdoms
- 765. Bacteria Kingdoms Bacteria usedto be in one kingdom! As scientist learned more about Bacteria, they have separated it into 2 separate kingdoms. Archaebacteria Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom
- 766. Bacteria Kingdoms Archaebacteria • Typeof Cells: • Unicellular: made of one cell • Prokaryotes: very simple cells that do not have a nucleus and other organelles. • Some have a cell wall. • They are not seen because they are very small, and they can be identified only with the help of a microscope. In fact, bacteria are so tiny that 300 could fit end-to-end across the period at the end of a sentence. • Type of Organism: • Decomposers: get energy from other organisms • Producers: make their own food from the chemicals in their surroundings.
- 767. Bacteria Kingdoms Archaebacteria andEubacteria • Some bacteria are helpful and some are harmful. • live in your stomach and help digest food. • make vitamins, yogurt, cheese, sauerkraut, and other products. • live in the soil and break down dead plants, animals, and wastes into simple substances that plants use. • decompose oil and are used to help clean up oil spills. • Cause infections in other organisms – like strep throat.
- 768. Bacteria Kingdoms Archaebacteria andEubacteria • Type of Reproduction: • Asexually: Bacteria reproduce by splitting themselves in half in a process called BINARY FISSION. • During this process, one cell splits into two identical cells, which are sometimes called CLONES. Over time, these dividing bacterium cells often group together in colonies. • Bacteria multiply quickly. In fact, one cell can replicate into over a million cells in just 12 hours. In contrast, a human cell takes 24 hours to split.
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- 770. Archaebacteria Kingdom • Archaebacterialive in extreme environments • 3.5 billion years old • Types: – Methanogens – • Live in Anaerobic • Make Methane • Found in – sewage treatment plants, digestive tract of ruminant, bogs – Halophiles – • Live in high salt concentration – Thermophiles – • Heat Loving • Chemosynthetic • Found in - hot springs, hydrothermal vents
- 771. What type ofcell? Prokaryote – simple Unicellular – one celled What type of organism? Producer & Decomposer Type of Reproduction? Asexual – Binary Fission
- 772.
- 773. Eubacteria Kingdom • Eubacterialive everywhere – They live in air, water, and soil! – Each square centimeter of your skin averages about 100,000 bacteria. – One teaspoon of topsoil contains more than a billion bacteria. • Some bacteria are photosynthetic (foe-toe-sin-theh-tick)—they can make their own food from sunlight, just like plants. • Other bacteria absorb food from the material they live on or in. • Some of these bacteria can live off unusual "foods" such as iron or sulfur. • The microbes that live in your gut absorb nutrients from the digested food.
- 774. Eubacteria Kingdom Shape CharacteristicsExamples Sphere- shaped bacteria Sphere-shaped bacteria (cocci) sometimes grow in chains or in clumps like a bunch of grapes. Streptococcus (strep throat) Staphylococci (responsible for "staph" infections and gangrene) Rod-shaped bacteria Rod-shaped bacteria (bacilli) can also form in chains. Some types of these bacteria also have whip like structures called flagella to help them move around. Escherichia coli or E.coli (found in the intestines of mammals) Salmonella typhi (causes typhoid fever and food poisoning) Spiral- shaped bacteria Spiral-shaped bacteria (spirilla) can use their shape to propel themselves by twisting like a corkscrew. Treponema pallidumcholera (syphilis) Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease) • Three major phylum (groups) based on shapes:
- 775. What type ofcell? Prokaryote – simple Unicellular – one celled What type of organism? Producer & Decomposer Type of Reproduction? Asexual – Binary Fission
- 776.
- 777. • Type ofCells: • Most protists are unicellular (only have one cell). • Some are multicellular (made of many cells). • Many unicellular protists live in colonies together. • All protists are eukaryotic (have cells with a nucleus and organelles). • Some are microscopic and others can be 100m in length. • All live in watery/moist environments. • Type of Organism: • Decomposers: some break down other organisms or wastes (fungus-like) • Producers: some make their own food (plant-like) • Consumers: some obtain energy by eating (animals-like) • Some are parasitic and cause disease. Protists Kingdom
- 778. Protists Kingdom • Threemajor phylum (groups): Type Cell Type Organism Type Groups & Examples Fungus- like Unicellular Decomposers. Fungus-like protists have cell walls and reproduce asexually by spores. All are able to move at some point in their lives. 3 Basic Groups: Water Molds, Downy Mildews, Slime Molds Plant-like Unicellular, multicellular, and live in colonies Producers. Live in soil, bark of trees, and fresh & salt water. Very important to the Earth because they produce a lot of oxygen and form the base of aquatic food chains. 4 Basic Groups: Euglenoids, Dinoflagellates, Diatoms, and Algae (Green, Red, and Brown) Animal-like known as: Protozoan Unicellular Consumers. All animal-like protists are able to move in their environment in order to find their food. 4 Basic Groups: Pseudopods - ex: Amoebas, Cilia - ex: Paramecium, Flagella - ex: Giardia, Others - ex: Plasmodium (Disease Causing)
- 779. Protists Examples Fungus-like Water Molds DownyMildews Slime Molds
- 780.
- 781. Protists Examples Animal-like Pseudopods – ex:Amoebas Cilia - ex: Paramecium Flagella - ex: Giardia
- 782. What type ofcell? Eukaryote - complex Unicellular, Multicellular, & Live in Colonies What type of organism? Producer, Consumer, Decomposer Type of Reproduction? Asexual or Sexual
- 783.
- 784. Fungi Kingdom • Typesof Cells: • Unicellular and Multicellular: some have one cell and others are made of many cells. • Fungus is eukaryotic and has cell walls. • Type of Organism: • Decomposer: get energy by feeding on dead or decaying tissue • Fungi digest food outside their bodies: they release enzymes into the surrounding environment, breaking down organic matter into a form the fungus can absorb. • Mushrooms and other fungi grow almost everywhere, on every natural material imaginable. Where you look depends on the mushroom you are trying to find. Some fungi grow only in association with certain trees. Others grow on large logs. Mushrooms are also found in soil, on decomposing leaves, and in dung, mulch and compost. • Type of Reproduction: – Asexually reproduces with SPORES.
- 785. Fungi Kingdom • Fivemajor phylums (groups): Club Fungi Sac Fungi Lichens Conjugation Fungi Imperfect Fungi Basidiomycota Ascomycota Mycophycophyta Zygomycota Deuteromycota
- 786. Fungi Examples • ClubFungi (Basidiomycota) • Many mushrooms in this phylum, Basidiomycota, look like umbrellas growing from the ground or like shelves growing on wood, but some, such as the latticed stinkhorn, look quite different. • Among the more famous families in this phylum are: – Agaricus -- including the supermarket variety of button mushrooms – Amanita -- including species that are deadly, delicious, or even hallucinogenic; – Boletus -- best known for the King Bolete (called Porcini in Italy and Cepe in France); – Cantherellus -- known for the delicious and beautiful Chanterelle. – These families include but a few of the mushrooms sought by collectors and gourmets from among the 25,000 species in this phylum.
- 787. Fungi Examples • SacFungi Ascomycota • Ascomycota produce their spores in special pods or sac-like structures called asci. Several species including the Helvella and Xylaria release a cloud of spore "smoke" when disturbed. • Included among the 25,000 species of this phylum are the: – prized Morel and Truffle mushrooms – Another class of this phylum, Hemiascomycetae, is valued more for its activity than its beauty: Sacharomyces cerevisiae (Brewers, Bakers, and Nutritional Yeast) help us produce such popular staples as beer and bread.
- 788. Fungi Examples • LichensMycophycophyta • Lichens are a symbiotic union between fungus and algae (or sometimes cyanobacteria). The algae provide nutrients & the fungus protects them from the elements. The result is a new organism different from both original species. • Scientists have identified 25,000 species of Lichens.
- 789. Fungi Examples • ConjugationFungi Zygomycota • The best known of this phylum of around 600 species is black bread mold. • Ex: Rhizopus stolonifer.
- 790. Fungi Examples • ImperfectFungi Deuteromycota • Around 25,000 additional fungus species are grouped in this phylum -- these species are the "left-overs" that don't fit well into any of the other groups. • Members include Trichophyton (Athlete's foot), Penicillium (Penicillin), and Candida albicans ("Yeast" infections)
- 791. Fungi Kingdom • Use: •People eat mushrooms of all shapes, sizes and colors. • Yeasts are used in making bread, wine, beer and solvents. • Drugs made from fungi cure diseases and stop the rejection of transplanted hearts and other organs. • Fungi are also grown in large vats to produce flavorings for cooking, vitamins and enzymes for removing stains. • Some fungi grows on food such as bread mold. • Penicillin is a type of fungus. • Fungus can cause athlete’s feet & ringworm.
- 792. What type ofcell? Eukaryote - complex Unicellular & Multicellular What type of organism? Decomposer Type of Reproduction? Asexual (spores)
- 793.
- 794. Plant Kingdom • Typeof Cells: • Multicellular: made of many cells that all have different functions and work together. • Eukaryotes: very complex cells that have a nucleus and many other organelles. • All plant cells have a cell wall and many have chloroplasts. • All plants are adapted for living on land.
- 795. Plant Kingdom • Typeof Organism: • All plants are producers and make their own food. They do this through a process called photosynthesis. • In photosynthesis, plants use the energy in sunlight to change water and carbon dioxide into a sugar called glucose and oxygen. • Glucose is food for the plant and is also the base of most land food chains. • Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and release oxygen into the air.
- 796. Plant Kingdom • Typeof Reproduction: • Most kinds of plants reproduce with seeds. The seeds develop in flowers or cones. Seeds are sexual reproduction. • Ferns and mosses reproduce asexually with spores.
- 797. Plant Kingdom • 12Major Groups of Plants (Divisions): • At least four classification systems are in common use for plants. • Plants are classified into 12 phyla or divisions based largely on reproductive characteristics. • Plants are classified by tissue structure into non- vascular (mosses) and vascular plants (all others) • Plants are classified by "seed" structure into those that reproduce through naked seeds, covered seeds, or spores; • Plants are classified by stature divided into mosses, ferns, shrubs and vines, trees, and herbs.
- 798. Phylum Tissue Structure "Seed" Structure Stature Bryophyta - mossesNon-vascular (Bryophytes) Spore Producers Moss-like Psilophyta - whisk ferns Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes) Fern- and Tree-like Lycopodophyta - club ferns Sphenophyta – horsetails Filicinophyta - ferns Cycadophyta – cycads Naked seeds (Gymnosperms) Ginkophyta – Ginkoes Tree-like Coniferophyta – conifers Tree- and shrub-like Gnetophyta Angiospermophyta - flowering plants Covered seeds (Angiosperms) Tree-, shrub-, vine-, and herb-like Dicotyledons - two seed-leaves Monocotyledons - single seed-leaf Plant Kingdom
- 799. Plant Examples • Mosses: –Mosses are the only non-vascular plants -- they cannot move fluids through their bodies. Instead, they rely on moisture in their surroundings. – Though small in stature (size), mosses are very important members of our ecosystem. They are the foundations for other plant growth, prevent erosion, and contribute to the green appearance of many forested areas. – The 24,000 bryophyte species are grouped in three phyla: • Mosses (Bryophyta), • Liverworts (Hepatophyta) • Hornworts (Anthoceraphyta). – They reproduce by spores, never have flowers, and can be found growing on the ground, on rocks, and on other plants.
- 800. Plant Examples • Ferns: –Ferns have a vascular system to move fluids through their bodies. – Like the mosses, they reproduce from spores rather than seeds. – The main phylum, the Ferns (Filicinophyta = Pteridophyta) includes around 12,000 species – Three other phyla are included as fern allies: • Horsetails (Sphenophyta = Equisetophyta, 40 species) • Club mosses (Lycopodophyta, 1,000 species) • Whisk ferns (Psilophyta, 3 species)
- 801. Plant Examples • Conifers: –Conifers (gymnosperms) reproduce from seeds instead of spores. The seeds, however, are "naked" (Greek: gummnos) which means they are not covered by an ovary. – Usually, the seed is produced inside a cone-like structure like a pine cone. Therefore, they are named "conifers." But, some conifers, such as the Yew and Ginko, produce their seeds inside a berry-like structure. – Conifers are easy to identify due to their cones and needle-like, scale-like, or awl-like leaves. And they never have flowers. – There are approximately 600 species of conifers: pines, firs, spruces, cedars, junipers, and yew. – Conifer allies include three small phyla containing fewer than 200 species all together: • Ginko (Ginkophyta) with a single species: the Maidenhair Tree (Ginko biloba); • palm-like Cycads (Cycadophyta) • herb-like cone-bearing plants (Gnetophyta) such as Ephedra.
- 802. Plant Examples • Angiosperms: –Angiosperms which means they have the final improvement in plant reproduction: • they grow their seeds inside an ovary (Greek: angeion = vessel) which is inside a flower. • After it is fertilized, the flower falls away and the ovary swells to become a fruit. – Angiosperms have a vascular system to move fluids through their bodies. – Angiosperms are grouped into two categories based upon how many seed leaves they have: • Dicot - 2 seed leaves • Monocot - 1 seed leaf
- 803. Plant Examples • Dicots: –Angiosperms in the class Dicots, Dicotyledoneae, grow two seed-leaves (cotyledons). In addition, foliage leaves typically have a single, branching, main vein originating at the base of the leaf blade, or three or more main veins that diverge from the base. – The vast majority of plants are Dicots. Most trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers belong to this group of around 200,000 species. Most fruits, vegetables and legumes come from this class.
- 804. Plant Examples • Monocots: –Angiosperms in the class Monocots, Monocotyledoneae, start with one seed-leaf. The main veins of their foliage leaves are usually unbranched and nearly parallel to each other. – Around 30,000 plants are classified as monocots including many of the prettiest members of kingdom Plantae: orchids, lilies, irises, palms and even the Bird-of-Paradise plant. – The grasses which carpet our lawns and meadows are also monocots. – Monocots provide us with our primary sources of nutrition, supplying us and the animals we eat with grains such as wheat, oats, and corn, as well as fruits such as dates and bananas.
- 805. What type ofcell? Eukaryote – complex Multicellular – many specialized cells What type of organism? Producer Type of Reproduction? Asexual spores or Sexual seeds
- 806.
- 807. Animal Kingdom • Typeof Cells: • Multicellular: made of many cells that all have different functions and work together. • Eukaryotes: very complex cells that have a nucleus and many other organelles. • Animal cells do not have a cell wall, but they do have a cell membrane. • Some animals are adapted for living on land, in water, or a combination of both.
- 808. Animal Kingdom • Typeof Organism: • All animals are consumers and feed on other organisms. Some are carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, or scavengers. • Type of Reproduction: • Many invertebrate animals are capable of reproducing asexually and sexually. All vertebrate animals reproduce sexually. Some animals reproduce by laying eggs. Other animals reproduce by giving birth to live young.
- 809. Animal Kingdom • Invertebrates- Animalswithout a backbone • 32 phylum – 735,000 species • Vertebrates- Animals with a backbone • 1 phylum – 45,000 species •Types of Animals: • There are two major divisions in the animal kingdom:
- 810. Animal Examples • Invertebrates: –Sponges (soft body) – Cnidarians (soft body) • Examples: Jellyfish, Sea Anemones, and Corals – Worms (soft body) • Flatworms: Planarians and Tapeworms • Roundworms • Segmented Worms: Earthworms and Leeches – Mollusks (shelled) • Gastropods: Snails and Slugs • Bivalves: Clams, Oysters, Scallops, Mussels • Cephalopods: Octopi, Cuttlefish, Nautiluses, Squids – Arthropods (exoskeleton) • Crustaceans: Crabs, Crayfish, Shrimp, Lobster • Arachnids: Spiders, Mites, Ticks, Scorpions • Centipedes • Millipedes • Insects – Echinoderms (endoskeleton) • Examples: Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars, Sea Stars, and Brittle Fish
- 811. • Vertebrates – ColdBlooded (Ectothermic) • Fish – Osteichthyes – bony fish: Trout, Cod, & Perch – Chondrichthyes – cartilage fish with jaws: Sharks & Rays – Agnatha – cartilage fish without jaws: Lamprey • Amphibians Amphibia – Amphibians with tails: Toads and Frogs – Amphibians without tails: Salamanders and Newts • Reptiles Reptila – Snakes and Lizards – Crocodiles and Alligators – Turtles and Tortoises – Warm Blooded (Endothermic) • Birds Aves • Mammals Mammalia – Placenta Mammals: Bats, Whales, Dolphins, Dogs, Humans – Marsupials: Opossum, Kangaroos, and Koalas – Egg Laying: Duck-billed Platypus & Spiny Anteater Animal Examples
- 812. What type ofcell? Eukaryote – complex Multicellular – many specialized cells What type of organism? Consumer Type of Reproduction? Asexual and Sexual
- 813. Do Classifications Systems ReallyExist? • Not in nature, but in the minds of scientist…that is why it changes and there are more than one idea on classification! • But this demonstrates how science is always working and adjusting!
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- 821. - 1 - PronunciationGuide to Microorganisms This pronunciation guide is provided to aid each student in acquiring a greater ease in discussing, describing, and using specific microorganisms. Please note that genus and species names are italicized. If they cannot be italicized, then they should be underlined (example: a lab notebook). Prokaryotic Species Correct Pronunciation Acetobacter aceti a-se-toh-BAK-ter a-SET-i Acetobacter pasteurianus a-se-toh-BAK-ter PAS-ter-iann-us Acintobacter calcoacetius a-sin-ee-toe-BAK-ter kal-koh-a-SEE-tee-kus Aerococcus viridans (air-o)-KOK-kus vi-ree-DANS Agrobacterium tumefaciens ag-roh-bak-TEAR-ium too-me-FAY-she-ens Alcaligenes denitrificans al-KAHL-li-jen-eez dee-ni-TREE-fee-cans Alcaligenes faecalis al-KAHL-li-jen-eez fee-KAL-is Anabaena an-na-BEE-na Azotobacter vinelandii a-zoe-toe-BAK-ter vin-lan-DEE-i Bacillus anthracis bah-SIL-lus AN-thray-sis Bacillus lactosporus bah-SIL-lus LAK-toe-spore-us Bacillus megaterium bah-SIL-lus Meg-a-TEER-ee-um Bacillus subtilis bah-SIL-lus SA-til-us Borrelia recurrentis bore-RELL-ee-a re-kur-EN-tis Branhamella catarrhalis bran-hem-EL-ah cat-arr-RAH-lis Citrobacter freundii sit-roe-BACK-ter FROND-ee-i Clostridium perfringens klos-TREH-dee-um per-FRINGE-enz Clostridium sporogenes klos-TREH-dee-um spore-AH-gen-ease Clostridium tetani klos-TREH-dee-um TET-ann-ee Corynebacterium diphtheriae koh-RYNE-nee-back-teer-ee-um dif-THEE-ry-ee Corynebacterium hofmanni koh-RYNE-nee-back-teer-ee-um hoff-MAN-eye Corynebacterium xerosis koh-RYNE-nee-back-teer-ee-um zer-OH-sis Enterobacter aerogenes en-ter-OH-back-ter air-ah-GEN-eez Escherichia coli esh-er-EE-key-ah KOH-lee Francisella tularensis fran-siss-SELL-ah too-lah-REN-siss Haemophilus influenzae hee-MOFF-ill-us in-flew-EN-zye Lactobacillus acidophilus lack-toe-bah-SIL-lus a-sid-OF-ill-us Lactobacillus bulgaricus lack-toe-bah-SIL-lus bol-GER-ee-kus Lactobacillus casei lack-toe-bah-SIL-lus kay-SEE-i Leuconostoc lou-kon-O-stock Micrococcus luteus my-kroh-KOK-us lou-TEE-us Mycobacterium phlei my-koh-back-TEER-ee-um flay Mycobacterium smegmatis my-koh-back-TEER-ee-um SMEG-mah-tus Neisseria lactamica nye-SEER-ee-ah lack-TAM-ee-ka Neisseria sicca nye-SEER-ee-ah SICK-ah Nitrococcus nye-troh-KOK-us Nitrosococcus nye-troh-so-KOK-us Nitrosomonas nye-troh-so-MOH-nas Pediococcus peed-ee-oh-KOK-us
- 822. - 2 - ProkaryoticSpecies Correct Pronunciation Proteus mirabilus PROH-tee-us meh-RA-bill-iss Proteus vulgaris PROH-tee-us vol-GAR-us Providencia rettgeri pro-vee-DEN-see-ah RET-ger-ee Pseudomonas aeruginosa soo-doh-MOH-nass ah-ridge-IN-oh-sa Pseudomonas fluorescens soo-doh-MOH-mass FLUOR-es-sens Rhizobium rye-ZOH-bee-um Rhodospirillum rubrum raod-o-speer-ILL-lum RUE-brum Salmonella typhi sal-moh-NELL-ah TIE-fee Salmonella typhimurium sal-moh-NELL-ah tie-fee-moore-EE-um Serratia marcescens ser-AH-she-ah mar-SESS-enz Spirillum volutans spear-ILL-um voll-LOU-tans Staphylococcus albus staff-ill-oh-KOK-us AL-bus Staphylococcus aureus staff-ill-oh-KOK-us ore-EE-us Streptococcus faecalis strep-toe-KOK-us FEE-kal-us Streptococcus faecium strep-toe-KOK-us FEE-see-um Streptococcus mitis strep-toe-KOK-us MY-tus Streptococcus salivarius strep-toe-KOK-us sal-ee-VAR-ee-us Streptococcus thermophilus strep-toe-KOK-us therm-MOH-fill-us Streptococcus viridans strep-toe-KOK-us veer-EE-danz Treponema pallidum trep-oh-KNEE-mah PAL-ee-dum Vibrio anguillarium VIB-ree-oh an-guill-air-EE-um Vibrio cholerae VIB-ree-oh KAHL-er-eye Yersenia pestis yer-SIN-ee-ah PESS-tiss Other Prokarotic Taxa Names Correct Pronunciation Actinobacteria ack-TEEN-o-bak-tier-ee-ah Archaea are-KEY-ah Aquificae AH-qwee-fic-ee-ah Bacteroidetes BAK-tear-oid-dee-teez Chlamydiae clam-id-ee-ah Chlorofexi chlor-o-flex-ee Crenarchaeota cren-are-KEY-o-tah Cyanobacteria SIGH-ann-o-bak-tier-ee-ah Eukarya you-care-EE-ah Euryarchaeota ur-EE-are-KEE-o-tah Fibrobacteres FIB-row-bak-tear-eez Firmicutes fir-MIC-cu-teez Planctomycetes plank-TOE-my-sea-teez Prokarya pro-care-EE-ah Proteobacteria pro-TEE-o-bak-tier-ee-ah Spirochaetes spy-row-KEY-teez Thermotogea therm-o-toe-gee-ah
- 823. - 3 - EukaryoticSpecies* Correct Pronunciation Agaricus (F) ah-GAR-ee-kus Alternaria (F) al-ter-NARE-ee-a Amanita (F) a-man-ee-ta Ameoba (P) ah-MEE-ba Anacharis (F) a-NACK-a-ris Aspergillus flavus (F) a-sper-JIL-lus FLAY-vus Aspergillus fumigatus (F) a-sper-JIL-lus few-mee-GAY-tus Aspergillus niger (F) a-sper-JIL-lus NYE-jer Balantidium coli (P) bal-anne-TID-ee-um KOH-lee Blatella germanica (F) BLAT-tell-a jer-MAN-ee-ka Candida albicans (F) KAN-did-ah AL-bi-kanz Centruroides (F) SEN-true-roh-deez Chlorella (A) klor-EL-la Clonorchis sinensis (F) kloh-NOR-kiss sin-NEN-sis Coccidioides immitis (F) kok-sid-ee-OID-eez IM-mi-tiss Culex pipiens (F) KOO-leks PEE-pee-ens Dermacentor andersonii (F) der-ma-SEN-tor ann-DER-sohn-ee Dientamoeba fragilis (F) die-ENT-ah-mee-ba FRA-jil-us Diphyllobothrium latum (F) die-phil-OH-boh-tree-um LAY-tum Eichinococcus granulosus (F) ee-kine-oh-KOK-kus gran-you-LOW-sus Entamoeba coli (P) en-tah-MEE-ba KOH-lee Entamoeba histolytica (P) eh-tah-MEE-ba hiss-toe-LI-tee-kah Enterobius vermicularis (F) en-ter-OH-bee-us ver-mik-QUE-lare-us Epidermophyton floccosum eh-pee-DER-moe-fy-ton flock-OH-sum Euglena (A) you-GLEE-nah Euplotes (P) you-PLOY-teez Fasciola hepatica (F) fah-SEE-oh-la ha-pat-EE-ka Giardia intestinalis (D) gee-ARE-dee-ah in-tes-TIN-al-iss Glossina (F) glah-SEE-na Ixodes (F) icks-OY-deez Latrodectus mactans (F) lat-row-DECK-tus MACK-tanz Leishmania donovani (A) lie-sh-main-NEE-ah don-oh-VON-ee Lycosa tarantula (F) lie-KOE-sha tar-ann-TOO-la Microsporum canis (F) my-kroh-SPORE-um KAY-nis Necator americanus (F) knee-KAY-tor ah-mer-ee-CAN-us Onchocerca volvulus (F) on-koe-SIR-ka vole-VIAH-lus Paramecium (P) pa-ra-ME-SEE-um Pediculus humanus (F) ped-ick-YOU-lus hue-MAN-us Penicillium notatum (F) pen-eh-SILL-ee-um know-TAY-tum Plasmodium falciparum plaz-MODE-ee-um fal-sip-PAH-rum Plasmodium malariae plaz-MODE-ee-um mah-LARE-ee-ah Plasmodium vivax plaz-MODE-ee-um VYE-vax Pneumocystis carinii (F) noo-moh-SIS-tis kar-i-nee Rhizopus nigricans (F) rye-ZOH-puss NYE-gree-kans Saccharomyces cerevisiae (F) sack-a-roe-MY-seas sair-a-VIS-e-eye
- 824. - 4 - EukaryoticSpecies* Correct Pronunciation Sarcoptes scabei (F) sar-KOP-tees scay-BEE-eye Schistosoma haematobium (F) shis-TOE-sow-mah hee-mah-TOE-bee-um Schistosoma japonicum (F) shis-TOE-sow-mah jah-PON-ee-kum Spirogyra (A) spy-row-JI-rah Stomoxys simulans (F) stow-MOCKS-is sim-YOU-lanz Taenia saginata (F) tee-KNEE-ah sag-EE-nah-ta Taenia solium (F) tee-KNEE-ah sole-EE-um Trichomonas vaginalis trick-oh-MOAN-us vaj-gi-NAL-is Trichophyton mentagrophytes (F) trick-oh-FYE-ton men-tag-ROW-fye-teese Trichuris trichiura (F) TRY-cure-us trick-ee-UR-ah Trypanosoma cruzi (A) trip-ANN-oh-soe-mah CREW-see Trypanosoma brucei (A) trip-ANN-oh-soe-mah BREW-see Vorticella (P) vor-TEE-sell-ah Wuchereria bancrofti (F) woo-chee-ERR-ee-ah ban-CROF-tee * A = alga, D = diplomonad, F – fungus, P = protozoan
- 825. Several pathogenic bacteriaare becoming resistant to antibiotic treatment. Hard- to-treat skin infections once common to hospitals and correctional institutions are now occurring in athletes. Staphylococcus aureus is an antibiotic-resistant bac- terium. The bacterium is resistant to treatment by penicillin-related antibiotics, including methicillin. Symptoms of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections include fever, pus, swelling, and pain. MRSA can progress to life-threatening blood and bone infections. BACTERIAL PATHOGENS AND THEIR DISEASES Presented here are brief descriptions of the wastewater bacterial pathogens of concern to wastewater personnel and their diseases. The descriptions of the bacte- ria include basic characteristics, disease, occurrence, reservoir, and typical mode of transmission. Perhaps the two most important bacterial pathogens are Campy- lobacter jejuni and Leptospira interrogans. C. jejuni is reviewed in more detail after the bacterial descriptions, whereas L. interrogans is reviewed in Chapter 10. Actinomyces israelii Characteristics: Gram-positive filament Disease: actinomycosis Disease identification: a chronic disease most often localized in the jaw, thorax, or abdomen Occurrence: sporadically throughout the world Reservoir: humans (oral cavity) Mode of transmission: person-to-person Clostridium perfringens Characteristics: Gram-positive rod Disease: food poisoning Disease identification: intestinal disorder characterized by sudden onset of abdominal colic followed by diarrhea Occurrence: worldwide Reservoir: soil, gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals Mode of transmission: ingestion of contaminated food Clostridium tetani Characteristics: Gram-positive rod Disease: tetanus Disease identification: acute disease induced by the bacteria that grow anaero- bically at the site of a deep puncture wound or injury and produce neurotoxin (tetanospasmin). Disease is characterized by painful muscular contractions, primarily of the masseter and neck muscles. Occurrence: worldwide 62 BACTERIA
- 826. Reservoir: intestinal tractof animals, soil, feces-contaminated environments Mode of transmission: tetanus spores introduced into the body during injury Escherichia coli—Enteroinvasive Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: gastroenteritis Disease characteristics: usually localized in the colon. Symptoms consist of fever and diarrhea, occasionally bloody diarrhea. Occurrence: contaminated food and water outbreaks in communities, areas of poor sanitation Reservoir: infected individuals Mode of transmission: fecal contamination of food and water Escherichia coli—Enteropathogenic (ETEC) Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: gastroenteritis Disease characteristics: “classical” acute diarrhe disease in newborn nurseries Occurrence: contaminated food and water outbreaks in communities, areas of poor sanitation Reservoir: infected individuals Mode of transmission: fecal contamination of food and water Escherichia coli—Enterotoxigenic Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease gastroenteritis Disease characteristics: similar to Vibrio cholerae—profuse watery diarrhea without blood or mucus; abdominal cramps, vomiting, acidosis, and dehydra- tion Occurrence: contaminated food and water outbreaks in communities, areas of poor sanitation Reservoir: infected individuals Mode of transmission: fecal contamination of food and water Escherichia coli—enterohemorrhagic O157:H7 Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: Gastroenteritis, hemolytic uremic syndrome (kidney damage) Disease characteristics: diarrhea, abdominal cramps, fever, and vomiting Occurrence: contaminated food and water outbreaks in communities, areas of poor sanitation Reservoir: infected individuals Mode of transmission: fecal contamination of food and water BACTERIAL PATHOGENS AND THEIR DISEASES 63
- 827. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Characteristics: Gram-positiverod Disease: tuberculosis Disease characteristics: first appears as lesions on the lungs; may progress to pulmonary tuberculosis or meningeal or other extrapulmonary involvement including intestinal tract, bone nervous system and the skin. Occurrence: worldwide Reservoir: primarily humans, in some areas diseased cattle Mode of transmission: exposure to bacilli in airborne droplet from sputum of infected individuals. Bovine tuberculosis results from exposure to diseased cattle or ingestion of unpasteurized milk or dairy products. Nocardia spp., including N. asteroides, N. caviae, and N. brasiliensis Characteristics: Gram-positive filament Disease: Nocardiosis Disease characteristics: often originating in the lungs and spreading to produce abscesses of brain, subcutaneous tissue, and other organs Occurrence: sporadically throughout the world Reservoir: soil Mode of transmission: inhalation of contaminated particles Salmonella spp. Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: Salmonellosis (gastroenteritis) Disease characteristics: gastroenteritis; sudden onset of abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, fever, and sometimes vomiting. Dehydration may be severe.Anorexia and looseness of the bowels often persist for several days. Occurrence: worldwide; more extensively reported in North American and Euro- pean countries; often classified with food poisoning Reservoir: humans, domestic and wild animals Mode of transmission: ingestion of contaminated food Salmonella paratyphi Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: paratyphoid fever Disease characteristics: enteric infection with abrupt onset, continued fever, enlargement of the spleen, sometimes rose spots on trunk, usually diarrhea, and involvement of lymphoid tissues of the mesentery and intestines Occurrence: sporadically or in limited outbreaks Reservoir: humans Mode of transmission: direct or indirect contact with feces or urine of patient or carrier 64 BACTERIA
- 828. Salmonella typhi Characteristics: Gram-negativerod Disease: typhoid fever Disease characteristics: sustained fever, headache, malaise, anorexia, enlargement of the spleen, rose spots on the trunk, cough, constipation, and involvement of the lymphoid tissue Occurrence: worldwide Reservoir: humans Mode of transmission: direct or indirect contact with feces or urine of patient or carrier Shigella spp. Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: Shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) Disease characteristics: edema, superficial ulceration of the large intestine, bleeding, watery or bloody diarrhea, fever, drowsiness, anorexia, nausea, and abdominal pain Occurrence: worldwide Reservoir: humans Mode of transmission: person-to-person by fecal-oral route by inanimate objects, contaminated food or water Vibrio cholerae Characteristics: Gram-negative, slightly curved rod Disease: cholera Disease characteristics: enterotoxins released cause sudden severe nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, copious diarrhea; most deaths related to shock Occurrence: Asia, eastern Europe, and North Africa Reservoir: human, possible environmental reservoirs Mode of transmission: contaminated water Vibrio parahaemolyticus Characteristics: Gram-negative rod Disease: gastroenteritis, vibriosis Disease characteristics: watery diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, fever, and headache Occurrence: worldwide, especially Japan Reservoir: marine and coastal environments Mode of transmission: ingestion of raw or inadequately cooked and contami- nated seafood BACTERIAL PATHOGENS AND THEIR DISEASES 65
- 829. Yersina enterocolitica Characteristics: Gram-negativerod Disease: gastroenteritis, yersiniosis Disease characteristics: release of enterotoxin causes severe abdominal pain (similar to appendicitis), low-grade fever, headache, pharyngitis, anorexia, and vomiting. Occurrence: worldwide Reservoir: animals, especially avian and mammalian Mode of transmission: fecal-oral transmission with infected persons or animals CAMPYLOBACTER JEJUNI Curved, Gram-negative rod bacteria in the genus Campylobacter cause campy- lobacteriosis. Campylobacter jejuni is the principal species associated with campy- lobacteriosis. Campylobacteriosis is the most common gastroenteritis in the United States and is associated with abdominal pain, fever, and bloody diarrhea. In addi- tion to gastroenteritis, species of the genus Campylobacter also cause dental disease and systemic infections of the brain, heart, and joints. Campylobacteriosis occurs throughout the United States, and its occurrence peaks during the summertime. Campylobacteriosis can be treated with antibiotics. Species of the genus Campylobacter are not common inhabitants of the intestinal tract of humans. They are carried by numerous animals, including cats, cattle, dogs, and sheep. Transmission of Campylobacter spp. usually is by ingestion of contaminated food, milk, and water. Unlike many other pathogenic bacteria, Campylobacter jejuni does not reproduce in food. 66 BACTERIA
- 830. Part VI Disease Transmissionand the Body’s Defenses
- 831. 19 Disease Transmission For apathogen to cause disease (damage) in a host, six steps of pathogenesis must be satisfied (Table 19.1). In the first step, transmission, the pathogen must leave an infected individual and be transported to a noninfected individual. This may be accomplished through wastewater, sludge, bioaerosol, foam, vectors, and contami- nated materials. Disease transmission often is described as occurring by contact, vehicle, or vector. Contact may be direct (person to person) or indirect (through clothing or eating utensils).Typical vehicles for disease transmission are food, air, and water. Food may be a vehicle for disease transmission if it is contaminated, improperly cooked, poorly refrigerated, or prepared under unsanitary conditions. Air is a vehicle for disease transmission when pathogens are present in bioaerosols, droplets, dust, mist, sprays, or mist. Contaminated water also is a vehicle for disease transmission There are numerous carriers or vectors of human diseases. Common vectors include cockroaches, fleas, houseflies, lice, mites, mosquitoes, rats, and ticks. For example, the hairs on a housefly’s body or the legs of a cockroach carry millions of pathogens. Therefore, controlling populations of vectors helps to reduce the risk of disease transmission. In the second step of pathogenesis, entry, the pathogen must enter a noninfected individual. This is achieved through a portal of entry. Pathogens may enter an indi- vidual by crossing the skin and mucous membranes, especially those of the gas- trointestinal tract and respiratory tract. Entrance through the gastrointestinal tract (ingestion) is the most common route and is usually due to poor hygiene. Ingestion may occur through contaminated food, water, cigarettes and smokeless tobacco, splashes, or swallowing bioaerosols through the oropharynx (Fig. 19.1). The pharynx, or “throat,” forms a skeletal muscular tube. It is divided into several continuous chambers. These chambers are the isthmus of the fauces or the initial Wastewater Pathogens, by Michael H. Gerardi and Mel C. Zimmerman ISBN 0-471-20692-X Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 125
- 832. 126 DISEASE TRANSMISSION TABLE19.1 Steps of Pathogenesis Transmission Entry Adherence Multiplication Spread Damage opening of the auditory tube oropharynx laryngopharynx esophagus soft palate nasal septum Figure 19.1 Oropharynx. Many pathogens, bioaerosols, and contaminated particles that enter the respiratory tract through the laryngopharynx are captured by mucus and cilia that line the respiratory tract. Once captured, the pathogens, bioaerosols, and contaminated particles are transported by ciliary action to the oropharynx, where they are swallowed into the digestive tract through the esophagus.
- 833. chamber, followed inturn by the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx. Muscles associated with the pharynx, for example, the constrictors, squeeze the pharynx in sequence, from top to bottom, initiating swallowing and peristalsis. Many bioaerosols and dust particles entering the upper respiratory tract are cap- tured by cilia that line the upper respiratory tract, and through the beating action of cilia they are moved into the oropharynx, where they are swallowed into the digestive tract. The third step of pathogenesis is adherence. Once in the new host, the pathogen must find its target host cell and invade the cell. For example, hepatitis viruses must invade cells of the liver, whereas Mycobacterium spp. must invade cells of the res- piratory tract. If the pathogen is successful in invading its target cell, the agent must replicate or reproduce (multiply). Multiplication is the fourth step in pathogenesis. During this step, the pathogenic agent may increase in numbers sufficient to cause disease (damage). The period of time that the pathogen takes to increase to suffi- cient numbers to cause disease is the incubation period. If the pathogen spreads from the targeted (infected) area, it may damage cells close to the infected area or far from the infected area. Spread is the fifth step in pathogenesis. It may be accomplished directly by the increasing number of pathogen or indirectly by the host. For example, the pathogen may be carried and spread by white blood cells. Disease or damage is the sixth step of pathogenesis. Disease is a change in the health of an individual. Disease may be associated with harsh symptoms such as the death of cells (gangrene) or mild symptoms such as a rash. Disease also may be associated with physiological changes such as the production of pathogenic toxins that interfere with bodily functions. For example, tetanus occurs with the produc- tion of bacterial toxins that interfere with the body’s ability to transmit nervous impulses. INFECTION Although pathogens may gain entrance to the body through a portal of entry, this does not mean that the body will experience damage or disease. There are several criteria that must be satisfied for disease to occur. First, an infective dose of the pathogen must enter the body. The infective dose may be relatively small, for example, four–six cysts for Giardia lamblia, or relatively high, for example, several hundred bacteria for Salmonella typhi. Second, the invading pathogens must be virulent, that is, they must be capable of causing disease. Dead pathogens cannot cause disease, and weakened or damage pathogens cannot or are highly unlikely to cause disease. Finally, the pathogens must overcome the body’s defense mechanisms.These mechanisms consist of nonspecific and specific defenses against infection. INFECTION 127
- 834. 20 The Body’s Defenses Althoughinfections from specific pathogenic agents are not common, wastewater personnel, especially during the first few years of employment, experience some increased symptoms of gastrointestinal and upper respiratory tract illness. For any illness or disease to occur, pathogens must overcome the body’s defenses. Wastewater personnel with a weak immune system continually become ill, whereas wastewater personnel with a strong immune system become ill less often. However, over time many wastewater personnel develop resistance to pathogens through their daily exposure to them. This occurs through “low-dose challenge” when the immune system develops improved immunity through repeated exposure to the same pathogens. The body’s defenses against pathogenic infection and disease occurrence can be placed into two groups, nonspecific and specific defenses. Nonspecific defenses (Table 20.1) operate regardless of the invading pathogen. Specific defenses (Table 20.2) operate against specific invading pathogens. Nonspecific defenses are the body’s first line of defense. These defenses consist of physical barriers, phagocytes, antimicrobial compounds, and inflammatory response. Specific defenses are the body’s second line of defense and include specific immune responses and immu- nization. The immune responses are specific because each response is “triggered” by a specific antigen (pathogen) and the triggered response is specific for that antigen. Wastewater Pathogens, by Michael H. Gerardi and Mel C. Zimmerman ISBN 0-471-20692-X Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 129
- 835. NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES Physical Barrier:Skin The skin (epidermis and dermis) is the first barrier. The skin forms a protective barrier that blocks the entry of pathogens. The skin also protects the body from pathogenic invasion through several mechanisms. Acidic compounds in sebum—the oily substance secreted by the sebaceous glands in the skin—produce and maintain a pH range of 3 to 5 on the skin. In addi- tion, lactic acid from lactobacilli that inhabit the skin contribute to a low pH, and many indigenous bacteria degrade secretions from oil glands that result in the release of free fatty acids that help to maintain a low pH. A low pH is inhibitory to some pathogens. Many metabolic products of normal skin flora or bacteria (Table 20.3) inhibit the growth of some pathogens. Examples include the unsaturated fatty acids produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes. These acids are highly toxic to Gram-negative bacteria. Many indigenous bacteria also help to prevent infections by entrapping or inac- tivating pathogens. Many indigenous bacteria produce harsh growth conditions that inhibit or destroy pathogens. Harsh growth conditions are produced by competition for available nutrients, release of toxic compounds, and reduction in oxygen con- centration. Indigenous bacteria that help to prevent pathogenic infections are 130 THE BODY’S DEFENSES TABLE 20.1 Significant Nonspecific Defenses, the First Line of Defense Defense Component Physical barriers Skin, eyes and ears, respiratory system, digestive system, cardiovascular system, lymphatic system Phagocytes Granulocytes, agranulocytes TABLE 20.2 Specific Defenses, the Second Line of Defense Specific Immunity Immunization TABLE 20.3 Examples of Normal or Indigenous Bacteria of Various Body Sites Body Site Genera of Indigenous Bacteria Skin Corynebacterium, Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, Propionibacterium, Staphylococcus Oral cavity Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Streptococcus Gastrointestinal tract Bacteroides, Clostridium, Escherichia, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Streptococcus Upper respiratory tract Bacteroides, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus
- 836. numerous. The humanbody has approximately 1013 human cells and approximately 1014 associated nonhuman cells. Physical Barrier: Eyes and Ears The eyes have several protective external structures. These structures include eyelids, eyelashes, mucous membranes, and the cornea.The eyes also have a lacrimal gland that produces tears that flush foreign bodies from the eyes. The tears contain lysozyme, an enzyme that kills bacteria by destroying their cell wall. Lysozyme also is found in many bodily fluids including mucus, saliva, and sweat. The ears also have protective features. The ear canal is lined with many small hairs and numerous ceruminous glands.The glands secrete cerumen or ear wax.The wax as well as the lining of hair helps to keep pathogens from entering the ear canal. Physical Barrier: Respiratory System The respiratory system consists of the upper respiratory tract and the lower respi- ratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and large bronchioles. The lower respiratory tract includes thin- walled bronchioles and alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. The entire respiratory system is lined with moist epithelium. The epithelium in the upper respiratory tract contains mucus-secreting cells and is covered with cilia. Several mechanisms are active in protecting an individual from pathogenic infec- tion through the respiratory system. Secreted mucus from the membranes in the upper respiratory tract traps pathogens and particles that may contain pathogens. The mucus contains lysozymes that degrade the cell walls of bacteria, and coughing and sneezing not only expose pathogens to mucus but also help to expel them. Cilia in the upper respiratory tract beat toward the pharynx. This action is referred to as the mucociliary escalator, and it lifts the pathogens to the orophar- ynx, where they are spit out or swallowed. Physical Barrier: Digestive Tract The digestive tract consists of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines and support organs such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. The digestive system employs several mechanisms that attack invading pathogens. Throughout the digestive tract mucin, a glycoprotein in mucus, coats many pathogens and keeps them from attaching to the inner surface of the digestive tract. Saliva also contains antibodies that destroy pathogens. Lysozyme also is produced and released in the digestive tract. The stomach and small intestines destroy pathogens. The strong acidity of the stomach and bile acids and enzymes in the small intestine destroys many pathogens and inactivate many viruses. Acidity in the stomach is due in large part to the pro- duction of gastric acid or hydrochloric acid (HCl). The indigenous bacteria of the large intestine destroy and inactivated pathogens by surrounding them so they leave the host in feces. Inactivation or destruction of pathogenic agents in the lower intestinal tract continues with the maintenance of a low pH. Here, lactic acid (CH3CHOHCOOH) and acetic acid (CH3COOH) are produced through metabolic NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES 131
- 837. 132 THE BODY’SDEFENSES TABLE 20.4 Major Formed Elements of the Blood Formed Element Function Erythrocyte Transport oxygen throughout the body Leukocyte Nonspecific and specific defenses Platelet Blood clotting component fermentation. The indigenous bacteria of the intestinal tract also rob pathogens of essential nutrients. In the digestive tract lactoferrin and transferrin bind to iron and steal this essential growth nutrient from pathogens. In addition to the digestive tract, lactoferrin and transferrin are found in other physical barriers. Lactoferrin is found in tears, bile, and nasopharyngeal, bronchial, and intestinal secretions. Transferrin is found in blood serum and the intercellular spaces of many tissues and organs. Physical Barrier: Cardiovascular System The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.The blood contains numerous formed elements (Table 20.4). These elements include (1) ery- throcytes that contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen throughout the body, (2) leukocytes or white blood cells that contribute to nonspecific and specific defenses, and (3) platelets. Platelets are an important blood-clotting agent. Physical Barrier: Lymphatic System The lymphatic system consists of a network of vessels,lymph nodes,lymphatic tissue, and lymph fluid. Lymphatic tissue contains cells that phagocytize pathogenic agents. These cells are B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). Phagocytes Phagocytes or leukocytes (white blood cells) remove debris and pathogens from the body (Fig. 20.1). Leukocytes contribute to specific and nonspecific defenses. There are two groups of leukocytes—granulocytes and agranulocytes (Table 20.5). Gran- ulocytes have a granular cytoplasm and irregularly shaped nuclei, whereas agranu- locytes lack granules in the cytoplasm and have round nuclei. There are three types of granulocytes. They are basophils, eosinophils, and neu- trophils. Basophils migrate into tissues, where they are called mast cells. Inside the tissues the mast cells release histamines and heparin. Histamines initiate the inflam- matory response, whereas heparin inhibits blood clotting. Eosinophils are released in large numbers during allergic reactions. They act as phagocytes and may detoxify foreign compounds. Neutrophils are vigorous phago- cytes. They protect the skin and mucous membranes from pathogen invasion. There are two types of agranulocytes, monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes also migrate into tissues. Once inside tissues, monocytes are referred to as macrophages. As macrophages, they engulf pathogens and debris.
- 838. NONSPECIFIC DEFENSES 133 (f) (e) (d) (c) (b) (a) nucleus lysosome Figure20.1 Phagocytosis. The process of phagocytosis consists of several steps. When foreign bodies such as pathogens enter the human body (a), phagocytic cells within the immune system (b–c) gradually ingest the foreign bodies. Once ingested, the foreign bodies are digested by lysosomes (d–e). the wastes resulting from digestion are released from the phagocytic cells (f). TABLE 20.5 Groups of Leukocytes Group Leukocytes Granulocytes Basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils Agranulocytes Monocytes, lymphocyte B cells, lymphocyte T cells, lymphocyte NK cells Lymphocytes (B cells,T cells, and NK cells) are carried in the blood and are found in large numbers in lymphoid tissues, where they contribute to specific immunity. Lymphoid tissue includes lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils. If pathogens are successful in infecting (colonizing) an individual, the individual may display no clinical symptoms (asymptomatic), mild symptoms (acute), or severe
- 839. symptoms (chronic) (Table20.6). Regardless of the symptoms or lack of symptoms displayed by an individual, the bodily wastes or fluids of the infected individual do contain pathogens. An example of an asymptomatic carrier of typhoid fever was Mary Mallon or Typhoid Mary. Mary Mallon was an Irish immigrant who lived and worked in New York City in the early 1900s. She was employed as a cook and was responsible for causing many cases of typhoid fever, a number of them fatal. Poor hygiene practices by Mary Mallon were responsible for the transmission of the typhoid bacterium, Salmonella typhi. SPECIFIC DEFENSES Significant specific defenses consist of immunity and immunization.These topics are reviewed in Chapter 25, Immunization. 134 THE BODY’S DEFENSES TABLE 20.6 Disease Manifestations in Infected and Diseased Individuals Manifestation Clinical Symptoms Asymptomatic None Acute Mild Chronic Severe
- 840.
- 841.
- 842. EngrTufail Ali Zubedi EnvironmentalConsulTant BE, MEE Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Introduction to Testing methods in environment
- 843. Env Problem Planning Diagnostics Field visits Testing &Analysis Field Lab Design Implementation Performance Evaluation End
- 844. Standard Methods forthe Examination of Water and Wastewater first published in 1905. Since that time, and through 20 editions, Standard Methods has included hundreds of analytical techniques for the determination of water quality. These techniques have been developed by a number of water quality researchers who have been members of the Standard Methods Committee (SMC).
- 845. Handout 1 Handout 2
- 846. Air Emissions SolidWaste Soil
- 847. “Chemical Storage,“Chemical Storage,&& Management”Management”gg Engr Tufail Ali Zubedi Tufail Ali@SPMCpk comTufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 848.
- 849. 3 Water Pollution LandDegradation
- 850.
- 851. Fire in theIndustryFire in the Industry Essa Tex, SITE Berger Paints Ali Enterprise, Baldia Meko Tex PNS building KESC / State Life buildingKESC / State Life building, Tazreen Plaza, BD 5
- 852. Key Consideration forChemical Safety B A r !Be Aware! Be Alert! Be Safe! 6
- 853. Key Consideration forChemical Safety Rule #1 Don’t buy or store chemicals you do not need • Do not purchase larger quantities then needed • Never stock up more than a year's supply of chemicals • Amounts of chemicals that can be used up in 3 months are recommended 7
- 854. Key Consideration forChemical Safety Rule #2 Store chemicals in their original containerStore chemicals in their original container • The original container was designed to hold the chemical withoutg g degrading. • The original container will have an accurate label. • Serious injury can result when people try to identify chemicalsSerious injury can result when people try to identify chemicals with missing or uncertain labels by smelling,tasting or touching 8
- 855. Key Consideration forChemical Safety Rule #3Rule #3 Al a s ear appropriate safet gear and ork inAlways wear appropriate safety gear and work in a safe environmenta safe environment 9
- 856. Key Consideration forChemical Safety R l #4Rule #4 Always dispose of chemicals safely • Spill response procedure should be prepared • Check the MSDS for specific spill procedures • Absorption by using appropriate compatible material, for exampleAbsorption by using appropriate compatible material, for example sawdust or sand • By using specific pre packed spill kits • By dilution, it may reduce the reactivity of the spilled materialy y y p • Neutralizing the spilled chemical to inactivate it, for example adding acid to bases or reducers to oxidizers • All spilled material must be disposed of as hazardous waste 10
- 857. Storage Issues ThatCause Chemical Injury a. Improper or non-existent labeling of chemicals in storage. b. Storage of chemicals beyond the recommended shelf life. c. Degradation of chemical storage containers. 11
- 858. Health Effects ofChemicals Ch i l B ( id b )a. Chemical Burns (strong acids, strong bases) b. Heat Burns (flammable materials) c. Poisoning (many chemicals are damaging or fatal if taken internally, whether by swallowing, injection, or leaching through skin)through skin) d. Chronic illness (long-term exposure to even low doses of certain chemical agents can lead to chronic health conditions)g ) 12
- 859.
- 860. Safe Work Procedures •Written Procedures • Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) • Equipment Use (e.g Scope) • Housekeeping • Pr p r St r ( / t mp tibilit )• Proper Storage (a/c to compatibility) 14
- 861. 1) Chemical Storage CollectMSDS for all the chemicals, particularly hazardous chemicals and place at a place where all the concerned workers can access.p p Classify chemicals into one or more of the following broad categories according to the information given in MSDS. Notes: See material safety data sheets for patent chemicals for their incompatibilities. Some chemical may fall in more than one class, choose the most severe case. 15
- 862.
- 863. Chemical Storage Classes&Chemical Storage Classes & Recommended Color Coding (NFPA and ther Standard)and other Standard) Corrosive Reactive/ Oxidizer General Storage Flammable Toxic 17 • Striped: A striped label indicated that the material is incompatible with other materials in the same class. Assess storage individually.
- 864. Chemical Segregation WhiWhi YllY ll GG Whi S iWhi S i R dR d BlBl R d S iR d S iWhiteWhite YellowYellow GreenGreen White StripeWhite Stripe RedRed BlueBlue Red StripeRed Stripe AuxiliariesAuxiliaries DyesDyes OPENOPEN AREAAREA (out side(out side factoryfactory premises)premises) CORROSIVECORROSIVE REACTIVEREACTIVE GENERAL STORAGEGENERAL STORAGE CORROSIVECORROSIVE FLAMMABLEFLAMMABLE TOXICTOXIC FLAMMABLEFLAMMABLE HazardHazard AbbreviationAbbreviation T F Xn Xi NT F Xn Xi NT, F, Xn, Xi, NT, F, Xn, Xi, N * Formic acid* Formic acid * Hydrogen* Hydrogen PeroxidePeroxide Soda AshSoda Ash Caustic SodaCaustic Soda Acetic AcidAcetic Acid SodiumSodium hydrosulphitehydrosulphite OpticalOptical brightenerbrightener AllAll dyesdyes CompresseCompresse d gasesd gases AmmoniumAmmonium Phosphate biPhosphate bi basicbasic LiquorLiquor AmmoniaAmmonia DesizerDesizer UreaUrea SoftnerSoftner Sodium chlorideSodium chloride DispersingDispersing agentagent MagnesiumMagnesium chloridechloride WettingWetting agentagent SodiumSodium bicarbonatebicarbonate BinderBinder 18 * Keep appropriate distance (5 ft ) , during storage of these chemicals. StarchStarch StabilizerStabilizer
- 865. Proposed Chemical SegregationProposedChemical Segregation PlanPlan –– UtahUtah (2011(2011--0202--10/TAZ)10/TAZ)PlanPlan UtahUtah (2011(2011--0202--10/TAZ)10/TAZ) 19
- 866. Ch i lI tibilit C lChemical Incompatibility Color Coding System StorageStorage CodeCode COLORCOLOR MeaningMeaning StoreStore awayaway fromfrom StorageStorage SpecificationSpecification RR RedRed FlammableFlammable Yellow,Yellow, Blue,Blue, WhiteWhite && GreenGreen StoreStore inin areaarea designateddesignated forfor flammableflammable materialsmaterials YY YellowYellow ReactiveReactive // OxidizingOxidizing RedRed StoreStore awayaway fromfrom flammableflammable andand combustiblecombustible materialsmaterialscombustiblecombustible materialsmaterials BB BlueBlue HealthHealth HazardHazard (( ToxicToxic )) StoreStore inin securesecure areaarea andand lockedlocked.. WW WhiteWhite CorrosiveCorrosive Red,Red, YellowYellow && BlueBlue StoreStore awayaway fromfrom flammables,flammables, reactivereactive oxidizersoxidizers andand toxictoxicreactive,reactive, oxidizersoxidizers andand toxictoxic chemicalschemicals GG GreenGreen NoNo majormajor healthhealth hazardhazard DependsDepends onon chemicalchemical.. 20All compatible chemicals as mentioned above are required to be consulted by their MSDS.
- 867. Chemical Storage: GeneralGuidanceChemical Storage: General Guidance The chemicals should be store in a well organized and well maintained storage system. Do not Stack Chemical drums above shoulder height this couldg lead the chances of accident. If there is not enough space available for storage go for shelving system.g y NOTE: Secondary containers very useful for segregation of incompatible materials. 21
- 868. Chemical Storage: GeneralGuidanceChemical Storage: General Guidance The chemicals should be safely packed. If a chemical has an expiration date, this should be highlighted. Secondary Containment should be provided to control spillageSecondary Containment should be provided to control spillage and leakages in the chemical store Spill handling procedures should be prepared and incase of any chemical spill immediately refer it 22
- 869. Chemical Storage: GeneralGuidanceChemical Storage: General Guidance The capacity of the containment trays should be appropriate so that excess spillage could be collected. Adequate number and type of fire extinguishers should be present. The presence of drench showers, eyewashes, fire blankets, protective clothing including coveralls, aprons, gloves, respirators, goggles and safety should be ensured. 23
- 870. Secondary ContainmentSecondary Containment Secondarycontainment is a mean of surrounding one or more primary storagesurrounding one or more primary storage containers or equipments containing hazardous materials or waste so that spills and leaks are automatically contained in the Secondary Containment event of failure of primary container. Secondary containment is required for the storage of all hazardous material. Volume requirements: • 110 % for single container • 150% of the largest container for multiple150% of the largest container for multiple containers or 10 % of the aggregate volume • all open containments should have additional volume to hold 4.5 inch of rainfall 24
- 871. Hazardous IdentificationHazardous Identificationofof ChemicalsChemicalsChemicalsChemicals Indicates Poisonous or toxic material Indicates explosive material Indicates flammable substance
- 872. Indicates corrosive material Indicateshazardous to environment
- 873. Hazard CommunicationHazard CommunicationHazardCommunicationHazard Communication 27
- 874. Fi st AidMeas esFi st Aid Meas esFirst Aid MeasuresFirst Aid Measures There must be a First Aid BoxThere must be a First Aid Box. There must be a Wash Basin There must be a Eye ShowerThere must be a Eye Shower There must be a Emergency Shower It is employer duty to provide all above mentioned facilities
- 875. There should beproper arrangement for fire fighting e.g. Place Fire Extinguisher having Dry Power (ABC) that can be used for multi purpose(ABC) that can be used for multi purpose fire. Trained peoples regarding us of Firep p g g extinguisher Provide emergency exit from chemical storestore Fire Fighting MeasuresFire Fighting MeasuresFire Fighting MeasuresFire Fighting Measures
- 876. V il ii Ch i l SV il i i Ch i l SVentilation in Chemical StoreVentilation in Chemical Store Ventilation is the best way of keeping airborne contaminants down to safe, acceptable level called occupationalacceptable level called occupational exposure limit (OEL)
- 877. W k SfWork Safe Work Smart! 31
- 878. Environmental Management System, ISO14001:2004 Presented by: Engr Tufail Ali Zubedi BE. MEE Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/
- 879. Background • This Standardwas approved 13 Nov 2004 • Supersedes EN ISO 14001:1996 • Document prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 207 • www.iso.org
- 880. What is ISO? •International Organization for Standards. • Is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies
- 881. Address – DirectorateGeneral Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority Block #77, Pakistan Secretariat Saddar, Karachi PK-Karachi-74400 Tel: +92 21 999206260 Fax: +92 21 999206263 Web: www.psqca.com.pk Pakistan (PSQCA) Government of Pakistan established Pakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority (PSQCA) to provide one window services for Standardization and Conformity Assessment.
- 882. How Organization canbenefit • Pakistan = scarce resources. • No cushion for absorbing mistakes. • Wrong choice = serious economic or social consequences • Invest wisely
- 883. Example • An effortto export local products comes to nothing because they do not meet regulations or consumer criteria on foreign markets.
- 884. Advantages of ImplementingISO standards • avoiding the waste of resources by "reinventing the wheel" • transferring state-of-the-art technological know-how • supplying criteria for making reasoned choices when evaluating foreign market offerings, whether of technology or consumer products
- 885. Advantages of ImplementingISO standards • safeguarding public health and safety by establishing a base of requirements for application to local or imported products in these regulated areas • providing internationally accepted specifications that can be applied to the development, manufacturing and marketing of local goods and services, thus raising the country's ability to compete on export markets worldwide.
- 886. Environmental Management System •Environment – Surroundings in which an organization operates, including air, water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans, and their interrelation • Management – The act of managing / running business • System – A regularly interacting / interdependent group of items forming a unified whole
- 887. Environmental Management System(EMS) “Part of an organization’s management system used to develop and implement its environmental policy and manage its environmental aspects”
- 888. 3 major principlesof a management system
- 889. EMS – basedon Deming’s Cycle • is an iterative four-step problem-solving process • It is also known as the Deming cycle, Shewhart cycle, Deming wheel, or PLAN-DO-CHECK-ACT [PDCA].
- 890.
- 891.
- 892.
- 893. Deming’s Cycle • PDCAwas made popular by Dr. W. Edwards Deming, who is considered by many to be the father of modern quality control; William Edwards Deming (October 14, 1900 – December 20, 1993)
- 894. "Dr. W. EdwardsDeming taught that by adopting appropriate principles of management, organizations can increase quality and reduce costs (by reducing waste, rework, staff attrition and litigation while increasing customer loyalty).
- 895. Deming’s Cycle • PLAN –Establish the objectives / processes to deliver expected output. • DO – Implement processes. • CHECK – Measure the processes and compare the results against the expected results to ascertain any differences. • ACT – Analyze the cause of differences. – Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. – When PDCA steps does not result in improvement • Refine the scope.
- 897. EMS Manual 1.0 Introduction toEnvironmental Management Manual 2.0 Terms and Definitions 3.0 Introduction 4.0 Environmental Management System Requirements
- 898. EMS Structure • TAZPaper-03 EMS
- 899.
- 900.
- 901. Concept o The steps PLAN E ex DO (IMPL Im fo CHECK S ta ACT(REV In ISO 14001 following 1. Sc 2. N 3. Te 4. En 4 4 4 4 of each step s in each succ stablish the o xpected outpu LEMENTATIO mplement the ollowing "CHE tudy the actu argets from th VIEW) nitiate actions 1 version 200 scheme: cope ormative erms and def nvironmenta .1 General Re .2 Environme .3 Planning 4.3.1 Enviro 4.3.2 Legal 4.3.3 Objec .4 Implement 4.4.1 Resou cessive PDCA objectives and ut (the target ON) plan, execute ECK" and "AC al results coll he "PLAN" ste to correct dif 4 is also base finitions l managemen equirements ental Policy onmental Asp and Other re ctives, targets tation and op urces, roles, re A cycle are: d processes n or goals). e the process CT" steps. lected and me ep to ascertain fferences betw ed on the abo nt system req pects equirements s and program peration esponsibilitie Figure 1 necessary to d s, make the p easured in "D n any differen ween actual a ove PDCA cycl quirements mme(s) s and authori deliver results roduct. Collec DO" step. Com nces. and planned r e. The standa ity s in accordan ct data for an mpare against results. ard is divided nce with the alysis in the t the expected as per the 2 d
- 902. 3 4.4.2 Competence, training and awareness 4.4.3 Communication 4.4.4 Documentation 4.4.5 Control of documents 4.4.6 Operational control 4.4.7 Emergency preparedness and response 4.5 Checking 4.5.1 Monitoring and measurement 4.5.2 Evaluation of compliance 4.5.3 Nonconformity, corrective action and preventive action 4.5.4 Control of records 4.5.5 Internal Audit 4.6 Management review Annexure A Annexure B Bibliography The different elements of an Environmental Management System based on ISO 14001 version 2004 in light of Denimg’s cycle are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 Finally the author is of the opinion that the successful implementation of different elements an environmental management system based on ISO 14001 version 2004 depend on the commitment towards environment from all levels and functions of an organization and especially from top management.
- 903. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION EngrTufailAli Zubedi Environmental Consultant http://www.SPMCpk.com/apc.htm Tufail.ali@spmcpk.com http://www.SPMCpk.com/Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Environmental Legislation
- 904. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION Stockholm declaration of1972 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972 Proclaims that: 1. Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. 2.The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major issue which affects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world;
- 905. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com 3.Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing, creating and advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of life.Wrongly or heedlessly applied, the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and the human environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working environment.
- 906. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com 6.Apoint has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being depend. 7.To achieve this environmental goal will demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. Individuals in all walks of life as well as organizations in many fields, by their values and the sum of their actions, will shape the world environment of the future.
- 907. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com TheFederal Environment Ministry was established in Pakistan in 1975. Ministry was responsible for promulgation of the environmental Protection Ordinance of Pakistan in 1983. The main objective of Ordinance 1983 was to establish Federal and Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies and Pakistan Environmental Protection Council (PEPC).
- 908. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com In1992 Pakistan attended the Earth Summit in state of Brazil (Rio-De Janeiro) and thereafter became party to various international conventions and protocols. 1992 Pakistan prepared National Conservation Strategy (NCS), It provides a broad framework for addressing environmental concerns in the country. In 1993 Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) were designed.
- 909. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com PakistanEnvironmental Protection Ordinance, 1983 was superseeded by Pakistan Environmental Protection Act was enacted on 6th December 1997. It provides the framework for implementation of NCS, establishment of Provincial Sustainable development Funds, Protection and conservation of species, conservation of renewable resources, establishment of EnvironmentalTribunals and appointment of Environmental Magistrates, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). Pakistan Environmental Protection Council
- 910. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Pakistanalso committed itself to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) as adopted by the UN member states in the year 2000 (12?). Superseded by Sustainable Development Goals (8).
- 911. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2000 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com HazardousSubstances Rules, 2000. According to these rules every generating unit of hazardous waste shall be responsible for the proper management of the waste generated by it till its final disposal in accordance with the rules and regulations.
- 912. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2000 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com NationalEnvironmental Quality Standard (Certification of Environmental Laboratories) Regulation, 2000. These rules are very important because they prescribe pollution limits for the industry and certify them according to the rules and regulations. Failure to maintain the limits is punishable with certain amount of fine or imprisonment.
- 913. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com InFeb. 2001, the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) was approved to follow the strategy of NCS, which narrows the government’s policy focus on the environment to four core programs: clean air, clean water, waste management and ecosystem management.
- 914. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Acomprehensive program has been launched to support implementation of NEAP.The United Nations Development Program has been supporting the implementation of this initiative through the NEAP supporting program (NEAP- SP).
- 915. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2001 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Environmentalinstitutions at local government level under Local Government Ordinance, 2001 were established. In this connection district environment offices have been established and most of the implementations of PEPA, 1997 have been devolved to local governments.The provincial governments, in exercising its responsibility for legislation and financing, must provide the requisite support to the local governments to deliver improved sanitation services.
- 916. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2001 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com NationalEnvironmental Quality Standards (self-monitoring and reporting by industries) Rules, 2001. These are the most important rules under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997 as they prescribe pollution limits for the industry. It puts obligations upon all the industries to submit correct and timely Environmental Monitoring Reports to the Federal Environmental Protection Agency.
- 917. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2001 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com PakistanSustainable Development Fund (Utilization) Rules, 2001. These rules provide the procedure for the sanction and utilization of financial assistance provided by the board.The board observed that the project should protect the environment and prevent the pollution.
- 918. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2001 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Pollutioncharge for Industry (calculation and collection) Rules, 2001. According to these rules, the industrial unit is to ensure the correct calculation, reporting and payment of the pollution charge. Inspection team shall determine the pollution level of industrial unit at least once a year.The pollution charge is calculated by multiplying the pollution level with actual production during the charge payable period and with the applicable rate per pollution unit for the year.
- 919. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com EnvironmentalTribunalProcedures and Qualification Rules, 2000. These rules have been promulgated to resolve the disputes relating to the environmental issues.The functions of the Tribunal may be performed by a bench.
- 920. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION 2001 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com EnvironmentalSample Rules, 2001. Generally, these rules regulate the procedure for obtaining sample from the industrial units, their tests and analysis by the environmental laboratories and trial procedure for the contravention of the provisions of these rules.
- 921.
- 922. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com TheNational Environmental Policy (2005-15) was prepared during 2005-06. The policy aims to improve the quality of life of people of Pakistan through conservation, protection and improvement of the country’s environment and effective cooperation among government agencies, civil society, private sector and other stakeholders.
- 923. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Thecountry’s first ever Environmental Policy addresses the sectoral issues such as (a) water management and conservation, (b) energy efficiency and renewable resources, (c) agriculture and livestock, (d) forestry and plantation, (e) biodiversity and protected areas, (f) climate change, air quality and noise pollution (g) and waste management.
- 924. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Thepolicy also addresses other cross-sectional issues such as (a) population and environment, (b) gender and environment, (c) health and environment, (d) trade and environment, (e) poverty and environment, (f) environment and local government.
- 925. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com StateOf Environment Report 2005 (Draft)
- 926. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Underthe NEAP-SP, Green Industry Program was launched in the year 2006, for the promotion of Self Monitoring and Reporting, to make the industries responsible for systematic monitoring and reporting of their environmental performance. Ministry also created the National Environmental Information Management System (NEIMS) to promote the national capacity for decision making in managing and utilizing environmental information under NEAP-SP.
- 927. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com ProvincialEnvironmental Protection Agencies (EPAs) have also been established in all four provinces, which focus on industrial and urban pollution problems. EPA Punjab established in 1987 EPA Sindh established in 1989, NWFP in 1992, and Baluchistan in 1995, AJK in 2005, and NA in 2007
- 928. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com Inurban areas, environmental responsibilities rest with the provincial Public Health Engineering Departments, with industrial pollution control being the responsibility of the provincial EPAs. Municipal governments have responsibility for solid waste disposal and for sewage handling and treatment.
- 929. PRINTERFRIENDLYVERSIONPRINTERFRIENDLYVERSION Sindh Environmental ProtectionAct 2014 http://www.SPMCpk.com/ Contact: Tufail.Ali@SPMCpk.com
- 930.
- 931. Stockholm declaration.txt http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.Print.asp?documentid =97&articleid=1503 Declaration ofthe United Nations Conference on the Human Environment The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972,having considered the need for a common outlook and for common principles to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment, Proclaims that: 1. Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet a stage has been reached when, through the rapid acceleration of science and technology, man has acquired the power to transform his environment in countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both aspects of man's environment, the natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life itself. 2. The protection and improvement of the human environment is a major Page 1
- 932. Stockholm declaration.txt issue whichaffects the well-being of peoples and economic development throughout the world; it is the urgent desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty of all Governments. 3. Man has constantly to sum up experience and go on discovering, inventing, creating and advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring to all peoples the benefits of development and the opportunity to enhance the quality of life. Wrongly or heedlessly applied, the same power can do incalculable harm to human beings and the human environment. We see around us growing evidence of man-made harm in many regions of the earth: dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and social health of man, in the man-made environment, particularly in the living and working environment. 4. In the developing countries most of the environmental problems are caused by under-development. Millions continue to live far below the minimum levels required for a decent human existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing, shelter and education, health and sanitation. Therefore, the developing countries must direct their efforts to development, bearing in mind their priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the environment. For the same purpose, the industrialized countries should make efforts to reduce the gap themselves and the developing countries. In the industrialized countries, environmental problems are generally related to industrialization and technological Page 2
- 933. Stockholm declaration.txt development. 5. Thenatural growth of population continuously presents problems for the preservation of the environment, and adequate policies and measures should be adopted, as appropriate, to face these problems. Of all things in the world, people are the most precious. It is the people that propel social progress, create social wealth, develop science and technology and, through their hard work, continuously transform the human environment. Along with social progress and the advance of production, science and technology, the capability of man to improve the environment increases with each passing day. 6. A point has been reached in history when we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly environment on which our life and well being depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and wiser action, we can achieve for ourselves and our posterity a better life in an environment more in keeping with human needs and hopes. There are broad vistas for the enhancement of environmental quality and the creation of a good life. What is needed is an enthusiastic but calm state of mind and intense but orderly work. For the purpose of attaining freedom in the world of nature, man must use knowledge to build, in collaboration with nature, a better environment. To defend and improve the human environment for present and future generations has become an imperative goal for mankind-a goal to be pursued together with, and in harmony with, the established and fundamental goals of peace and of worldwide economic and social development. Page 3
- 934. Stockholm declaration.txt 7. Toachieve this environmental goal will demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens and communities and by enterprises and institutions at every level, all sharing equitably in common efforts. Individuals in all walks of life as well as organizations in many fields, by their values and the sum of their actions, will shape the world environment of the future. Local and national governments will bear the greatest burden for large-scale environmental policy and action within their jurisdictions. International cooperation is also needed in order to raise resources to support the developing countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this field. A growing class of environmental problems, because they are regional or global in extent or because they affect the common international realm, will require extensive cooperation among nations and action by international organizations in the common interest. The Conference calls upon Governments and peoples to exert common efforts for the preservation and improvement of the human environment, for the benefit of all the people and for their posterity. Principles States the common conviction that: Principle 1 Page 4
- 935. Stockholm declaration.txt Man hasthe fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations. In this respect, policies promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial segregation, discrimination, colonial and other forms of oppression and foreign domination stand condemned and must be eliminated. Principle 2 The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. Principle 3 Page 5
- 936. Stockholm declaration.txt The capacityof the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved. Principle 4 Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development. Principle 5 The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind. Page 6
- 937. Stockholm declaration.txt Principle 6 Thedischarge of toxic substances or of other substances and the release of heat, in such quantities or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the environment to render them harmless, must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems. The just struggle of the peoples of ill countries against pollution should be supported. Principle 7 States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. Principle 8 Economic and social development is essential for ensuring a favorable living and working environment for man and for creating conditions on Page 7
- 938. Stockholm declaration.txt earth thatare necessary for the improvement of the quality of life. Principle 9 Environmental deficiencies generated by the conditions of under-development and natural disasters pose grave problems and can best be remedied by accelerated development through the transfer of substantial quantities of financial and technological assistance as a supplement to the domestic effort of the developing countries and such timely assistance as may be required. Principle 10 For the developing countries, stability of prices and adequate earnings for primary commodities and raw materials are essential to environmental management, since economic factors as well as ecological processes must be taken into account. Principle 11 Page 8
- 939. Stockholm declaration.txt The environmentalpolicies of all States should enhance and not adversely affect the present or future development potential of developing countries, nor should they hamper the attainment of better living conditions for all, and appropriate steps should be taken by States and international organizations with a view to reaching agreement on meeting the possible national and international economic consequences resulting from the application of environmental measures. Principle 12 Resources should be made available to preserve and improve the environment, taking into account the circumstances and particular requirements of developing countries and any costs which may emanate- from their incorporating environmental safeguards into their development planning and the need for making available to them, upon their request, additional international technical and financial assistance for this purpose. Principle 13 In order to achieve a more rational management of resources and thus to improve the environment, States should adopt an integrated and coordinated approach to their development planning so as to ensure that development is compatible with the need to protect and improve Page 9
- 940. Stockholm declaration.txt environment forthe benefit of their population. Principle 14 Rational planning constitutes an essential tool for reconciling any conflict between the needs of development and the need to protect and improve the environment. Principle 15 Planning must be applied to human settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding adverse effects on the environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and environmental benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc designed for colonialist and racist domination must be abandoned. Principle 16 Demographic policies which are without prejudice to basic human rights and which are deemed appropriate by Governments concerned should be Page 10
- 941. Stockholm declaration.txt applied inthose regions where the rate of population growth or excessive population concentrations are likely to have adverse effects on the environment of the human environment and impede development. Principle 17 Appropriate national institutions must be entrusted with the task of planning, managing or controlling the 9 environmental resources of States with a view to enhancing environmental quality. Principle 18 Science and technology, as part of their contribution to economic and social development, must be applied to the identification, avoidance and control of environmental risks and the solution of environmental problems and for the common good of mankind. Principle 19 Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as Page 11
- 942. Stockholm declaration.txt adults, givingdue consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment in its full human dimension. It is also essential that mass media of communications avoid contributing to the deterioration of the environment, but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an educational nature on the need to project and improve the environment in order to enable mal to develop in every respect. Principle 20 Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries. In this connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific information and transfer of experience must be supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of environmental problems; environmental technologies should be made available to developing countries on terms which would encourage their wide dissemination without constituting an economic burden on the developing countries. Principle 21 States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the Page 12
- 943. Stockholm declaration.txt responsibility toensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. Principle 22 States shall cooperate to develop further the international law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other environmental damage caused by activities within the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas beyond their jurisdiction. Principle 23 Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the international community, or to standards which will have to be determined nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the systems of values prevailing in each country, and the extent of the applicability of standards which are valid for the most advanced countries but which may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries. Page 13
- 944. Stockholm declaration.txt Principle 24 Internationalmatters concerning the protection and improvement of the environment should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all countries, big and small, on an equal footing. Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral arrangements or other appropriate means is essential to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate adverse environmental effects resulting from activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way that due account is taken of the sovereignty and interests of all States. Principle 25 States shall ensure that international organizations play a coordinated, efficient and dynamic role for the protection and improvement of the environment. Principle 26 Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must strive to reach Page 14
- 945. Stockholm declaration.txt prompt agreement,in the relevant international organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such weapons. 21st plenary meeting 16 June 1972 Chapter 11 © United Nations Environment Programme Page 15
- 946. Wednesday, June 25,2014 1
- 947. Part 1: EnvironmentalIssues In Sindh Part 2: Brief Overview On Environmental Legislation in Sindh Wednesday, June 25, 2014 2
- 948. PART 1: ENVIRONMENTALISSUES IN SINDH Wednesday, June 25, 2014 3
- 949. Air Pollution(vehicular/Industrial) Noise Pollution Water Pollution (Industrial, Domestic Wastewater) Disposal Of Sewage In To Fresh Water Bodies(canals) Solid Waste (Industrial/Municipal/Hazardous/Hospital) Burning Of Solid Waste Ecosystems, Biodiversity, Agriculture Runoff. Indiscriminate Use Of Chemical, Fertilizers And Pesticides. Food Contamination. Industrial Activities In Residential Areas Development Of Katchi Abadies Degradation Of Natural Resources Cutting Of Trees/Forest Absence Of Environmental Consideration In Development Projects Production And Use Of Non-biodegradable Plastic Products Lack Of Compliance Of Environmental Laws By Industry And Local Government Wednesday, June 25, 2014 4
- 950. Unplanned Development Poverty Lack Of Awareness Mankind Himself Over-population Industrialization And Mechanization Over Use Of Automobiles Criminal Neglect Towards Pollution Control Poor Enforcement Of Law Wednesday, June 25, 2014 5
- 951. Contaminates EssentialCommodities - Water, Air, Soil Pollutes Food Chains And Eco-systems Causes Diseases In Humans And Other Organisms Reduces Physical And Mental Health Weakens Community Increases Expenditure On Health (particularly) Wednesday, June 25, 2014 6
- 952. Wastewater From Hyderabad PowerBeing Discharged Into The Indus River Domestic Wastewater From Adjacent Residential Areas Being Discharged Into The KB Feeder
- 953. Wednesday, June 25,2014 8 Solid Waste Accumulated At HawksBay Beach
- 954. Industrial Waste BeingBurned At SITE Industrial Area Industrial Waste Dumped Within The Malir River Bed
- 955. Instrduial Waste DumpedOutside An Industry On The Main Road Industrial Waste Being Pushed Down Over The Bunds Of The River
- 956. Compliance ofEnvironmental Legislations by all Public Sector organizations. Education and Awareness Enforcement of Environmental Legislation and Standards Consideration of Environmental Aspects in all Planning and Development Projects Development of policies to attract investment in pollution control system (such as treatment plants, dust collectors, filters for smoke, low emission engines, recycling techniques, Scientific landfills etc.)
- 957. PART 2: BRIEFOVERVIEW ON ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION IN SINDH Wednesday, June 25, 2014 12
- 958. PEPO (PakEnv. Protection Ordinance) 1983 PEPA (Pak Env. Protection Act) 1997 SEPA (Sindh Env. Protection Act) 2014 Wednesday, June 25, 2014 13
- 959. NO.PAS/Legis-B-06/2014 Passedby Provincial Assembly of Sindh on 24th February, 2014. Assented to by Governor of Sindh on 19th March, 2014 Notification on 20th March 2014 Wednesday, June 25, 2014 14
- 960. provide forthe Protection Conservation Rehabilitation Improvement of environment Prevention and control of pollution Promotion of sustainable development Wednesday, June 25, 2014 15
- 961. Wednesday, June 25,2014 16
- 962. 1. Short Titleand Commencement 1) The Sindh Environmental Protection Act, 2014. 2) Extends to whole province of sindh. 3) Come into force at once. 2. Definitions Wednesday, June 25, 2014 17
- 963. 3. Establishment ofthe Sindh Environmental Council 4. Functions and Powers of the Council Wednesday, June 25, 2014 18
- 964. 5. Establishment ofSindh Environmental Protection Agency 6. Functions of the Agency 7. Powers of the Agency Wednesday, June 25, 2014 19
- 965. 8. Establishment ofthe Sindh Sustainable Development Fund. 9. Management of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund. 10. Accounts Wednesday, June 25, 2014 20
- 966. 11. Prohibition ofcertain discharges or emissions and compliance with standards. Any effluent that may cause or likely to cause pollution or adverse environmental effects. 12. Prohibition of Import of Hazardous waste. Approval from Agency. 13. Handling of Hazardous Substances. License by the Agency. Wednesday, June 25, 2014 21
- 967. 14. Prohibition ofaction adversely affecting environment. Recycling or reuse hospital and infectious waste. Disposal at unauthorized places. Dumping in water bodies. Release of emissions and discharge. Recycling, reuse, recovery of hazardous waste or industrial by-products. Any cause due to trans-boundary projects. Manage or handle hospital waste except with Hospital Waste Management Rules. deal with any scheduled non-degradable plastic products. 15. Regulation of motor vehicles. 16. Certified environmental laboratory. Registration with the Agency. Wednesday, June 25, 2014 22
- 968. 17. Initial EnvironmentalExamination and Environmental Impact Assessment. Approval from Agency 17. Strategic Environmental Assessment. Submission of report for comments to the Agency. 18. Environmental Monitoring. Monitoring of all projects. 19. Environmental Audit and Review. Submission of report to the Agency. Modification in approval. Wednesday, June 25, 2014 23
- 969. 21. Environmental ProtectionOrder Wednesday, June 25, 2014 24
- 970. 22. Penalties 23. Offencesby body corporate 24. Offences by Government Agencies, local Authorities or local Councils. Wednesday, June 25, 2014 25
- 971. 25. Environmental ProtectionTribunals 26. Jurisdiction and Powers of Environmental Protection Tribunals 27. Appeals to the Environmental Protection Tribunal. 28. Appeals from orders of the Environmental Protection Tribunal 29. Jurisdiction and judicial magistrate 30. Appeals from orders of the judicial magistrate Wednesday, June 25, 2014 26
- 972. 31. Public Participation Wednesday,June 25, 2014 27
- 973. 32. Power tomake and amend schedule 33. Indemnity 34. Dues recoverable as arrears of land revenue. 35. Act to override other laws. 36. Power to make rules 37. Power to make regulations Wednesday, June 25, 2014 28
- 974. Thank you! Wednesday, June25, 2014 29
- 975. It isexpedient to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment and control of pollution and promotion of sustainable development and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto. Wednesday, June 25, 2014 30
- 976.
- 977. IEE /EIA is a decision making support instrument which aims at identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social and other relevant environmental effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments being made (IAIA and IEA 1999). http://www.iaia.org/ http://www.iea.org/
- 978. EIA aimsat achieving a number of things, as follows (adapted from UNEP, 2002a): to provide decision-makers with an analysis of all aspects of the environment so that decisions can be made based on as nearly complete and balanced information as possible; to assess and present those effects that are not adequately addressed by cost-benefit analysis or other technical assessments (including e.g. risk assessment); to provide information to the public on a proposal; to formalise the consideration of alternatives to a project proposal so that the least environmentally harmful means of achieving the given objective can be chosen; to improve the design of new developments and safeguard the environment through the application of measures to avoid and mitigate impacts.
- 979. PEPA - 1997 Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 Act No. XXXIV OF 1997 Islamabad, the 6th December, 1997
- 980. Section 12of PEPA Act 1997 IEE=Initial Environmental Examination EIA=Environmental Impact Assessment SEPA section ??
- 981. Section 2sub-section (xxiv): IEE "initial environmental examination" means a preliminary environmental review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative and quantitative impacts on the environment of a proposed project to determine whether it is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact assessment;
- 982. Section 2sub-section (xi): EIA "environmental impact assessment" means an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of preventive, mitigatory and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed;
- 983. Section 2sub-section (i):AEE "adverse environmental effect" means impairment of, or damage to, the environment and includes— (a) impairment of, or damage to, human health and safety or to biodiversity or property; (b) pollution; and (c) any adverse environmental effect as may be specified in the regulations;
- 984. (iv) "biodiversity"or "biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter alia terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part, including diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems;
- 985. (vii) "ecosystem"means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non- living environment interacting as a functional unit;
- 986. (x) "environment"means— (a) air, water and land; (b) all layers of the atmosphere; (c) all organic and inorganic matter and living organisms; (d) the ecosystem and ecological relationships; (e) buildings, structures, roads, facilities and works; (f) all social and economic conditions affecting community life; and (g) the inter-relationships between any of the factors specified in sub-clauses (a) to (f);
- 987. (xxxiii) "pollution"means the contamination of air, land or water by the discharge or emission of effluent or wastes or air pollutants or noise or other matter which either directly or indirectly or in combination with other discharges or substances alters unfavourably the chemical, physical, biological, radiational, thermal or radiological or aesthetic properties of the air, land or water or which may, or is likely to make the air, land or water unclean, noxious or impure or injurious, disagreeable or detrimental to the health, safety, welfare or property of persons or harmful to biodiversity;
- 988. (xxxv) "project"means any activity, plan, scheme, proposal or undertaking involving any change in the environment and includes— (a) cons truction or use of buildings or other works; (b) construction or use of roads or other transport systems; (c) construction or operation of factories or other installations; (d) mineral prospecting, mining, quarrying, stone-crushing, drilling and the like; (e) any change of land use or water use; and (f) alteration, expansion, repair, decommissioning or abandonment of existing buildings or other works, roads or other transport systems, factories or other installations;
- 989. (xxxvi) "proponent"means the person who proposes or intends to undertake a project;
- 990. Section 12 (1) No proponent of a project shall commence construction or operation unless he has filed with the Government Agency designated by Federal Environmental Protection Agency or Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies, as the case may be, or, where the project is likely to cause an adverse environmental effects an environmental impact assessment, and has obtained from the Government Agency approval in respect thereof.
- 991. (2)The GovernmentAgency shall subject to standards fixed by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency— (a) review the initial environmental examination and accord its approval, or require submission of an environmental impact assessment by the proponent; or
- 992. (2)The GovernmentAgency shall subject to standards fixed by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency— (b) review the environmental impact assessment and accord its approval subject to such conditions as it may deem fit to impose, require that the environmental impact assessment be re-submitted after such modifications as may be stipulated or reject the project as being contrary to environmental objectives.
- 993. (3) Everyreview of an environmental impact assessment shall be carried out with public participation and no information will be disclosed during the course of such public participation which relates to—
- 994. (3) (i)trade, manufacturing or business activities, processes or techniques of a proprietary nature, or financial, commercial, scientific or technical matters which the proponent has requested should remain confidential, unless for reasons to be recorded in writing, the Director General of the FederalAgency is of the opinion that the request for confidentiality is not well- founded or the public interest in the disclosure outweighs the possible prejudice to the competitive position of the project or its proponent; or
- 995. (3) (ii)international relations, national security or maintenance of law and order, except with the consent of the Federal Government; or (iii) matters covered by legal professional privilege.
- 996. (4)The GovernmentAgency shall communicate its approval or otherwise within a period of four months from the date the initial environmental examination or environmental impact assessment is filed complete in all respects in accordance with the prescribed procedure, failing which the initial environmental examination or, as the case may be, the environmental impact assessment shall be deemed to have been approved, to the extent to which it does not contravene the provisions of thisAct and the rules and regulations.
- 997. (5) Subjectto sub-section (4) the appropriate Government may in a particular case extend the aforementioned period of four months if the nature of the project so warrants.
- 998. (6)The provisionsof sub-sections (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) shall apply to such categories of projects and in such manner as may be prescribed.
- 999. (7)The GovernmentAgency shall maintain separate registers for initial environmental examination and environmental impact assessment projects, which shall contain brief particulars of each project and a summary of decisions taken thereon, and which shall be open to inspection by the public at all reasonable hours and the disclosure of information in such registers shall be subject to the restrictions specified in sub-section (3).
- 1001. 16. Environmentalprotection order. (1)Where the FederalAgency or a Provincial Agency is satisfied that the discharge or emission of any effluent, waste, air pollutant or noise, or the disposal of waste, or the handling of hazardous substances, or any other act or omission is likely to occur, or is occurring, or has occurred, in violation of the provisions of thisAct, rules or regulations or of the conditions of a licence, and is likely to cause, or is causing or has caused an adverse environmental effect, the Federal Agency or, as the case may be, the ProvincialAgency may, after giving the person responsible for such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission an opportunity of being heard, by order direct such person to take such measures that the FederalAgency or Provincial Agency may consider necessary within such period as may be specified in the order.
- 1002. (16) (2)In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such measures may include— (a) immediate stoppage, preventing, lessening or controlling the discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission, or to minimize or remedy the advers environmental effect;
- 1003. (16)-(2) (b)installation, replacement or alteration of any equipment or thing to eliminate, control or abate on a permanent or temporary basis, such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission; (c) action to remove or otherwise dispose of the effluent, waste, air pollutant, noise, or hazardous substances; and (d) action to restore the environment to the condition existing prior to such discharge, disposal, handling, act or omission, or as close to such cond ition as may be reasonable in the circumstances, to the satisfaction of the Federal Agency or, ProvincialAgency.
- 1004. (16) (3)Wherethe person, to whom directions under sub-section (1) are given, does not comply therewith, the FederalAgency or ProvincialAgency may, in addition to the proceedings initiated against him under thisAct, the rules and regulations, itself take or cause to be taken such measures specified in the order as it may deem necessary and may recover the reasonable costs of taking such measures from such person as arrears of land revenue.
- 1006. 17. Penalties.— (1)Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of sections 11, 12, 13 or section 16 or any order issued thereunder shall be punishable with fine which may extend to one million rupees, and in the case of a continuing contravention or failure, with an additional fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention or failure continues: Provided that if contravention of the provisions of section 11 also constitutes contravention of the provisions of section 15, such contravention shall be punishable under sub-section (2) only.
- 1007. (17) (2)Whoevercontravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of section 14 or 15 or any rule or regulation or conditions of any licence, any order or direction, issued by the Council or the FederalAgency or ProvincialAgency, shall be punishable with fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees, and in case of continuing contravention or failure with an additional fine which extend to one thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues.
- 1008. (17) (3)Wherean accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-sections (1) and (2), the Environmental Court and Environmental Magistrate, as the case may be, shall, in passing sentence, take into account the extent and duration of the contravention or failure constituting the offence and the attendant circumstances.
- 1009. (17) (4)Wherean accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-section (1) and the Environmental Court is satisfied that as a result of the commission of the offence monetary benefits have accrued to the offender, the Environmental Court may order the offender to pay, in addition to the fines under sub- section (1), further additional fine commensurate with the amount of the monetary benefits.
- 1010. (17) (5)Wherea person convicted under sub-sections (1) or sub- section (2) had been previously convicted for any contravention under thisAct, the Environmental Court or, as the case may be, Environmental Magistrate may, in addition to the punishment awarded thereunder—
- 1011. (17)-(5) (a)endorse a copy of the order of conviction to the concerned trade or industrial association, if any, or the concerned Provincial Chamber of Commerce and Industry or the Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry; (b) sentence him to imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years; (c) order the closure of the factory;
- 1012. (17)-(5) (d)order confiscation of the factory, machinery, and equipment, vehicle, material or substance, record or document or other object used or involved in contravention of the provisions of theAct: Provided that for a period of three years from the date of commencement of thisAct the sentence of imprisonment shall be passed only in respect of persons who have been previously convicted for more than once for any contravention of sections 11, 13, 14 or 16 involving hazardous waste;
- 1013. (17)-(5) (e)order such person to restore the environment at his own cost, to the conditions existing prior to such contravention or as close to such conditions as may be reasonable in the circumstances to the satisfaction of the FederalAgency or, as the case may be, Provincial Agency; and (f) order that such sum be paid to any person as compensation for any loss, bodily injury, damage to his health or property suffered by such contravention.
- 1014. (17) (6)TheDirector-General of the FederalAgency or of a ProvincialAgency or an officergenerally or specially authorised by him in this behalf may, on the application of the accused compound an offence under thisAct with the permission of the EnvironmentalTribunals or Environmental Magistrate in accordance with such proceedure as may be prescribed.
- 1015. (17) (7)Wherethe Director-General of the FederalAgency or of a ProvincialAgency is of the opinion that a person has contravened any provision of Act he may, subject to the rules, by notice in writing to that person require him to pay to the FederalAgency or, as the case may be, ProvincialAgency an administrative penalty in the amount set out in the notice for each day the contravention continues; and a person who pays an administrative penalty for a contravention shall not be charged under thisAct with an offence in respect of such contravention.
- 1016. (17) (8)Theprovisions of sub-sections (6) and (7) shall not apply to a person who has been previously convicted of offence or who has compounded an offence under thisAct whohas paid an administrative penalty for a contravention of any provision of thisAct.
- 1017. HOME WORK Rulesvs regulations ISO14001:2004 vs ISO14001:2015 PEPA1997 vs SEPA2015 Lucky Power Plant or K4 EIA report – feedbacks Two classes 14th and 21st : Presentations Quiz03 14th nov : Exam paper?
- 1019. Government of Pakistan November1997 Guidelines for the Preparation and Review of Environmental Reports Contents Page 1. Introduction 1.1 Context 1.2 Scope 1.3 Integrated environmental assessment 1.4 Making environmental assessment credible and fair 1.5 Relationship between environmental assessment and good design 1.6 Inter-agency coordination 1.7 Early consideration of strategic context 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 2. Commencing environmental assessment 2.1 The purpose of the IEE 2.2 Steps in the IEE Preparation 2.3 Format of the IEE 2.4 Scoping 2.5 Roles of stakeholders in the Scoping process 2.6 Generating alternatives 2.7 Site selection 5 6 6 8 9 10 11
- 1020. 3. Assessing impacts 3.1The ‘assessing’ task 3.2 Impact identification 3.3 Impact analysis and prediction 3.4 Baseline data collection 3.5 Characteristics of impacts 3.6 Prediction methods 3.7 Social impacts 3.8 Health Impacts 3.9 Economic and fiscal impacts 3.10 Impact significance 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 17 18 19 4. Mitigation and impact management 4.1 Purpose of mitigation measures 4.2 Different ways of achieving mitigation 4.3 Preparing an environmental management plan 21 21 22 5. Reporting 5.1 Drafting style 5.2 Main features of an Environmental Report 5.3 Distribution of reports, and other forms of presentation 5.4 Shortcomings of reports 23 24 27 28
- 1021. 6. Reviewing anddecision-making 6.1 The role of the review process 6.2 A consistent, systematic approach 6.3 Steps in reviewing an Environmental Report 6.4 Determining remedial options 6.5 The decision-making process 6.6 Checks and balances 29 30 31 32 33 34 7. Monitoring and auditing 7.1 Need for systematic follow up 7.2 Definition and purpose of monitoring 7.3 Effective data collection and management 7.4 Environmental Monitoring Committees 7.5 Environmental auditing 36 36 37 38 39 8. Project management 8.1 The importance of the role of the environmental study manager 8.2 Attributes of a good environmental study manager 8.3 Core tasks of the environmental study manager 40 40 41 41 42 43
- 1022. 8.4 Inter-disciplinary teams 8.5Programming and budgeting 8.6 Capacity building aspects of project management 9 References 44 Appendix A Global, cross-sectoral and cultural issues I environmental assessment 45 Appendix B An example of a network showing impacts linkages 46 Table Description Page Table 1 Performance objectives and factors to be considered to determine separation distances. 12 Table 2 Main advantages and disadvantages of impact identification methods 13 Table 3 Some examples of major health impacts of development projects 18 Table 4 Factors leading to economic and fiscal impacts. 19 Table 5 Environmental planning and management tools 36 Table 6 Factors that can affect the selection of team members 42 Table 7 Qualities of successful inter-disciplinary team members 42
- 1023. Figure Description Page Figure1 Site selection principles 11 Figure 2 Visual summary of the evaluation of alternatives 26 Figure 3 Decision-making process—private works 33 Figure 4 Decision-making process—public works 34 Figure 5 The relationship between monitoring, management and auditing, and the steps in the environmental assessment process 36S 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Context This guideline is part of a package of regulations and guidelines which include: The Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance 1997 Policy and Procedures for filing, review and approval of environmental assessments Guidelines for the preparation and review of Environmental Reports Guidelines for public participation Guidelines for sensitive and critical areas Pakistan environmental legislation and the National Environmental Quality Standards (NEQS) Detailed sectoral guidelines This guideline should not be read on its own, but in the context of the overall package. The reader will be aware that few Environmental Reports meet the high standards described in this guideline, which presents a picture of "an ideal Environmental Report". In practice Environmental Reports will fall short of this
- 1024. ideal. Nevertheless, itis important to clearly set out what is desired, so that the quality and standard of Environmental Reports in Pakistan improves over time. 1.2 Scope The scope of this guideline is confined to those aspects of environmental report preparation and review which are of a general nature. Sector specific provisions are not included, nor is the subject of public consultation, which is dealt with separately. Although the Initial Environmental Examination is detailed early in the Guideline (Section 2), the material in all the other Sections applies to both IEE’s and to EIA’s. For example, the discussion of mitigation and impact management in Section 4 will apply to those few impacts described in an IEE, as well as the more significant impacts which may be described in an EIA. 1.3 Integrated environmental assessment There is a growing awareness that the environmental impacts of a proposal cannot be considered in isolation. When significant impacts are identified in a proposal, a range of questions arise as to the best way to minimise the adverse effects—can the project objectives be achieved in a different way, should an alternative site be chosen, is the technology appropriate, and are prudent mitigating measures incorporated? These questions go well beyond the role of the environmental assessment team, if they have no responsibility for technical, financial and economic aspects of the feasibility study. It is essential that there is close cooperation between those undertaking environmental assessment, and those undertaking the other aspects of pre- feasibility and feasibility studies. This cooperation must occur throughout the various stages of the project cycle, and not be confined to the mere bringing together of the various strands at the project approval stage. The cooperation needs to be continuous, to allow for continuous project modification in response to environmental issues, and to ensure that the environmental assessment continues to proceed on the basis of the emerging design concept for the project. In many cases, the cooperation will be facilitated when the various components of the feasibility study are undertaken in an integrated manner. Where this is not possible, then the activities should proceed in parallel. 1.4 Making environmental assessment credible and fair No matter who prepares the Environmental report, some bias will exist. And bias is not restricted to proponents, nor to Agencies and Departments, but will be present in every NGO or community member who contributes or comments on an Environmental Report. Full public involvement provides a counterbalance to bias, and some further measures will also assist in making the environmental
- 1025. assessment process transparent,accessible and accountable to the public. These measures include: • a requirement for the proponent to register all consultants’ names and their terms of reference with the Responsible Authority; • the listing of all consultants, their expertise and responsibilities in the environmental report; • publishing the terms of reference in the environmental report; • making all environmental reports available to the public; • publishing lists of decisions–including the requirement for an EIA and the final outcome of environmental approval–along with the public availability of any recommendations for mitigation and impact management plans. Where a proponent is concerned to ensure that confidential information, such as the details of a new manufacturing process, is not made available to competitors, such information need not be detailed in the Environmental Report, but made available to the Responsible Authority on a confidential basis. 1.5 Relationship between environmental assessment and good design Good design practice will include careful consideration of environmental issues. It may be asked why environmental assessment is necessary beyond good design. Experience in both industrialised and developing countries shows that there are two systematic difficulties in ensuring good design practice. The first of these lies in the lack of interest, and consideration during the planning and design process, shown by many project proponents in the possible effect of proposals on environmental resources. The second results from differences in design assumptions on impacts, and the actual outcomes when the project goes into operation. Environmental assessment should address both these difficulties. 1.6 Inter-agency coordination Inter-agency coordination is crucial to effective environmental assessment because environmental issues, in their complexity and variety, are often inter- sectoral and regional. Those preparing Environmental Reports need to be aware of the policies, information sets, and requirements of key Federal and Provincial agencies. The range of agencies which need to be involved clearly relates to the scale and magnitude of the proposal, and its likely resource requirements and impacts. Inter-agency coordination is best achieved through inter-agency meetings at key points in the environmental assessment process. A meeting at the time of scoping is vitally important:
- 1026. • to informall interested parties about the project and the intention to prepare an Environmental Report; • to seek their views throughout the process; • to identify issues; • to discuss any special type of analysis required and data sources; and • to draft Terms of Reference for an EIA. 1.7 Early consideration of strategic context The objectives of a proposal should always be clearly established at the beginning, along with the project relationship to broader strategic plans and goals. Considering the strategic context is essential when selecting options for the proposal. Strategic mechanisms such as policies and plans which illustrate how the proposal has been developed, should be discussed in the Environmental Report so that the information is available and relevant. Any existing relevant cumulative or strategic environmental studies should be considered when formulating a proposal. Existing air and water studies, state of the environment reports and local and regional studies should be taken into consideration as applicable. All feasible alternatives that could satisfy the objectives of the proposal should be considered. When weighing up options, the biophysical, economic and social costs and benefits throughout the whole life cycle of the proposal should be considered. The ‘do-nothing’ option should also be included in these considerations. Careful option selection can lower community concerns and reduce potential costs of mitigation and management required to control environmental impacts. Early adoption of sustainable development strategies can reduce possible conflicts, and additional costs and delays at later stages of the approval process. 2. COMMENCING ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 2.1 The purpose of the IEE An IEE is required for projects in Schedule B of the "Policy and Procedures for the filing, review and approval of environmental assessments". The Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance 1997 gives the following definition: "initial environmental examination" means a preliminary environmental review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative and quantitative impacts on the environment of a proposed project to determine whether it s likely to cause an adverse environmental effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact assessment."
- 1027. An IEE isa relatively simple document, which systematically considers all the likely impacts arising from a proposal, identifies which impacts need further consideration, and for those impacts provides mitigation measures which reduce the impacts to an acceptable level. Where the IEE reveals more significant impacts, the Responsible Authority, in conjunction with the EPA, will determine the need for an EIA. In such circumstances, the Responsible Authority shall provide, in writing, the reasons why an EIA is required (e.g. the number and magnitude of impacts, the sensitivity of the proposed site, the level of community concern). The IEE will not usually require public advertisement and comment, but it remains a publicly accessible document, available to any person who wishes to inspect it at the offices of the Responsible Authority. The IEE process is also to be followed for projects requiring EIA. Here, the IEE process of systematically considering all the likely impacts is used as a means of early identification of issues in order to prepare Terms of Reference for the EIA. In such cases, the formal documentation of the IEE Report is not undertaken, but replaced by the EIA preparation and reporting. It is important not only to cover the environmental issues known at the inception of the study, but also to allow the breadth and flexibility so that new issues can be identified and, if significant, be addressed. However it is also important to frame the investigation so that time and resources are concentrated in areas where potential impacts are likely to be found. The work must be focused on the issues which are critical to decisions about whether the project should proceed, and under what conditions. 2.2 Steps in the IEE Preparation At the earliest possible time, proponents should consult with the Responsible Authority to confirm the categorisation of the project, and to ensure that they are aware of the procedures that apply. Proponents may have already engaged consultants at this time, and should be aware that the proper specification of the consultant’s task will only become clear as the work on the IEE and other scoping activity is undertaken. Proponents and their consultants will visit the site, talk with local people about their values and the proposal, collect available data, and consult with other Departments and Agencies. The degree of effort expended in these and subsequent steps needs to be matched to the likely impacts of the proposal, the scale of the development, the sensitivity of the site, and the level of concerns held by the community. The information provided later in this Guideline on "Assessing Impacts", "Mitigation and Impact Management" and indeed all the other Sections, apply equally to projects subject to IEE or EIA. Environmental assessment is most effective when even preliminary findings are made available early in the preparation process. At that time, alternatives which
- 1028. might be desirablefrom an environmental viewpoint can be considered realistically, and implementation and operating plans can be designed to respond to critical environmental issues in a cost-effective manner. Later on, making a major design change or selecting an alternative proposal—or deciding not to proceed at all with a project—becomes very expensive. Even more costly are delays in implementation of a project because of environmental issues which were not considered during design. Consequently, integration between environmental assessment and feasibility studies is essential. The environmental assessment team should provide for frequent coordination meetings with the feasibility study team to exchange information. 2.3 Format of the IEE A Executive summary Provide an executive summary where the IEE is more than 30 pages long. B Introduction This section should include the following: o Purpose of the report, including identification of the project and the Proponent (including a contact person, and details of any Consultant associated with the IEE preparation), a brief description of the nature, size, and location of the project, and other pertinent background information. o Extent of the IEE study, scope of the study, magnitude of effort, persons performing the study C Description of project Furnish sufficient details to give a brief but clear picture of the following (include only applicable items): o Type and category of project. o Objectives of project. o Alternatives considered, and reasons for their rejection. o Location (use maps and photographs showing general location, specific location, and project site layout. Include land uses on the site and surroundings, details of population centers and nearby dwellings, road access, topographic and vegetation features of the site, and other sensitive land uses such as national parks, wild life reserves or archaeological sites.) o Size or magnitude of the operation, including capital cost, and associated activities. o Proposed schedule for implementation.
- 1029. o Description ofthe project, including drawings showing project layout, components of the project, etc. This information should be of the same extent as is included in feasibility reports, in order to give a clear picture of the project, its context and its operations. o Details of restoration and rehabilitation plans at the end of the project life. o Government approvals and leases required by the project. D Description of environment (in area affected by project) Furnish sufficient information to give a brief but clear picture of the existing environmental resources including the following (to the extent practicable, including photographs where relevant): • physical resources topography, soils, climate, surface water, groundwater, geology/seismology; • ecological resources fisheries, aquatic biology, wildlife, forests, rare or endangered species; • human and economic development where applicable including, but not limited to: o population and communities—numbers, locations (summarise information in map form), composition, employment o industries, including known major development proposals o infrastructure—including water supply, sewerage, flood control/drainage, etc. o institutions o transportation—roads, rail, harbours, airports, navigable rivers o land use planning—including dedicated use areas o power sources and transmission; o agricultural and mineral development. • quality of life values (including, but not limited to): o socioeconomic values o public health o recreational resources and development o aesthetic values o archaeological or historic treasures o cultural values E Screening of potential environmental impacts and mitigation measures Using the Sectoral guidelines, which contain a checklist of environmental parameters for different sectors, screen out "no significant impacts" from those
- 1030. with significant adverseimpact by reviewing each relevant parameter according to the following factors or operational stages. Mitigation measures, where appropriate, should also be recommended: o environmental problems due to project location; o environmental problems related to design; o environmental problems associated with the construction stage; o environmental problems resulting from project operations; o potential environmental enhancement measures; and o additional considerations. F Environmental monitoring program and institutional requirement This section of the report must describe the management plan and monitoring surveillance programs, including periodic progress reports to be established and continued by the proponent following granting of Environmental Approval. The Responsible Authority must be assured that all necessary environmental protection measures are carried out in future as planned. The program must be accompanied by the details of the institutional capacity of the proponent, including staff training and equipment which will be provided to ensure implementation and operations. G Conclusions This section should include an evaluation of the screening process and should highlight whether significant environmental impacts exist which need further detailed study or an EIA. The IEE report should present the conclusions of the study briefly and concisely. 2.4 Scoping While the basis of determining the scope of an IEE or EIA in Pakistan derives from the Sectoral Guidelines provided in the package, and the checklists of likely impacts and mitigation measures contained in the Sectoral Guidelines, proponents and reviewers are cautioned against adopting a mechanistic approach to the scoping process. No technique can replace the thoughtful consideration of the proposal, its siting, and the physical and cultural environment in which it is proposed. Scoping is a vital early step, which identifies the issues that are likely to be important during the environmental assessment, and eliminates those that are not. In this way, time and money are not wasted on unnecessary investigations. Scoping is a process of interaction between the interested public, government agencies and the proponent. Scoping refers to the process of identifying, as early as possible:
- 1031. • the appropriateboundaries of the environmental assessment; • the important issues and concerns; • the information necessary for decision-making; and • the significant impacts and factors to be considered. Scoping can be used to: • consider reasonable and practical alternatives; • inform potentially affected people of the proposal and alternatives; • identify the possible effects on the environment of the proposal and alternatives; • understand the values held by individuals and groups about the quality of the environment that might be affected by the proposal and the alternatives; • evaluate the possible environmental effects and concerns expressed to determine whether, and how, to investigate them further; • define the boundaries of any required further assessment in time, space and subject matter; • determine the analytical methods and consultation procedures needed in any further assessment; • organise, focus and communicate the potential impacts and concerns, to assist further analysis and decision-making; and • establish the Terms of Reference to be used as the basis of the ongoing assessment. Issues such as the geographical area to be considered, the time-frame for impact analysis, the methodologies to be used, sources of existing information and information gaps should all be addressed. While scoping is seen as a distinct activity early in the environmental assessment process, review of the scope is a continuous activity that proceeds throughout the detailed environmental studies, the decision-making , detailed design, implementation and monitoring. Unforeseen issues may arise at any of these stages, and will require further consideration. A typical list of steps for scoping is: i. Prepare an outline of the scope, with headings such as: o objectives and description of the proposal
- 1032. o the contextand setting of the proposal o constraints o alternatives o issues o public involvement (in scope), and o timetable i. Further develop the outline of the scope through discussion with key stakeholders, assembling available information, and identifying information gaps. ii. Make the outline and supporting information available to those whose views are to be obtained. iii. Identify the issues of concern (cross-reference with check lists in Sectoral Guidelines). iv. Evaluate the concerns from both a technical and subjective perspective, seeking to assign a priority to important issues. v. Amend the outline to incorporate the agreed suggestions. vi. Develop a strategy for addressing and resolving each key issue, including information requirements and terms of reference for further studies. vii. Provide feedback on the way the comments have been incorporated. (These steps are only indicative, and should be tailored to meet the requirements of the particular situation.) It should be remembered that environmental assessment is a flexible process. There is no fixed inventory of issues to be examined in any particular environmental assessment; instead, careful scoping is essential to determine the key issues for each particular proposal. When prioritising issues, consideration should be given to their potential severity, temporal or spatial extent, direct, indirect, secondary or cumulative impacts, and whether the impacts are continuous or intermittent, temporary or permanent, reversible or irreversible. 2.5 Roles of stakeholders in the Scoping process The proponent: usually knows most about the proposal, and will have a strongly developed view about the factors which will influence site selection and investment decisions. The scoping process will assist the proponent to recognise the perspective of others, to consider alternatives and issues of concern that are raised by those affected, and to make changes to the proposal which will both address the concerns raised and improve the proposal. The Responsible Authority:
- 1033. has responsibility forproviding guidelines, confirming the categorisation of projects, and checking that the Environmental Report meets the statutory requirements. The Responsible Authority will usually have a wealth of experience in environmental assessment, and knowledge of local conditions and data availability. Other Departments and Agencies: will contribute knowledge about specific issues within their jurisdiction. This knowledge may include specific legislation and policy frameworks, standards, data collections, methodologies, local knowledge and experience. Quite often sectoral agencies have the role of providing approvals, permits or leases, so knowledge of their requirements is essential. Environmental practitioners and experts: may act for the agencies involved, the proponent, or consultants bidding for the work, or they may belong to scientific, academic or professional bodies. The involvement and advice of these people can be of particular assistance in providing specialist knowledge. Those affected: by the proposal may have a major role in identifying issues and ensuring that local knowledge and values are understood. The views of those affected should be taken into account when choosing between alternatives, in deciding on the importance of issues, and in framing mitigation measures, compensation provisions and management plans. Affected communities may need help in understanding the proposal, its alternatives, and likely effects, and in dealing with the proposal and articulating their concerns. They may need the provision of community liaison workers and financial resourcing to allow them to participate. The wider community: including those indirectly affected, and local, national and sometimes international NGO’s and interest groups will also provide a source of useful information and values, which can assist the scoping process. 2.6 Generating alternatives A rigorous approach to the generation of alternatives is more commonly associated with proposals from the public sector, where the allocation of public funds and priorities is recognised as a legitimate public interest. Private sector proposals have not generally had the same attention paid to the matter of alternatives, since there has been the perception that the choice of project is a matter for the developer who is putting up the money. The considerations of
- 1034. alternatives will assumeincreasing importance, for both public and private sector projects, as sectoral policies are established, along with the implementation of policies for sustainability, strategic and cumulative impacts. Alternatives are generated and examined to determine the best method of achieving project objectives, while minimising environmental impacts. They can be grouped under such headings as: • demand alternatives (eg using energy more efficiently rather than building more generating capacity); • activity alternatives (eg providing public transport rather than increasing road capacity); • locational alternatives, either for the entire proposal or for components (eg the location of a processing plant for a mine); • process alternatives (eg the re-use of process water in an industrial plant, waste-minimising or energy efficient technology, different mining methods); • scheduling alternatives (where a number of measures might play a part in an overall program, but the order they are scheduled will contribute to the effectiveness of the end result); and • input alternatives (eg raw materials, energy sources–such as replacing high sulphur oil with low sulphur oil). The ‘no build’ alternative is often used as a base case against which to measure the relative performance of other alternatives. In this case the relative impacts of the other alternatives are expressed as changes to the base case. If, overall, all the alternatives were judged to have unacceptable performance, the decision might be to adopt none of them, and stay with the status quo–the ‘no build’. Alternatively a base case might be taken forward in its own right for evaluation against defined objectives. Not all alternatives will be investigated in the same level of detail. It is quite common to undertake a preliminary analysis of a wide set of alternatives to decide which ones should be taken forward for further consideration, and which ones should be discarded. In many EIA’s, the favoured alternative will be the only one examined in detail. It is not uncommon, however, for two or three alternatives to be examined and reported at the same level of detail. 2.7 Site Selection Figure 1. Site selection principles While technical and operational aspects often dominate the initial
- 1035. selection of asite for a proposal, proponents should give equal weight to the suitability of the site in terms of compatible land use and adequate buffer distances. While proximity to raw materials, transport, labour, markets, waste disposal options, and provision of services are all important, so too are adjacent land uses and the environmental sensitivity of the site. The principles of site selection are shown in Figure 1. Initial site investigations can help ensure a potential site’s suitability before proceeding with a more detailed assessment. The initial site investigations should exclude fundamentally unsuitable sites. Table 1 provides performance objectives and factors to be considered to determine separation distances. Table 1 Performance objectives and factors to be considered to determine separation distances. Land Use Performance objectives Factors for determining appropriate separation distances
- 1036. Residential areas, hospitals or schools •Protect residential amenity and health: odour, fumes, visual amenity, noise, dust, seepage • What is the likelihood of the performance objectives being achieved by the mitigation measures alone? • What is the likelihood of the Surface waters • Ensure that surface waters are protected from pollutants • Ensure that no existing or likely future uses of surface waters are compromised • Ensure that no significant impacts occur to flora or fauna which uses the waters • Ensure that the ecological value of the waters will be maintained. mitigation measures failing? • What is the likelihood of an ‘incident’ (eg accident, system failure, natural disaster) which will result in a failure to meet the performance objectives? • What ‘backup’ mitigation measures are available? • What is the likely geographical extent of impacts, taking into consideration the proposed performance of mitigation measures and the local environment? Groundwater recharge zones • Ensure that there is no deterioration in the quality of the groundwater • Ensure that no existing or likely future uses of groundwater are compromised • What is the likely geographical extent of impacts if mitigation measures fail or an ‘incident’ occurs. • what separation distances are required to achieve the performance objectives; — under normal operational and mitigation performance conditions Environmentally sensitive areas • Ensure the environmental qualities of the particular area are not compromised — if mitigation measures fail or an ‘incident’ occurs?
- 1037. 3. ASSESSING IMPACTS 3.1The ‘assessing’ task The assessing phase of environmental assessment is the time when most of the work involved in impact assessment is carried out. Assessing usually involves three tasks: • further and more detailed work on impact identification, refining the understanding of the nature of impacts, identifying indirect, cumulative and other impacts and ensuring identification of the likely causes of impacts; • detailed analysis of the impacts to determine their nature, magnitude, extent and effect; and • judgment of the significance of the impacts (whether they matter and whether something needs to be done to mitigate them). 3.2 Impact identification Section 2 above has covered the subject of screening and scoping, and the detailed checklists provided in the sectoral guidelines have been introduced. One limitation of the checklist approach is that checklists are not effective in identifying higher order impacts or the inter-relationships between impacts. Care must therefore be taken in using them, to consider whether impacts other than those listed may be important. Care should also be taken to make sure that any extreme environmental features peculiar to the region in which the project is proposed are adequately catered for (eg flood, drought, temperature, seismic activity, land instability, disease vectors etc.). Practitioners will be aware that other methodologies in addition to the use of checklists are commonly employed to ensure that all significant impacts are identified. These methodologies include matrices, networks, overlays and geographic information systems, expert systems and professional experience. An example of a network is given in Appendix B Table 2. Main advantages and disadvantages of impact identification methods Advantages Disadvantages Checklists • simple to understand and use • good for site selection and priority setting • do not distinguish between direct and indirect impacts • do not link action and impact
- 1038. Thinking through the stages ofthe project • logical mental approach, linking action with impact • separates construction, operation and decommissioning impacts • distinguishes between direct and indirect impacts • relies on good understanding of the project, and likely impacts Matrices • link action to impact • can be useful for displaying study results • difficult to distinguish direct and indirect impacts • potential for double-counting of impacts Networks • link action to impact • useful in simplified form for checking for second order impacts • handles direct and indirect impacts • can be very complex if used beyond simplified version Overlays • easy to understand • good display method • good siting tool • address only direct impacts • do not address impact duration or probability GIS and computer expert systems • excellent for impact identification and analysis • good for ‘experimenting’ • heavy reliance on knowledge and data • often complex and expensive 3.3 Impact analysis and prediction Once the range of impacts has been identified, the potential size and nature of each one must be predicted. Prediction draws on physical, biological, socio- economic, and anthropological data and techniques and may employ mathematical models, photomontages, physical models, socio-cultural models,
- 1039. economic models, experimentsand expert judgments. In many cases, this work will be carried out by specialists in the areas of interest. To prevent unnecessary expense, the sophistication of prediction methods used should be kept in proportion to the scope of the Environmental Report and the importance of the particular impact. Where possible impacts should be predicted quantitatively. This makes comparison between alternatives, and with baseline conditions, more meaningful. If quantification is difficult, or not possible, then it is important that techniques are used that enable the impacts to be compared systematically. 3.4 Baseline data collection The change caused by a particular impact can be evaluated by comparing the expected future state of environmental components if the proposal were not to go ahead (the baseline condition for the no-development option) with the predicted state of those components if the project does proceed. Therefore one of the first tasks involved in the detailed analysis of an impact is the collection of information that will help to describe the baseline situation at the expected time of implementation. Specialised knowledge is usually required to specify, and set appropriate limits on, the data collection required to meet the needs of any analysis and ongoing monitoring programs that may be established. In some cases, particularly for major projects that may take some years for implementation, it is likely that the current baseline conditions will no longer apply at the time the project is operational. In these cases predictions will need to be made about what the future baseline conditions will be. This will involve consideration of: • current baseline conditions; • current and expected trends; • effects of other projects being implemented; and • effects of other proposals which will be completed before implementation of the proposal under consideration. For example, the air quality near a new power station must be evaluated taking into account existing air quality, and any deterioration expected to result from other nearby power stations which have commenced construction or for which approvals have been granted. There are many examples of EIA’s in which massive amounts of money and effort were expended in collecting and reporting data on every aspect of the environment and producing voluminous reports in which there was as much insignificant and irrelevant information as there was findings of significance. The data collection must be focused on those issues which are critical to decisions
- 1040. about the projectand its impacts, and must be a precursor to analysis and recommendations. Where baseline data is to be collected first hand, careful consideration must be given to the design of the sampling program. Matters to consider include: • the degree of understanding of the processes in question; • the reasons for the data collection program; • sampling program design; • data collection procedures; • data analysis methodologies; • relevant quality assurance procedures. The need for long term sampling to discern the variability of the environment should also be assessed as early as possible so that it is not overlooked or avoided due to time constraints. Assumptions and extrapolations used to draw conclusions from the data should be justified. Where existing data is used, its adequacy and appropriateness for impact assessment of the proposal should be reviewed and discussed. Shortfalls or uncertainty of knowledge should be clearly identified. It is not uncommon for a situation to arise where proponents seek immediate approval for a project for which no baseline data has been collected. Clearly such a situation is untenable, and testifies to a lack of proper project planning. When the initial environmental work is done at the pre-feasibility stage, as is advocated, there will be time to identify the key issues and gather baseline data. At the other extreme, proponents should not be unduly delayed in project approval over the lack of baseline data which is needed to confirm an evaluation that the impacts are not significant. For example, it may be that flora and fauna studies are desirable over a twelve month period, but environmental approval is urgently required. In such a case it may be acceptable to present a one month survey of flora and fauna, on the understanding that after the Environmental Approval, and during detailed design, further flora and fauna studies will be undertaken, and any modifications to the project which may be necessary can be regulated in the Operating Approval. Such situations will of course need to be agreed with the Responsible Authority. 3.5 Characteristics of impacts Wathern defines an impact as having both spatial and temporal components, which can be described as the change in an environmental parameter, over a specified period and within a defined area, resulting from a particular activity compared with the situation which would have occurred had the activity not been initiated.
- 1041. Aspects of impactswhich should be considered include: Nature The most obvious impacts are those that directly relate to the proposal (eg loss of wetlands, relocation of households, increased air emissions). Indirect impacts are usually less obvious, occurring at a later time or in a place other than where the original impacts occurred (eg spread of malaria as a result of tree removal, pesticides in the breast milk of mothers in cities due to the use of agricultural pesticides, environmental degradation of a river mouth resulting from dam building high in the catchment, and the resulting reduction in environmental flows). Magnitude Note that while in general the sheer size of an impact contributes to its significance, sometimes small impacts can be very important (eg very small quantities of some toxic substances can cause large scale health problems for humans and animals). Extent and location An indication of the location, distribution and size of the area(s) likely to be affected should be given for each impact, direct and indirect. Timing Impacts from all stages of the life of the project should be considered (eg during construction, operation and decommissioning). Some impacts will occur immediately while others may be delayed, sometimes for many years (eg siltation of a dam). Duration Some impacts may be short term, such as the noise arising from equipment during construction. Others may be long term, such as inundation of land after a dam is built. Impacts such as quarry blasting may be intermittent, whereas others, such as the severance caused by a freeway, may be continuous. Reversibility Once the cause of an environmental impact has been removed it may be that the pre-existing environmental condition may be (more or less) restored to its original state. If impacts are reversible (either naturally or with human assistance) then restoration is very much easier. However some impacts are irreversible. Likelihood (risk) Not all impacts share the same likelihood of occurrence. Some can be predicted to occur, more or less definitely, whereas others are less certain (but still capable of probabilistic estimation—eg the release of a toxic gas from a chemical installation). In all cases some estimate should be made of the uncertainty or ‘margin for error’ involved in the prediction. It is important that impact assessment consider the effects of events that are low risk but high impact (eg oil spills, chemical road tanker accidents). 3.6 Prediction methods
- 1042. There are anumber of ways in which the characteristics of impacts can be predicted. These include: Professional judgment It is important to note that all methods of analysis involve some degree of professional judgment. Sole reliance on professional judgment can be unavoidable when there is a lack of data to support more rigorous analyses, or there is a lack of suitable analytical techniques with which to make the predictions. Examples of the use of professional judgment include: • a sociologist basing the prediction of the effect that a water supply proposal might have on the nature of women’s role in the community; and • an anthropologist using a workshop approach to assess the cultural significance of a communal place. Mathematical models Models are mathematical expressions developed to simulate some aspect of reality. Once they have been developed it is usually not difficult to make changes in the input conditions for the model and then to see how the outputs are affected. For instance, differences in air pollution can be calculated by changing, within the model, the height of a chimney stack or the rate of output of emissions. When interpreting the output from mathematical models it should be remembered that all models are simplifications of the real world, and require the specialist to make a number of assumptions in both their development and use. If these assumptions are inappropriate then there can be significant implications for their accuracy and usefulness. Specialists should clearly state the assumptions inherent in the use of their models. Traditionally mathematical modeling has been carried out for physical impacts, such as air dispersion or hydrological impacts: mathematical models are being developed to analyse biological, social and economic impacts. Experiments and physical models Examples of such predictive methods include the exposure of fish in a laboratory to pollutants to determine rates of uptake and retention, and field trials of the effectiveness of different methods of erosion control. Case studies Reviewing case studies of similar proposals in similar environments can provide a good basis for confirming the direction and findings of impact assessment. 3.7 Social impacts
- 1043. The close relationshipsbetween social and environmental systems make it imperative that social impacts are identified, predicted and evaluated in conjunction with biophysical impacts during environmental assessment. People and their social groups are a component part of their environment, and environmental changes are often linked to social change (and vice versa). Social impacts include changes that effect individuals, institutions, communities and larger social systems as well as the interactions between them. In basic terms they are alterations in the way people live, work, play, relate to one- another and organise to meet their needs, as well as changes in the values, beliefs and norms that characterise their ‘group’ and guide individual and collective actions. Social impacts can be divided into three main types: • demographic impacts such as changes in population numbers, population characteristics (such as gender ratio, age structure, in-and out-migration rates and the resultant demand for social services, hospital beds, school places, housing etc.); • cultural resource impacts including changes in archaeological, historical and cultural artifacts and structures and environmental features with religious or ritual significance; and • socio-cultural impacts including changes in social structures, social organisations, social relationships and accompanying cultural and value systems (language, dress, religious beliefs and rituals). The assessment of social impacts involves the collection and analysis of demographic and socio-cultural data. Much of this data will be identified or generated during the public involvement program for the environmental study. It is therefore best if specialist social scientists both undertake the public involvement and analyse the social impacts. To maximise the potential for integration of social and biophysical impacts throughout the environmental study, the social scientist should be engaged at an early stage in the study and be an integral part of the environmental study team. In considering social impacts, the needs and likely impacts on individual segments of the community (e.g. women, children, low-income groups) should be carefully assessed and reported, and appropriate mitigating measures proposed. The influx of large numbers of workers and supervisory staff on a major construction project can lead to significant social impacts on local communities. These impacts can arise because of differences between the customs, beliefs and lifestyles of the local community and the new workers. It can also arise from the competition for resources (such as local produce and accommodation), which can distort local prices and lead to hardship and bad feeling. Proponents should plan carefully to avoid or minimise such impacts, both in the selection of contractors, and, where appropriate, in the provision of self contained camps for construction workers. Where such camps are provided, care must be taken that
- 1044. they are managedso that impacts on the environment are minimised, by providing adequate utilities (e.g. water supply, sewerage, power), and by ensuring social services are also adequate (e.g. recreation, shopping, cooking facilities). 3.8 Health Impacts Development projects can result in considerable health benefits to people (eg the provision of safe drinking water): but they can also result in adverse effects on community health and safety. When environmental assessment includes the consideration of health impacts, the potential health-related effects of development can be predicted, mitigated and managed far more cost effectively than if they are left to emerge after project implementation. Health impacts can result directly from changes to the biophysical environment (such as exposure to toxic pollution) or indirectly as the result of other changes caused by the project (eg lowered socio-economic status resulting in increase morbidity and mortality). The implementation of proposals can also increase the risk of accidents and disasters (see Table 3). Table 3. Some examples of major health impacts of development projects (See key below) Communicable disease Non communic- able disease Nutrition Injury Transport Mining v ! Energy ✸ Natural resources Public services ✿
- 1045. Manufacture and trade Source: Birley,M.—LiverpoolSchool of Tropical Medicine, IUCN Pakistan Brazil, 1970s–Half the malaria cases in Amazonia were linked to the narrow area of influence of the Transamazon Highway Uganda, 1986–Along the main link road to Kenya, 32% of the truck drivers and 68% of the women working in bars were HIV positive Pakistan, 1994–88% of traffic police constables in Karachi develop respiratory problems within two years of commencing duty, 84% had mild to moderate pain while taking a deep breath, 37% often experienced heart palpitation Papua New Guinea, 1980s–Traffic accidents were estimated to cost 1% of GNP v South Africa, 1980s–Many miners suffered from permanent dust-induced lung damage. This activates tuberculosis. Infection rates were 800–1000 per 100,000. ! Bolivia, 1970s–The population of 24,000 mineworkers in large mines had 5,430 injuries ✸ Household cooking on open fires may be the largest single occupational health problem of women. It leads to many respiratory and eye diseases. Sri Lanka, 1986–A rice development project created breeding sites for mosquitoes which transmit Japanese encephalitis. Pigs near the rice fields provided the virus. The result was an epidemic. Sri Lanka, 1970s–On some tea estates child labour was common, educational facilities minimal and water supplies inadequate. Chronic malnutrition and infant mortality rates were twice the rural average. Kenya 1980s–Participants in a dairy development project sold the available milk for cash. They did not reserve enough milk to feed their children. ✿ Burma, 1950s–Satellite towns built on swampy land became waterlogged during the rains. Mosquito breeding increased. Filariasis was transmitted.
- 1046. Cubato, Brazil, 1980s–Therewere 23 major industrial plants and many small operators. A high rate of respiratory disorders was associated with high levels of water and air pollution. Neonatal mortality and birth deformities increased. In developing countries, the annual rate of accidents causing disabling injuries to workers is 23%–34%, compared with 3% in the UK. 3.9 Economic and fiscal impacts Economic impact assessment is carried out to predict changes to employment, per capita income and levels of business activity resulting from a proposal. For very large projects, and the assessment of programs and policy, the impacts on GDP, capital inflow, balance of payments and the structure of the economy also require attention. Fiscal impacts are the changes in the costs and revenues of the various government sectors. These changes typically occur as the result of the project causing large increases in population and the consequent demand that this can place on community infrastructure provided by government (eg health services, roads, sewerage etc.). As with other impacts, appropriate baseline data needs to be collected to describe the baseline economic and fiscal situations (without the proposal) and then prediction techniques are required to describe the changes likely to occur if the proposal is implemented. The factors that typically lead to economic and fiscal impacts are shown in Table 4: Table 4. Factors leading to economic and fiscal impacts. Factors affecting economic impacts Factors affecting fiscal impacts • duration of construction and operation periods; • workforce requirements for each period and phase of construction including numbers to be employed during the peak phase for construction works; • skill requirements (local availability); • earnings; • size of investment and workforce requirements; • capacity of existing service delivery and infrastructure systems; • local and regional tax or other revenue raising processes; and • likely demographic changes arising from project requirements (these need to be estimated during the assessment of social impacts).
- 1047. • raw materialand other input purchases; • capital investment; • outputs; and • the characteristics of the local economy. 3.10 Impact significance Once impacts have been analysed, it is important to determine their significance, that is , whether they are acceptable, require mitigation, or are unacceptable to the community. Note that care should be taken to ensure that the assessment of significance is not confused with the decision about the future of the proposal. This latter task is the role of the decision -maker who can use the significance information in the decision-making process. The significance of an impact is determined by the joint consideration of the impact characteristics and the importance (or value) attached to them. Determining the importance of the various issues can sometimes be approached by comparing the likely or predicted impacts with current standards. If the proposal, including the adopted mitigating measures, does not cause the standard to be exceeded, the issue might well be considered to have been adequately addressed. If the anticipated impact is well below the standard, it usually means that the issue needs no further consideration. Reliance on standards, however, may suffer from two deficiencies: • there may be no appropriate technical standard (eg social impacts, visual impacts, clearing of vegetation); • there may be no community confidence in, or agreement on, the standards that have been established (eg blood lead levels, traffic noise levels, water quality parameters). Ultimately, the significance of issues and their relative importance is subjective. Even the apparently scientific establishment of environmental discharge standards will have involved the balancing of environmental quality and economic reality. The approach used to determine significance must take into account the cultural and social aspects of local value systems and traditional practices. Key bases for assessing impact significance are: • level of public concern (particularly over health and safety);
- 1048. • scientific andprofessional judgment; • disturbance and disruption of valued ecological systems; and • degree of negative impact on social values and quality of life. Significance criteria can be categorised as follows: Ecological importance, including aspects critical to ecosystem functioning as well as those valued for aesthetic reasons; • effect on plant or animal habitat; • rare or endangered species; • ecosystem resilience, sensitivity, bio-diversity and carrying capacity; and • viability of population levels of local species. Social importance, including biophysical impacts which translate into effects on factors valued by humans: • effects on human health and safety; • potential loss of species with current or potential value, or commercially available production (farmland); • recreational or aesthetic value; • demands on public resources such as social services; • demands on transportation and other infrastructure; and • demographic effects. Environmental standards, being criteria designed to contain certain environmental conditions within specified limits believed to be required to achieve social objectives (usually health related), including: • limits on effluent discharge concentrations; • clean air and water quality standards, policies or plans; and • plans or policies that protect areas or limit the use of natural resources. 4. MITIGATION AND IMPACT MANAGEMENT 4.1 Purpose of mitigation measures One of the main tasks of impact assessment is to predict and prevent unacceptable adverse effects through the implementation of appropriate project modifications—also known as mitigation measures. The purpose of mitigation in the environmental assessment process is to: • look for better ways of doing things so that the negative impacts of the proposal are eliminated or minimised, and the benefits are enhanced; and • make sure that the public or individuals do not bear costs which are greater than the benefits which accrue to them.
- 1049. In order forthis process to be cost effective, it is necessary that the impact assessment be carried out at the same time as the project feasibility design and that early links are established between those doing the environmental assessment and those designing the project. The key to effective mitigation of impacts is an understanding of the reason for the impact. This may be simple (eg construction noise) or quite complex (eg ecosystem protection). Ask: o what the problem is; o when the problem will occur and when it should be addressed; o where the problem should be addressed; o how the problem should be addressed; o who stands to gain or lose. The adverse consequences of projects can be felt far beyond the boundaries of the project site. In the past, many of the true costs of projects were not acknowledged or accounted for in the economic analyses of a project’s worth, particularly in the operational and decommissioning phases of the project’s life. The costs were, therefore, often borne by the community (or government) rather than by the proponent. With the move towards sustainability there is now recognition that the proponent has responsibility to internalise (ie. include the costs within the project accounting) the costs felt beyond the project boundaries and incurred over the life of the project. The project plan must include the specific provisions needed for minimising or offsetting the predicted adverse effects, and the project’s core budget must include funds for achieving this. While it has been argued that mitigation measures add to the total project cost, this is not always the case. Many proponents have found that good design and management have actually resulted in significant savings. This outcome is similar to that found in industries applying the principles of cleaner production to improve their environmental performance. In many cases alternative production methods, although more costly in the short term, have been found to be cheaper or more effective in the long run. For instance, introducing measures to clean up effluent streams has been the catalyst for the implementation of recycling and recovery operations, with marketable by-products providing a cost return. 4.2 Different ways of achieving mitigation When significant impacts are identified in the construction, operational or decommissioning phases of a project, collaboration is needed between the project designers and the environmental assessment team to see if design changes can mitigate these problems. Depending on the nature of the impacts and the timing in the design cycle, there are a number of ways in which problems can be managed. These include:
- 1050. Alternative ways ofmeeting the project objectives—this option involves going back to the origins of the proposal, and is most appropriate when the planning is at an early stage or when a ‘fatal flaw’ is discovered in the proposal. Changes in planning and design—the earlier environmental factors are considered and impacts identified in the development of a project, the less financial commitment there is to a particular course of action, and the easier it is for the project to be redesigned to avoid or minimise impacts. For instance, earthworks could be avoided during the rainy season to minimise surface runoff, or blasting could be done outside the nesting season of migratory birds. Construction techniques could also be altered from those generating unacceptable noise, such as pile driving by impact, to those causing less noise, such as ‘screwed-in’ piles. Improved monitoring and management practices—the monitoring and management of impacts is a fundamental aspect of impact mitigation, and is developed in Section 4.3 below. Monitoring is required to keep track of whether impacts are of the nature that was predicted and within the levels allowed. Effective management is required to keep the impacts within the predicted levels (or take further mitigation measures if they exceed those levels), and to deal with unforeseen impacts or problems. Compensation in money terms—money can be paid for land lost or the loss of amenity resulting from a proposal. While this approach to compensation may be appropriate where free markets for replacement of assets are available, and those being compensated have the ability to ensure they are not disadvantaged, there are many times when other methods of compensation, such as replacement, are more suitable, particularly when a net loss of environmental resource is predicted. Even with replacement, there are many examples of resettlement which have resulted in farmers being given inadequate replacement land, which has led to a downward spiral of poverty. Replacement, relocation, rehabilitation—examples of these mitigation measures are: • ‘in kind’ compensation such as the replacement of lost wetlands by constructing other wetlands, and planting forests to replace those lost; • replacing farmland; • relocating villages or people displaced by projects; and • rehabilitating sites after a project is complete, particularly after mining and quarrying, Because some of these mitigation measures may take place over a long period, it is quite possible that the proponent will sell the development or be financially unable to complete the mitigation plan. If such an outcome is a possibility, then a
- 1051. bond may berequired from the proponent, to ensure that funds are available for rehabilitation or mitigation measures. Often a combination of compensation and replacement, relocation or rehabilitation is needed. For example, people may be relocated and also receive financial compensation for the disruption that has been caused to their lives. 4.3 Preparing an environmental management plan (EMP) An environmental management plan (EMP) is a document designed to ensure that the commitments in the Environmental Report, subsequent review reports, and Environmental Approval conditions are fully implemented. It is a comprehensive technical document which is usually finalised during or following detailed design of the proposal, after Environmental Approval of the development application. A detailed EMP is not usually considered necessary for the Environmental Report. The Environmental Report should contain a comprehensive outline of the structure of the EMP with a summary of the environmental management and cleaner production principles which would be followed when undertaking the detailed design, construction and operation of the project. For issues where there are high levels of risk or uncertainty, details of management procedures to deal with any adverse outcomes should be included in the EMP outline in the Environmental Report. At the Operating Approval stage, it is essential for the proponent to establish that the environmental impacts can be managed in an integrated and feasible manner, and for the EMP to be developed and form part of the Operational Approval.. With major or controversial projects, it is desirable to: • establish a monitoring committee, comprising the proponent’s project manager and environmental staff, key government Departments and Agencies, and representatives of the local community, to consult on the ongoing management and monitoring of the project; • plan to exhibit an annual environmental report outlining the environmental performance of the proposal. The EMP should provide a framework for managing or mitigating environmental impacts for the life of the project. It should also make provision for auditing the effectiveness of the proposed environmental protection measures and procedures. Further detail on these matters is given in Section 7, "Monitoring, implementing and auditing". The proponent should take responsibility for communicating a commitment to good environmental practice to all those involved in the project. An environmental policy might state that "All contractors will be required to observe the mitigation
- 1052. measures stipulated inthe Environment Approval." All stakeholders (employees, contractors, suppliers, clients and the community) should be made aware of the need for good environmental practice, and be helped to develop an understanding of what is trying to be achieved and why. A person or group needs to be specifically allocated responsibility for the development, implementation and performance review of the environmental management plan. A close study of the Environmental Report, the conditions of the Environmental Approval, and the contents of the Environmental Agreement will enable all commitments and obligations to be identified. A range of tools will normally be used to ensure that impact management is undertaken (eg setting objective conditions for contracts, tenders, permits and approvals, establishing performance bonds to ensure environmental outcomes are achieved, staff training). A schedule of the identified tasks should be drawn up, a time frame set for each activity, and responsibility for achievement of each task allocated. Contingency plans should be made for corrective action in the event of unacceptable adverse impacts. A management system for monitoring, reporting and responding to complaints and enquiries from outside parties should be established, with appropriate data storage, retrieval and access, and reporting intervals. Issues arising from the regular reporting should be reviewed, and preventative and remedial measures taken. The environmental management plan should be updated regularly, and independent audits undertaken. 5. REPORTING 5.1 Drafting style Environmental Reports are designed to assist: • the proponent to plan, design and implement the proposal in a way that eliminates or minimises the negative effect on the biophysical and socio- economic environments and maximises the benefits to all parties in the most cost effective manner; • the government or Responsible Authority to decide whether a proposal should be approved and the terms and conditions that should be applied; and • the public to understand the proposal and its impacts on the community and the environment. Information provided should be clear, concise, objective (where possible and where appropriate), and supported by maps or other descriptive detail. When subjective material is presented, it should be clearly represented as just that, and the impression that it is factual should be avoided. Repetitive or general non- specific data is distracting and is not relevant to the decision-making process.
- 1053. The use ofjargon should be avoided. It is recommended that the Environmental Report be edited to ensure consistency of style and accuracy of transference of information from any appendices to the main document. The Environmental Report should make reference to all relevant studies and investigations that have been carried out in support of the proposal, or other studies, reports or literature used in the Environmental Report. These supporting documents should be available to all stakeholders at the time the Environmental report is publicly advertised. The information should be arranged so that it is readily accessible and easily understood by all parties. It should clearly state issues in a non-technical way. 2. Main features of an Environmental Report A general description of the format and content of an Environmental Report follows. The general format may need to be varied to accommodate: • specific Terms of Reference which may have been adopted; • the treatment of alternatives which will vary: sometimes alternatives are not considered in any detail, other times alternatives are addressed early in the study and it is only the favoured alternative which is taken forward for detailed study; • the structure of investigations will sometimes lead to a logical presentation which varies from the general model; • the treatment of baseline data: while the general model allows for a description of expected conditions in an early section of the Report, it is not uncommon for the existing conditions to be described under the relevant impact heading (eg under noise impacts, the existing noise environment would be described, followed by predictions of the noise levels expected to be generated by the favoured proposal and the main alternatives). With those caveats, a general format for an Environmental Report will include: Executive or non-technical summary This is the part of the report that most people will read. It is often the only part that people will read (including decision-makers). A two to four page executive summary should contain: • title and location of the proposal • name of the proponent • name of the organisation preparing the Environmental Report • a brief outline of the proposal • the major impacts • recommendations for mitigation and compensation
- 1054. • proposed monitoring Formajor proposals the Executive summary might extend to ten pages but it should not be any longer. The executive summary may usefully be distributed to the public as an information brochure. In such cases, the Responsible Authority may contribute advice on the decision making process, and where submissions should be lodged. If a public display is intended, the information brochure should also contain the details (dates, times and places) where the display can be viewed. Description of the objectives of the proposal This section should outline the objectives of the proposal, and set the basis for an evaluation of how well the preferred alternative satisfies those objectives. Description of the proposal and its alternatives This more detailed description of the proposal indicates any reasonable alternatives that would meet the proposal’s objectives, including the possibility of the ‘do-nothing’ alternative. This section of the report would include: • the status of the proposal in the project cycle, such as pre-feasibility, feasibility or detailed design; • a description of the planning, design and implementation stages in only enough detail for impact forecasts and management measures to be understood and appreciated; • the requirements for raw materials, water, energy, and equipment; • the planned operational characteristics—hours of operation, processes, products; • visual aids such as maps of the area, site and plant layout, flow charts of the production process, and photographs of the site and similar projects (particularly to convey an appreciation of the scale and nature of the equipment involved); • a comparison of proposal options (such as size, siting, technology, layout, energy sources, source of raw materials); and • a summary of the technical, economic and environmental features of the proposal. Discussion of the proposal and current land use and policies This section should show how the proposal (and the alternatives) fit into current land use controls, and whether they are compatible with relevant government policies and strategies. Description of existing and expected conditions
- 1055. This is oftencovered in too much detail in Environmental Reports. Only enough detail should be given to allow an understanding of the impact analysis and assessment. It should contain a description of the following aspects of the proposal as they are expected to be at the time of implementation of the proposal: • the spatial and temporal boundaries adopted for the various aspects of the study; • the existing (baseline) condition of the relevant biophysical and socio- economic environment as well as trends and the anticipated future environmental conditions should the project not go ahead; and • environmentally sensitive areas of special or unique value (including biodiversity, scientific, socio-economic, cultural, visual and heritage). Evaluation of the impacts for each alternative For both the proposal and its alternatives, the Environmental Report requires a description of the potential beneficial and adverse environmental impacts, both direct and indirect, for each component of the environment identified as important during the screening and scoping stages. This should include: • an assessment of any impact on the local population (including gender issues); • the relevant environmental data and predictive methods used and any underlying assumptions made; • any gaps in knowledge and uncertainties encountered; • compliance with relevant environmental standards; • the assessed significance of the impact, stating the standards or criteria used as a basis for judgement; and • possible measures for avoiding or mitigating the impact. Possible cumulative or multiplicative effects should also be highlighted. Wherever possible information should be presented in summary form to help readers assimilate the information and to make a quick comparison between alternatives. Comparative evaluation of alternatives and identification of the preferred option In this section the alternative proposals should be compared, focusing on the significant adverse and beneficial impacts, after allowing for mitigation measures. The preferred alternative should be identified with a complete description of those impacts considered to be of greatest significance and the measures proposed to avoid, reduce or mitigate them, and opportunities for environmental enhancement.
- 1056. A summary ofthe evaluation of alternatives, indicating how each alternative satisfies the project objectives, is a most useful visual aid, and can take the form shown below in Figure 2. Figure 2. Visual summary of the evaluation of alternatives Alternative 1 Alternative 2 Alternative 3 Objective 1 (least capital cost) 5 lakhs 6 lakhs 4 lakhs Objective 2 (least impact of physical environment) Objective 3 (maximises community benefits) Objective 4 (long term return on investment) Key Best Meets objectives worst
- 1057. meets objectives Environmental managementplan, monitoring plan and proposed training This is the ‘action oriented’ part of the Environmental Report. It summarises the mitigation measures which have been adopted to ensure that they are implemented, and that the impacts are in accordance with predictions. It is a plan for monitoring and managing the impacts during implementation and operation, outlining which activities will be undertaken by the proponent, and any activities which should be the responsibility of government. Environmental management and monitoring plans should: • contain a description of the proposed mitigation actions; • contain a schedule for implementation; • assign responsibility for implementation (by name or position); • present the monitoring program to assess performance; • present the proposed reporting and reviewing procedures; and • outline any training needs that are required to ensure that the plans can be implemented successfully. Monitoring should be restricted to the necessary minimum program needed to protect the environment. All too often the proposed monitoring programs have been lists of various environmental parameters to be monitored without an explanation as to why these are needed. The monitoring program needs to be detailed and quantified with: • description of work tasks, skills required, tests required, duration and frequency; • the institutional system by which the monitoring data will be collected, collated, analysed, interpreted and action taken, if necessary, to prevent or reduce unwanted impacts; • measures to ensure the monitoring information is available to Federal and Provincial Departments and Agencies, and to the public; • a justification of the cost of the monitoring program in terms of public health and other benefits. (A fuller treatment of Monitoring is given in Section 7). Appendices Appendices contain information that may be needed for reference or for detailed review by technical experts. All technical information and description of methods used to provide conclusions in the Environmental report should be included in
- 1058. Appendices when theyare not suitable for the main text. Appendices should also contain: • a glossary; • an explanation of abbreviations; • a summary of the management of the environmental study process, including the public involvement, and listings of individuals or agencies consulted; • sources of data and information and a full list of all reference material used; • a list of names, qualifications and roles of the team members who carried out the study; and • Terms of Reference for the Environmental report and those given to individual specialists. Appendices are often best included in a separate volume, which will not generally require such extensive circulation as the main document. 5.3 Distribution of reports, and other forms of presentation As a general rule, the report should go not only to government departments and decision-makers, but also to anyone who has a legitimate interest in the proposal. In most cases the executive summary is particularly useful to distribute to those who don’t want to read the whole document. It can also be relatively easily translated into other languages where this would assist interested people to understand the proposal. If formal public consultation has occurred in the time between scoping and the production of the report, it may be useful to have a section showing comments received, and responses to these comments. Other forms of presentation of the findings should also be considered such as: • local language video; • local radio and television; • presentations; • newsletters and information sheets; • displays, particularly if they are supported by members of the study team; • gatherings based on local community groups; • small meetings and workshops. All have their place in effective communication, but none can be effective without the preliminary work involved in producing a clear and comprehensive report, factually accurate and consistent in its data.
- 1059. 5.4 Shortcomings ofreports It is difficult for Environmental Reports to achieve the goal of being complete, easily understood, objective, factual and internally consistent. This is to be expected in a process which involves so many contributors working to tight deadlines. A higher standard of reporting can be achieved if the report writers are aware of common shortcomings of environmental reporting. The objective of the activity is described too narrowly Example: The Environmental Report describes the movement of people and goods only in terms of road transport neglecting the potential for rail or other means of transport. The description of the activity does not cover the entire activity Example: The Environmental Report describes the proposed construction of an industrial plant, but omits information about construction of a pipeline and other facilities to transport and handle raw materials and finished products to and from the plant. Selection of alternatives does not take into account environmental aspects Example: The Environmental Report on a coastal tourist facility only considers alternatives which meet operator’s requirements, visitor ‘needs’ and public safety regulations, while overlooking environmental considerations such as the protection of geomorphology and ecology of the coastal landscape. Key problems caused by the activity are not described Example: The Environmental Report describes the proposed construction of a coal-fired power plant using surface water as a cooling medium. The report does not divulge that the surface water body is already used by other industrial activities for cooling water purposes to the limit of its cooling capacity. Sensitive elements in the existing environment are overlooked Example: The Environmental Report on a pipeline project does not indicate that the proposed alignment of the pipeline will dissect certain areas of ecological value. Environmental target values and standards are not properly described and observed Example: The Environmental Report for an extension to an airport provides for mitigation measures to limit the impacts up to the standard of 25% of people
- 1060. seriously affected, whereasthe target value aims at limiting impacts to 10% of people seriously affected. No alternative is described complying with legal environmental regulations Example: The Environmental Report for a sanitary landfill indicates that the underlying groundwater is part of a regional groundwater resource with a range of beneficial uses. No impervious clay blanket has been proposed below the landfill, to stop leachate contaminating the groundwater. Possible promising mitigation measures are not considered Example: The Environmental Report for a sanitary landfill does not describe a system for collecting the methane gas produced in the landfill. Methane is a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming, and can be a hazard to human health and safety. The alternative offering the best protection to the environment is not described or is insufficiently described Example: The Environmental Report on a bridge or tunnel connection across an estuary does not take seriously the alternative whereby the connection is carried out as a drilled tunnel. A drilled tunnel underneath the bottom of an estuary has considerably less impact on the environment than a bridge connection or a tunnel composed of segments on the bottom of the estuary. Serious impacts on the environment are not described or are not correctly described. Example: In the case of the Environmental Report for a sanitary landfill in an area with very variable soil conditions, the report does not describe the impact on the environment following failure of the underlying sealing and drainage systems. Insufficient or outdated prediction models are used Example: The Environmental Report on an urban development scheme makes use of a mobility prediction model using national averages whereas local data is available enabling more precise predictions. In comparing the alternatives, incorrect conclusions are drawn
- 1061. Example: In theEnvironmental Report on a regional management plan for the disposal of municipal sewerage sludge, various methods of disposal are compared. One alternative involves composting the sludge into a low grade compost product. The comparison of the alternatives in the report presents the composting option as an attractive form of disposal as it greatly reduces its volume. The comparison does not, however, take into account the limited potential for applying the low grade compost as a soil conditioner due to the high heavy metal content of the sludge. 6. REVIEWING AND DECISION-MAKING BY RESPONSIBLE AUTHORITIES 6.1 The role of the review process Reviewing is the step in the environmental assessment process that: • determines whether the Environmental Report provides an adequate assessment of the environmental effects, and is of sufficient relevance and quality for decision-making; Clause 6(c) of the "Policy and procedures for the filing, review and approval of environmental assessments" stipulates that the Responsible Authority shall advise the proponent of the adequacy of the Environmental Report within 10 days of receipt. While the reviewer may seek clarification of various points from the Proponent of the Consultant firm which prepared the Environmental Report, any deficiencies in the Environmental Report which require the preparation of additional material or the submission of additional documents in order that the review can be completed shall be advised within the 10 days prescribed. • collects and collates the range of stakeholder opinion about the acceptability of the proposal and the quality of the process that was adopted by the proponent; • ensures that the Environmental Report complies with the Terms of Reference; • determines whether the proposal complies with existing plans, policies and standards. The purpose of the review is to provide information that the decision-makers will require to decide upon the acceptability of the predicted impacts. The review process can also be used to obtain an impartial judgement of the particular, and often conflicting, interests of parties involved and to avoid unnecessary costs and delays. Often a review will identify further information that is required or further mitigation measures that should be included. The review will normally be undertaken by:
- 1062. • assessment officerswithin the Responsible Authority, or • by a Committee of Experts appointed by the Director General or Chief of the Responsible Authority, as provided for in Clause 6(g) of the "Policy and Procedures for the filing, review and approval of environmental assessments"; or • a combination of both the above. Any person undertaking the review must disqualify themselves from participating if they have any connection or interest, or are adversely affected by the proposal. Review of Environmental Reports commences once the report has been submitted, and publicly advertised (which is mandatory for EIA’s, and may be required by the Responsible Authority for some IEE’s). It is good practice for the proponent (or his consultants) to maintain progressive contact with the Responsible Authority, to ensure that the preparation of the Environmental Report is on track, and to avoid any unanticipated rejection of the report. Where there are issues that require further research, aspects of the proposal that require modification, or where the report is inadequate, reviewing may be an iterative process, with the report being returned to the proponent for amendment to correct the deficiencies identified. Any such deficiencies should be communicated in writing. The review will also address stakeholder input. This will commonly be through the submissions made by other Departments and Agencies, and through submissions made by NGO’s and the local community. Community input will not always be written: it can involve a range of forms, including comments made at displays and at meetings and briefings with affected and interested people. It is essential that key government Departments and Agencies who have responsibility for aspects of the environment affected by the proposal (eg wildlife management, provision of infrastructure) provide written submissions on the Environmental report, detailing whether the report addresses their key policies and standards, and whether the mitigation measures specified are adequate. An important role of the review is to check that the feasibility design complies with relevant standards and policies, or standards of good practice where official standards do not exist. For instance, proposed levels of discharges for a proposal from a multi-national should not be greater than those allowed in the home country of the multi-national. Review can also be carried out by proponents during the preparation of the Environmental Report, as part of the quality assurance process. In this way proponents can ensure that their work is of an appropriate standard before it is the subject of formal review by the Responsible Authority. 6.2 A consistent, systematic approach
- 1063. There are benefitsto all stakeholders if a consistent and systematic set of criteria is used to review Environmental Reports. The general standard of Environmental Reports can be improved when proponents are made aware of government or agency expectations about report standards and coverage. Also, an assessment can be made of the success of the review criteria in achieving government’s aims or in the demands that they place on proponents, and criteria can be revised (strengthened or relaxed) as necessary. Reviewing is carried out to decide whether: • the Environmental Report has adequately addressed the Terms of Reference; • there is sufficient information on the objectives of the proposal and its environmental setting, alternatives, impacts, baseline information, mitigation and monitoring; • the information is correct and technically sound; • the preparation of the Environmental Report was conducted appropriately, and the points of view of all parties were taken into account; • the information has been presented so that it can be understood by both decision-makers and the public; • the information is relevant to the decision-making; and • there is sufficient information on the implications of the environmental impacts to provide reliable information to decision-makers. 6.3 Steps in reviewing an Environmental Report The following steps can be adopted for a best practice approach to reviewing Environmental Reports. Setting the scale At the start of each review it is important to establish how much time is available for the review (ie. manhours, not elapsed time to meet a statutory deadline). The choices range from a quick overview by one person to an in-depth review by a team of experts assembled to do the job. The scale of the review will depend on the nature of the proposal and available resources. If inadequate resources are available to undertake a comprehensive review, this situation should be drawn to the attention of the decision-makers, and included in the written review report. Using input from public comment Practical experience from a number of countries has shown that seeking comment from the public is very important to the quality of the review process. The input from the public is critical in checking and determining the quality of the descriptions of the existing environmental conditions, the importance of the
- 1064. effects to beexpected from the proposed activity, and the acceptability of possible alternatives. A question of adequacy The following points should be considered in assessing the adequacy of Environmental Reports: • the purpose of an Environmental Report is to bring matters to the attention of members of the public, the decision-makers, and the Responsible Authority, so that the environmental consequences can be properly understood; • the Environmental Report must be sufficiently specific to direct a reasonably intelligent and informed mind to potential or possible environmental consequences; • the Environmental Report should be written in understandable language; • the Environmental Report should contain material which would alert both lay persons and specialists to potential problems; • an Environmental Report would be unacceptable if it was superficial, subjective or non-informative; • an Environmental Report would be acceptable if it was objective in its approach and alerted relevant parties to the environmental impacts and community consequences of carrying out or not carrying out the proposal. Identifying the review criteria Review criteria should include: • the Terms of Reference for the Environmental Report; • existing reviews of EIA reports of comparable activities in similar settings; • studies and experience of the actual impacts of similar projects which have been implemented; • general review criteria, including the requirements of PEPO ‘97, and the "Policy and Procedures for filing, review and approval of environmental assessments"; • the quality of the scoping and screening, impact prediction, evaluation of impact significance, the assessment of alternatives, the mitigation and monitoring measures proposed, and the EMP, and in particular, whether: o the executive summary is adequate. Decision-makers may read only the summary, therefore it must present the significant impacts (in order of importance), clarifying which are unavoidable and which are irreversible; the measures which can be taken to mitigate them; the cumulative effect of impacts; and the requirements for monitoring and supervision.; o recommendations are clearly stated in the executive summary;
- 1065. o the projectoutline description is complete, in so far as the aspects which can affect the environment are concerned; o project alternatives are described; o the baseline study section in the main report is concise and useful to readers who are not specialists in the scientific disciplines covered. The section should give an overall picture of present conditions and trends, and include ongoing and proposed development activities in the study area. It should provide comments on the quality of the data and the completeness of the data bases; o consideration of probability is provided in the section in which impacts are predicted and evaluated. An explanation should be given for potential impacts that were expected at the scoping stage, but not found, and for issues which are dropped from further consideration. Significant impacts should be analysed in more detail than less significant ones; o mitigation measures both control adverse impacts and enhance project benefits. The institutional arrangements for implementing the measures should be defined. The costs of implementing all recommendations should be adequately budgeted in the cost estimates; o when monitoring programs are described, the reasons for and costs of the monitoring activities are detailed. There should be a commitment to carrying out the monitoring work, evaluating the results, and initiating any necessary action to limit adverse impacts disclosed by monitoring; • the involvement of local people in the study process, including an overview of the issues raised and their treatment; • the clarity of reporting, which should be free of jargon, and explain technical issues in terms that are intelligible to a non-technical reader. Carrying out the review The review should progress through three steps; Step 1: identify the deficiencies in the Environmental Report using the criteria listed above. Step 2: focus on the critical shortcomings observed in the Environmental Report and determine if any shortcomings are so critical that remedial action must be taken. Step 3: following any remedial action that is required, complete the review, including recommendations on the acceptability of the proposal, and any necessary project changes, mitigation measures and monitoring requirements.
- 1066. 6.4 Determining remedialoptions The appropriate remedial option depends on the nature and extent of the inadequacy of the Environmental Report. • The shortcomings of the Environmental Report are so serious that they require immediate remedy in the form of a supplement to the Environmental Report, or a new Environmental Report. Those responsible for preparing the report should be given the opportunity of correcting the deficiencies, but if they are unable to do so, a different, more competent team will be required. In this situation, the review report must give a clear statement as to how the additional information can be collected and presented. The Responsible Authority will be aware that this course of action will delay the decision-making until the new report or supplement is completed. • The shortcomings can be rectified fairly easily by means of explanations and conditions attached to the Environmental Approval. This option has the advantage that the decision-making can proceed without delay, while requiring that the deficiencies be addressed during the detail design phase. • The shortcomings are not major, but cannot be remedied immediately, either by providing supplementary information, or by providing explanations and approval conditions, because they require too much time and effort to collect. In this case the review may recommend monitoring the shortcomings and uncertainties during the implementation and operation of the project with possible corrective measures being required if impacts turn out to be worse than expected. In some rare cases, the proposal or the Environmental Report can be so unacceptable that the proposal is rejected. If there are unreasonable delays by the Responsible Authority, the Proponent may request the EAAC (through the Director General) to examine the review process. 6.5 The decision-making process The decision-making process varies depending on whether private sector or public sector projects are being considered, as shown in the Figures 3 and 4 below. Figure 3. Decision-making process—private projects
- 1068. Figure 4. Decision-makingprocess—public projects The decision on the Environmental Approval will be taken by the Responsible Authority. As set out in Annex V of the "Policy and Procedures for the filing, review and approval of environmental assessments" it will be done by an authorised Committee of Officers, following receipt of advice in the form of a written report from an Assessment Officer, or from a Committee of Experts, or both. 6.6 Checks and balances A number of checks and balances are built into the environmental assessment system which help to ensure accountability and transparency. • The Environmental Report is a public document (subject to the withholding of any commercial-in-confidence material). • EIA’s are publicly advertised for comment. • The review of Environmental Reports is undertaken by a government Responsible Authority that is separate from the proponent (this is particularly relevant in the case of public works). • The review of the Environmental Report and the subsequent decision is made public. • A register is kept of decisions, which is available to the public. • The decisions contain conditions relating to the nature of the project and commitments by the proponent, mitigation and monitoring measures that are required. • An Agreement is signed by the proponent committing him to implement the project in accordance with the Environmental Report and the Environmental Approval conditions. • When the project is built, but before it commences operations, an Operating Approval must be granted. This step allows a check to be made that the project has been built in accordance with the Environmental Approval, and allows the firming up of discharge levels, monitoring requirements and the EMP to take account of refinements in the detail design and construction phase. • Any decisions taken by the Responsible Authority during the environmental assessment are subject to appeal in the Environmental Tribunal. 7. MONITORING AND AUDITING 7.1 Need for systematic follow up
- 1069. A systematic environmentalassessment follow up process is needed to: • ensure that attention is paid to the actual effects arising from construction & operation; • ensure that anticipated impacts are maintained within the levels predicted; • ensure that unanticipated impacts are managed or mitigated before they become a problem; and • ensure that environmental management brings about real environmental benefits and achieves environmental sustainability, rather than the Environmental Approval process being a mere paper chase to secure a development approval; Responsible Authorities will also use the results of monitoring and auditing to improve their knowledge of project impact prediction and management, so that the environmental assessment and review processes can be progressively improved. There are a range of environmental planning and management tools that can be used individually or in combination to achieve improved information, environmental performance and decision-making. Some of these tools are listed below according to their primary purpose (see Table 5). Table 5. Environmental planning and management tools Purpose Examples of available tools Systematic approaches to business or organisational management environmental management systems ISO 14000 series, quality assurance systems ISO 9000 series Designing and assessing environmentally sound projects and products environmental assessment, risk assessment, life-cycle analysis, technology assessment Predictive analysis of individual impacts specific and often highly technical techniques such as modelling changed hydrological conditions or air quality Monitoring progress testing specific parameters for a predefined purpose (eg suspended solids, BOD for water quality) Audit, evaluation and review often a "one off" picture of the current environmental conditions used to indicate past or current status (eg compliance audits, environmental assessment audits, contaminated site audit, State of the Environment reporting) Figure 5 below shows the relationship between monitoring, management and auditing, and the steps in the environmental assessment process.
- 1070. In recent yearsenvironmental assessment has become increasingly oriented towards ensuring effective environmental management during the implementation and operation of a proposal. The development of impact management and monitoring programs as part of the environmental assessment process enabled proponents and their contractors to use business systems (such as quality and environmental management systems) to ensure that all parties are aware of their responsibilities and that they carry them out. 7.2 Definition and purpose of monitoring Environmental assessment monitoring is the planned, systematic collection of environmental data to meet specific objectives. Monitoring can be used to ensure that the benefits anticipated as a result of the Environmental Report are effectively achieved as the project proceeds. Monitoring can be particularly important when the decision to proceed with a proposal is controversial—where overall the project is seen to provide net community benefit, despite considerable uncertainty concerning the scale and significance of one or more adverse impacts. The local community may be concerned about the potential impact of a project on an important resource (eg a fishery) even if the environmental study indicates that no significant impacts are likely. In such situations agreement to implement and fund a monitoring program can be important in reducing community fears and hostility towards the project. At the same time, the monitoring data will function as an "early warning system" indicating if an impact is occurring, and allowing remedial action to be taken before the impact has reached unacceptable levels. Monitoring involves the planning of a monitoring program, the collection and analysis of samples, and the interpretation and reporting off data. Data compiled from monitoring can be used to: • document the baseline conditions at the start of the environmental study; • assess performance and monitor compliance with agreed conditions specified in the Environmental Approval, Environmental Agreement and Operating Approval for a project; • review predicted impacts in order to effectively manage risks and uncertainties; • identify trends in impacts; • periodically review and adjust environmental management plans and activities; • verify the accuracy of past predictions of impacts and the effectiveness of mitigation measures, in order to transfer this experience to future activities of the same type; and • review the effectiveness of the environmental management.
- 1071. The proponent isresponsible for: 1. undertaking and paying for the monitoring (including the provision of monitoring equipment); 1. the management of the information gained from monitoring; and 1. implementation of any action that might be required as a result of monitoring. Different stakeholders can be involved in different aspects of monitoring and follow up activities. For instance: • Responsible Authorities make decisions on, and inspect or check implementation of, the conditions of approval; • proponents or their agents are responsible for implementing the projects, including monitoring the actual effects, implementing remedial measures, and verifying the accuracy of predictions; • Environmental Protection Agencies and Departments as regulatory authorities check compliance with NEQS, and verify the effectiveness of mitigation measures; and • the public can be formally or informally involved in monitoring activities and may highlight inadequacies in monitoring programs. They may also have practical suggestions to help solve problems as they arise. 7.3 Effective data collection and management Monitoring is expensive. It needs to be aimed at the level required to successfully manage the project and review the adequacy of the environmental assessment without wasting money by unnecessarily monitoring impacts. Monitoring should be focused on the impacts that are either significant, or where there is uncertainty. Monitoring is not necessarily required for all impacts. The collection of information needs to be optimised so that enough is collected to be useful, but not so much that it is wasted. Careful thought must be given to the design of a monitoring program, as to how the results will be used in practice, and for how long the monitoring needs to be continued. Monitoring should be linked to impact prediction so that there is information on the nature, magnitude, geographical extent, time scale, probability, and significance of the impact. Monitoring programs need to be constantly reviewed to make sure that they are effective, and to identify the time when they can be stopped. While monitoring activities frequently require sophisticated equipment,
- 1072. the value ofsimple observation should not be under-estimated. For this reason, amongst others, the involvement of local communities can be most effective. Effective monitoring programs have: • a realistic sampling program (temporal and spatial) • sampling methods relevant to the source (eg point source, diffuse) • collection of quality data • compatibility of new data with other relevant data • cost-effective data collection • quality control in data measurement and analysis • innovations (eg tracing contaminants, and automated stations) • appropriate databases • multi-disciplinary data interpretation to provide useful information • reporting for internal management and external checks • allowance for, and response to, input from third parties • presentation in the public arena Monitoring programs should provide time series data which can be analysed from time series graphs, which will show statistical significance of variations, and rates and directions of change. Monitoring programs need to be costed in detail, and funds allocated for the purpose and accounted for in the overall costing of the project. They can generally be offset against the benefits which monitoring brings. There are always immediate cost savings in identifying and rectifying unacceptable environmental impacts at an early stage in the project. Where waste streams require treatment, this can be a catalyst for the recovery of commercially valuable constituents. Longer term gains include decreasing future costs for decommissioning, and improving the credibility of the proponent when proposing future projects. 7.4 Environmental Monitoring Committees The Responsible Authority may, at their discretion, set up an Environmental Monitoring Committee for any approved project to assist and guide the proponent in the management of the monitoring program. Such action shall be taken where the Responsible Authority considers that the scale of likely impacts, or the level of public concern, warrant such action. The Monitoring Committee shall consist of representatives of the Responsible Authority (who will chair the committee), the Proponent (and his Consultants as required), key Government Agencies,
- 1073. relevant Municipal Authoritiesand representatives of NGO’s and the local community. Draft Terms of Reference for such an Environmental Monitoring Committee would typically include the following points: • the committee shall meet periodically to advise the proponent whether the monitoring actions being undertaken meet the requirements of the Environmental Approval and the Operating Approval, and as further detailed in the Environmental Management Plan; • the committee shall advise on any further public consultation which it thinks is desirable; • the committee shall consider any significant environmental impacts not foreseen in the Environmental Report, and shall advise the proponent of suitable mitigating measures; • the committee would consider drafts of the Annual Report on the project prepared by the proponent; • the committee would advise the Director General of any matters which they believe should be drawn to his attention. 7.5 Environmental auditing Environmental auditing is a review process similar to that carried out in financial auditing and can be done on a regular or ad hoc basis. It usually takes the form of an independent ‘one off’ examination and assessment of past performance, such as for the audit of a contaminated site. One special type of environmental audit is the environmental assessment audit which can provide an evaluation of the conditions of approval along with an assessment of the effectiveness of a particular Environmental Report at predicting impacts, both their type and characteristics. A formal environmental assessment audit can therefore only be commenced after partial or complete project implementation. Feedback from this type of audit can be used to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of other Environmental Reports in the future. The environmental assessment audit would usually be undertaken by (or on behalf of) the Responsible Authority, and the Responsible Authority would pay for the audit. It would not necessarily be undertaken for every project, but desirably it would be done every two or three years for a representative sample of projects which have been subject to an Environmental Report and approval, and have been operating for several years. Environmental assessment auditing is a management tool that: • determines the actual impact and outcomes of projects that have been the subject of an Environmental Report, including the extent to which the environmental review has influenced decision making, and the extent to
- 1074. which community benefitshave resulted from the environmental components of the project; • assesses whether conditions established in the Environmental Approval and Operational Approval for mitigating the environmental impacts of development have been implemented and enforced, and whether those mitigating measures were sufficient to ensure that the environment was protected; • identifies the nature and accuracy of impact predictions, and evaluates the role of impact prediction in the management of environmental impacts of developments; • evaluates the effectiveness of the environmental assessment process in order to identify ways of improving the utility and efficiency of future assessments. An environmental assessment audit is planned to be specific to the site, although it can offer information which is general to the environmental assessment process as a whole. It can include the completion of checklists and questionnaires, as well as following written guidelines and using rating systems. The table of contents of an Environmental Management Plan can be used as a checklist for an audit. Auditing can also result in: • an improved image for the project as environmentally sound; • reduction in public opposition to operations; and • avoidance of penalties which could result from non-compliance with environmental controls. Findings of the audit and other less formal reviews need to be fed back into the monitoring plan and the management systems. In this way strengths will be highlighted, weaknesses acknowledged and remedied, and gaps in information for effective reporting defined. Both the Environmental Management Plan and the monitoring program may need to be amended. 8. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 8.1 The importance of the role of the environmental study manager The main purpose of the environmental study manager is to manage proposals in such a way that the environment is protected while still maximising the other economic and social goals of the project. While the immediate objective of the environmental study manager may be the production of a successful Environmental Report, the longer term goal of project management is to minimise adverse environmental impacts through the environmental assessment process.
- 1075. It is importantto understand that environmental assessment needs to be a total environmental process which puts a proposal in proper perspective within technical, economic, fiscal and environmental spheres. Environmental assessment produces better projects—projects that are financially viable, that continue to provide benefits in the long term, and that consume only as many resources as necessary. Environmentally sound projects will be sustainable, bring better financial returns and will conserve scarce resources. There are many participants in the environmental assessment process: political parties, donor agencies, consulting firms, review and regulatory agencies, NGO’s, academics, the public and the media. Each of these becomes to some degree clients of environmental study manager, who needs to understand and take account of their varying needs and demands. 8.2 Attributes of a good environmental study manager To be effective, the environmental study team needs strong support from environmental study manager and very clear agreements on what is to be achieved, what the deadlines are, how money and resources will be allocated, who does what, and who reports to whom. Good environmental study manager will be: Technically skilled A successful project manager has a good understanding of the technical and social complexities of the environmental consequences of the project. This is necessary even when the interdisciplinary team undertaking the study includes specialists in environmental and social assessment. There is little point in appointing a environmental study manager who is not an experienced environmental assessment practitioner. Action oriented Environmental study managers need to be action oriented as deadlines are often very tight. Good environmental study manager move ahead quickly, in the directions they consider reasonable, and then correct these directions as required. Excessive caution in the early stages delays the time for this sort of correction. Team leader To command the respect of the team the environmental study manager must have a clear idea of what is to be done, good management skills, the ability to motivate team members, integrity, and good judgement. Able to learn from others The environmental study manager is likely to be a generalist rather than a specialist, and needs to know enough about each of the specialisations to win the respect of the specialist team. In specialist areas, the team leader needs to rely on the expert judgement of the specialist.
- 1076. Good communicator Environmentalassessment management involves information management. It is critical that the project manager communicates well with the client, regulatory bodies, the community and the members of the inter-disciplinary team. Good negotiator It is the environmental study manager’s job to get resources for the environmental study, to get the best out of team members, and to negotiate compromises between numerous stakeholders. Planning and budgeting skills Without good planning, scheduling and budgeting, there is little likelihood that the Environmental Report will be accomplished on time and within budget. 8.3 Core tasks of the environmental study manager The environmental study manager, as the team’s leader, needs considerable interpersonal skills. A major part of the job is visualising the larger picture within the environmental study, and supporting, building confidence, communicating, leading, asking the right questions, and allowing team members to organise and carry out work in ways which are appropriate to the individual while insisting on quality control. Key tasks which the environmental study manager must accomplish include; • establishing the purpose of the proposal, understanding the issues involved as well as the receiving environment; • defining work components and developing a work program for them; • establishing and managing a budget; • establishing a management structure, and clear lines of communication; • setting time schedules; • selecting an interdisciplinary team for the impact investigations; • writing Terms of reference for specialist sub-Consultancies, and managing the tendering and appointment process; • defining the roles of each team member, the products required, the methods of delivery, quality standards of work and payment procedures; • coordinating a public involvement program; • managing and coordinating the information generated by the study; • providing the results and recommendations of the environmental assessment in a form that meets both the needs of all stakeholders. 8.4 Interdisciplinary teams Most proposals have a number of potential impacts, often including physical and chemical impacts, biological impacts, and cultural and economic impacts. No one person can be an expert in all of these fields. The multiple viewpoints of the team will lead to a more reasoned evaluation. An interdisciplinary team consists of a
- 1077. group of people,trained in different fields, who interact as a group throughout the environmental study and produce a coordinated Environmental Report. The team, if it is to be competent, must include an engineer who is knowledgeable about the design and operation of the plant or technology needed for the project. This team member will form a link with the technical feasibility team (if indeed the two teams are separate), and ensure that progressive results of the environmental studies, and changes to the technical specifications (whether resultant from environmental advice, or from other causes) are communicated in both directions. Putting together the team requires searching for appropriate local consultants, or experienced people from universities or research organisations. Sometimes expertise will have to be obtained from further afield. The team members should be selected for their experience in environmental assessment and their competence in a discipline relating to the key issues of the study. While it may be desirable to have many different specialists contribute to the study, the choice of team members is often limited to who is available, and what can be afforded (see Tables 6 and 7). Table 6. Factor s that can affect the selection of team members Table 7. Quali ties of successful inter- disciplinary team members • finances available; • range of impacts to be studied; • demonstrated expertise and experience; • demonstrated local knowledge; • availability; and • ability to work with others and contribute to team efforts. • good team skills; • creativity; • adaptability; • good oral and written communication skills; • good organisational skills; • the ability to listen and to assimilate information; • patience.
- 1078. Specialists engaged onenvironmental studies should be experienced in their field, the type of proposal, the geographic region and in environmental assessment. Where professional judgement is used without also employing other more objective methods of analysis, the environmental study manager should be aware that the judgement and values of the specialist concerned may influence the outcome. There will always be conflict for the environmental study manager to manage. Conflict within the team can be either because of disagreement about scientific interpretation, or because team member do not get on with each other. Often proponents will disagree with the study team because they do not recognise the importance of some impacts. Other stakeholders may demand information which is not available, or attempt to push their individual or group interests, and may oppose findings of the team because they do not understand the basis for these, or because they see things in terms of their own interests. The worst conflict of all for the environmental study manager is when the proponent wishes to alter the content of the Environmental Report, to present the proposal in a more favourable light, or to suppress potentially damaging material. Some of these conflicts can be avoided by providing readily available information at a level which can be understood by the various parties and making sure that the information is communicated to all who need it. Other conflicts within the team and with the proponent are likely to require all the communication and negotiation skills available to successful environmental study managers. 8.5 Programming and budgeting Scheduling involves planning how the study will be broken down into component activities and how these activities will fit together. To produce a schedule it is necessary to: • identify key events or dates that control the study; • break down the project into stages; • estimate the timing of each of these stages; • identify the resources required; and • estimate the cash flow. Scheduling is often supported by techniques such as bar charts (eg Gantt charts) and critical path methods (eg PERT) which are often computerised. The logic needed to construct the network consists of the activities to be performed, the relationship between the activities, and the activities which must precede or follow each other.
- 1079. For example, acommon sequence of activities to evaluate the health effects of a transportation study is: • gathering data on existing transport modes; • identifying alternatives; • calibrating a transportation model for the current network and conditions; • identifying future population and land use, and inputting these parameters to the model; • for each alternative, inputting the new transportation measures (eg new roads); • running the model; • determining traffic flows on key road segments; • predicting noise, air quality and safety values; • providing these predictions to the health specialist for evaluation. It is not uncommon to see much study time consumed on the early steps of gathering data and getting the model calibrated and run, leaving insufficient time for the prediction of noise, air and safety impacts. The likelihood of the health specialist having sufficient time to do his work carefully will be remote unless the study is well managed. Project managers need to exercise strict control to ensure that time and effort is not spent on unnecessary baseline data collection. Remembering that the object of environmental assessment is not specifically to describe baseline conditions, they may wish to impose limits on the space in the Environmental Report devoted to the description of the baseline situation. The most difficult part of budgeting is making the initial estimate on which the request for funding will be made. Early decisions need to be made that identify the most important issues and how they are related to each other. From this can come an estimate of the studies to be made, the people to undertake them, the time required to carry them out, the services required to support the team, the equipment required and the overhead costs. Experienced project managers fight hard for an adequate budget. A major and on-going task of the project manager is to have in place, and use, reporting systems that track expenses and chart progress against the schedule. 8.6 Capacity building aspects of project management Before the team disperses it is useful to have a team ‘post-mortem’ of performance during the project. This discussion should include representatives of the Responsible Authority, so that problems identified and lessons learnt can be applied widely. If this is done systematically then the lessons learned can be used to improve the next environmental study. Data collected should be properly formatted and stored for use in future assessments. Lists should be made of all
- 1080. contacts—specialists, institutions, andofficials—and, if possible, these should be updated from time to time. Reference materials should be properly catalogued and stored. These matters are particularly important in Pakistan, which is moving to establish systematic environmental assessment processes. The lessons learned and the contacts made can all contribute significantly to capacity building and make future studies more effective. 9 References This, and other guidelines in the package, rely heavily on existing sources, which include: • The UNEP Environmental Impact Assessment Training Resource Manual June 1996 • Environmental Assessment Requirements and Environmental Review Procedures of the Asian Development Bank March 1993 • The World Bank Environmental Assessment Sourcebook 1994 • The NSW Department of Urban Affairs and Planning EIS Guidelines October 1996 • Bisset, R (1995) EIA: Issues, Trends and Practice. The Environment and Economic Unit UNEP, Nairobi Specific references to a number of generic issues which are detailed in The World Bank Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, Volume I, and provided in Appendix A. Global, cross-sectoral and cultural issues in environmental assessment APPENDIX A Specific references to a number of generic issues which are detailed in The World Bank Environmental Assessment Sourcebook, Volume I, and provided below: Topic Page
- 1081. Global and trans-boundaryconcerns and regulations • Atmospheric pollution • International treaties and Agreements on the environment and natural resources • International waterways 55 63 65 Cross-sectoral issues • Biological diversity 68 • Wildlands • Wetlands • Tropical forests • Arid and semi-arid lands • Coastal zone management • Land and water resource management • Natural hazards 76 80 83 84 87 91 95 Social and cultural issues in environmental review • Core concerns in social analysis • Social issues in ecologically sensitive areas • Indigenous peoples • Cultural property 108 111 114 120 • Involuntary resettlement • New land settlement • Spontaneous or unplanned agricultural settlement • Induced development 123 126 129 130
- 1082. Network showing impactslinkages leading to changes in quality of life, wildlife and tourism arising from increased visitor numbers at a national park APPENDIX B
- 1084. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 2005 GOVERNMENTOF PAKISTAN MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT
- 1085. 7 National Environment Policy2005 CONTENTS 1.0 PREAMBLE 9 2.0 THE NATIONAL POLICY 9 2.0 Goal 9 2.2 Objectives 9 3.1 SECTORAL GUIDELINES 10 3.2 Water Supply and Management 10 3.3 Air Quality and Noise 10 3.4 Waste Management 11 3.5 Forestry 12 3.6 Biodiversity and Protected Areas 12 3.7 Climate Change and Ozone Depletion 13 3.8 Energy Efficiency and Renewables 14 3.9 Agriculture and Livestock 14 3.10 Multilateral Environmental Agreements 15 4.0 CROSS-SECTORAL GUIDELINE 15 4.1 Poverty and Environment 15 4.2 Population and Environment 16 2.3 Gender and Environment 17 4.4 Health and Environment 17 4.5 Trade and Environment 17 4.6 Environment and Local Governance 17 4.7 Natural Disaster Management 18
- 1086. 8 National Environment Policy2005 5.1 POLICY INSTRUMENTS 18 5.2 Integration of Environment into Development Planning 18 5.3 Legislation and Regulatory Framework 18 5.4 Capacity Development 19 5.5 Economic and Market Based Instruments 19 5.6 Public Awareness and Education 19 5.7 Public-Private-Civil Society Partnership 20 6.0 IMPLEMENTATIONAND MONITORING 20
- 1087. 9 National Environment Policy2005 1. Preamble The National Environment Policy provides an overarching framework for addressing the environmental issues facing- Pakistan, particularly pollution of fresh water bodies and coastal waters, air pollution, lack of proper waste management, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, desertification, natural disasters and climate change. It also gives directions for addressing the cross sectoral issues as well as the underlying causes of environmental degradation and meeting international obligations. The National Environment Policy, while recognizing the goals and objectives of the National Conservation Strategy, National Environmental Action Plan and other existing environment related national policies, strategies and action plans, provides broad guidelines to the Federal Government, Provincial Governments, Federally Administrated Territories and Local Governments for addressing environmental concerns and ensuring effective management of their environmental resources. The Provincial, AJK, Northern Areas and Local, Governments, however, may devise their own strategies, plans and programs in pursuit of this Policy. 2. The National Policy 2.1. Goal The National Environment Policy aims to protect, conserve and restore Pakistan’s environment in order to improve the quality of life of the citizens through sustainable development. 2.2. Objectives The objectives of the Policy are: (a) Conservation, restoration and efficient management of environmental resources. (b) Integration of environmental considerations in policy making and planning processes. (c) Capacity building of government agencies and other stakeholders at all levels for better environmental management. (d) Meeting international obligations effectively in line with the national aspirations.
- 1088. 10 National Environment Policy2005 (e) Creation of a demand for environment through mass awareness and communitymobilization. 3. Sectoral Guidelines 3.1. Water Supply and Management To provide sustainable access to safe water supply and effectively manage and conserve the country's water resources, the government may: (a) Develop legal and policy framework for promotion of safe drinking water in Pakistan. (b) Increase coverage of water supply and water treatment facilities. (c) Establish a water quality monitoring and surveillance system. (d) Make installation of water treatment plants as an integral component of all drinking water supply schemes. . (e) Promote low-cost water treatment technologies at the community and household levels. (f) Promote appropriate technologies for rain water harvesting in rural as well as urban areas. (g) Encourage artificial recharge of groundwater in arid and semi arid areas. (h) Promote metering of water consumption to discourage the indiscriminate use of water for industrial and municipal purposes. (i) Enact Water Conservation Act and relevant standards to foster water conservation. (j) Promote integrated watershed management. (k) Monitor sustained freshwater flows into the marine eco-systems. (l) Establish standards for classification of surface waterbodies. (m) Launch phased programs for clean up and gradual up-gradation of the quality of water bodies. . 3.2. Air Quality and Noise In order to prevent and reduce air pollution and noise, the government may: a) Establish and enforce standards for ambient and indoor air quality. b) Enact the National Clean Air Act. c) Ensure effective enforcement of the National Environmental Quality Standards and Self Monitoring Rules. d) Ensure reduction and control of harmful emissions through regulatory programs. e) Regulate vehicular emissions.
- 1089. 11 National Environment Policy2005 f) Establish standards for vehicles at the manufacturing stage. g) Update and enforce fuel specifications. h) Make use of catalytic converters in new and in-use vehicles mandatory. i) Phase out sulphur from diesel and furnace oil. j) Promote cleaner production technologies. k) Phase out two stroke vehicles. l) Encourage cost effective inter-city mass transit systems in major cities. m) Promote non-motorized means of travel such as cycling and walking through provision of adequate walkways and cycle lanes in cities. n) Establish and enforce standards for ambient noise. o) Establish emission standards to control noise at source. 3.3. Waste Management Pollution caused by liquid and solid waste in the country would be prevented and reduced. For this purpose, the government may: a) Strictly enforce the National Environmental Quality Standards and Self- Monitoring and Reporting System. b) Introduce discharge licensing system for industry. c) Make installation of wastewater treatment plants an integral part of all sewerage schemes. . d) Devise and implement the National Sanitation Policy. e) Devise and implement master plans for treatment of municipal and industrial wastewater in urban and rural areas. f) Establish cleaner production centers and promote cleaner production techniques and practices g) Encourage reduction, recycling and reuse of municipal and industrial solid and liquid wastes. h) Develop and enforce rules and regulations for proper management of municipal, industrial, hazardous and hospital wastes. i) Develop and implement strategies for integrated management of municipal, industrial, hazardous and hospital waste at national, provincial and local levels. j) Develop and enforce regulations to reduce the risk of contamination from underground storage tanks. k) Devise and implement guidelines for sustainable management of mining and oil exploration interventions as well for rehabilitation of expired mines/exploration sites. l) Launch National Oil Spill Contingency Plan. m) Adopt measures for mitigation of pollution caused by oil spills. n) Establish a Marine Pollution Control Commission. o) Frame Pakistan Oil Pollution Act.
- 1090. 12 National Environment Policy2005 p) Develop environmental risk assessment guidelines for existing industries as well as new development interventions. q) Develop national emergency response and accidents preventions plans to prevent, and mitigate the effects of, accidents involving pollution of environment. r) Provide financial and other incentives (reduction/elimination of tariffs, low- interest loans, appreciation certificates and awards) for technology upgradation, adoption of cleaner technology, implementation of pollution control measures and compliance with environmental standards. 3.4. Forestry To ensure sustainable management of natural forests of Pakistan and increased tree cover for "safeguarding economic growth and food security in the country, the government may: a) Implement the National Forest Policy. b) Carry out intensive institutional and legal reforms both at the federal and provincial levels to promote good forest governance. c) Promote social, farm forestry and irrigated plantations. d) Develop and sustainably manage the riverine forests alongwith irrigated plantation and tree plantation on farm-lands. e) Develop and implement a strategy and an action plan for protection and rehabilitation of mangrove forests with the participation of local communities. f) Preserve relict and unique forests eco-systems. g) Encourage conservation and restoration of critically threatened eco-systems. h) Provide alternative sources of. energy, like piped natural gas. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), solar energy and micro-hydel power stations, to the local inhabitants to reduce the pressure on natural forests, and to substitute firewood in the upland ecosystems. i) Strengthen the existing forestry research and training institutions with adequate infrastructure and technical manpower development; j) Promote sustainable management of rangelands and pastures through preparation and implementation of integrated range management plans. 3.5. Biodiversity and Protected Areas The government would promote the conservation and sustainable use of Pakistan's biodiversity and effective management of protected areas, and the equitable sharing of benefits arising thereof for the well-being of the nation. In order to achieve this, the government may: a) Ensure effective implementation of the Biodiversity Action Plan.
- 1091. 13 National Environment Policy2005 b) Revise and update the Biodiversity Action Plan in line with developments taking place at the national and international levels. c) Create new national parks and protected areas. d) Develop and implement protected areas system plan for in-situ conservation of biodiversity with community involvement. e) Encourage involvement of local communities in conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity through provision of incentives and responsibilities. f) Prepare a national strategy and action plan for combating spread of invasive species. g) Enforce biosafety rules and guidelines and adopt necessary biosafety related legal framework. h) Establish a National Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Sciences at the Federal level with the objective of enhancing training and research capabilities in the fields of biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management. i) Promote ex-situ conservation of biodiversity through establishment of botanical gardens, gene banks, zoos and captive breeding of animals and plants. j) Develop National Zoological Gardens Act. k) Devise guidelines for accreditation and registration of private wild animal captive breeding centers. l) Prepare and implement integrated coastal zone management plans for protection of marine life. m) Develop and implement a comprehensive National Wetlands Policy. n) Develop policy and regulatory framework for conservation, cultivation and marketing of medicinal/economic plants. o) Create protected areas for conservation of marine eco-systems. p) Ensure that any mining activity within and in the vicinity of national parks does not compromise the objectives of protected areas. q) Harvest fisheries on a sustainable yield basis. r) Protect fish habitats against both encroachment and pollution. s) Use full potential of inland fisheries to promote aquaculture. t) Improve quality management for fish catches for export and domestic utilization. u) Develop and implement area conservation strategies for urban centers and towns of historical and cultural significance. v) Promote eco-tourism concept and practices. 3.6. Climate Change and Ozone Depletion In order to effectively address challenges posed by climate change and to protect the ozone layer, the government may: a) Devise and implement the National Climate Change Policy and Action Plan.
- 1092. 14 National Environment Policy2005 b) Establish National Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Authority. c) Develop and implement policy and operational framework for effective management of CDM process. d) Promote the use of ozone friendly technologies. e) Phase out the use of ozone depleting substances in line with the provisions of the Montreal Protocol. 3.7. Energy Efficiency and Renewables The government would promote energy" efficiency and renewable sources of energy in order to achieve self reliance in energy supplies and as a means to sustainable development. To this end, the government may: a) Devise and implement National Energy Conservation Policy. b) Formulate and enact energy conservation legislation and audit standards. c) Make the Building Energy Code as part of the Building Code of Pakistan. d) Strengthen financial mechanisms, institutions, and associated policies and regulations to provide innovative lending especially in the demand side efficiency improvement. e) Give preferential status and tax incentives to energy efficient domestic products and imports. f) Develop and implement a plan for conversion of public transport to CNG. g) Establish energy resource and information centers in provinces h) Institute the National Energy Conservation Award. i) Promote renewable forms of energy (wind, solar, bio-gas etc.) at all levels. j) Encourage use of waste resources for energy production. 3.8. Agriculture and Livestock may: To achieve sustainable agricultural and livestock development, the government a) Ensure protection and preservation of prime agricultural land from conversion for other uses through introducing land use planning and zoning. b) Promote organic farming. c) Prevent soil degradation and restore and improve degraded lands. d) Promote integrated pest management and discourage indiscriminate use of agrochemicals. e) Develop strategies and programs to tackle desertification in line with the National Action Plan to Combat Desertification and Drought. f) Establish National Desertification Control Fund. g) Encourage ecologically compatible cropping systems.
- 1093. 15 National Environment Policy2005 h) Enhance existing livestock production through development of new technologies, scientific methods of farming and. improved management interventions. i) Promote recycling of agricultural products associated with livestock production and use of livestock sector as an outlet for recycling of appropriate urban wastes. j) Encourage highly productive breeds of livestock. k) Introduce adequate animal waste management system in peri-urban dairy colonies. 3.9. Multilateral Environmental Agreements The government would continue to play a proactive role to ensure protection of regional and global environment and cooperate with the international community in promotion of sustainable development. In this context, the government may: a) Effectively participate in regional and international fora to foster cooperation for protection of environment and natural resources. b) Ensure effective implementation of all bilateral, regional and international multilateral environmental agreements, protocols and conventions to which Pakistan is a party, in line with national policies and priorities. c) Develop and implement national strategies and action plans for all multilateral environmental agreements, Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and Millennium Development Goals. 4. Cross Sectoral Guidelines 4.1. Poverty and Environment To achieve environmental sustain ability and poverty reduction in the context of economic growth, the government may: a) Integrate poverty-environment issues into economic policies and plans. b) Increase allocations for targeted interventions aimed to address poverty- environment nexus, especially at the grassroots level. c) Enhance community-level environmental management by strengthening the capacity of union councils, tehsil municipal administration and district governments. d) Improve poor's access to environmentally-sound technologies such as improved cooking stoves, crop production technologies that improve soil and water conservation and integrated pest management.
- 1094. 16 National Environment Policy2005 e) Regularize all the notified katchi abadis and upgrade katchi abadis and slum (squatter settlements) through provision of water supply and sanitation facilities. f) Devise and implement the National Resettlement Policy. 4.2. Population and Environment To address the population environment nexus effectively the government may: a) Integrate environmental considerations into population policies and related projects and programs. b) Formulate and implement culturally appropriate strategies and action plans for invigorating population planning programs, especially in critical eco-systems. c) Encourage behavioral change communication to promote environment friendly consumption patterns. d) Increase public awareness of the problems of unchecked population growth and its demand on natural resources. e) Channelize migration to the intermediate/smaller agro-based towns through provision of necessary infrastructure and support facilities. f) Upgrade living environment in rural settlements in order to generate reverse migration. g) Develop master plans to ensure development of cities towns and rural dwellings in a planned manner. h) Ensure equitable access to land and other environmental resources. 4.3. Gender and Environment It would be ensured that all environment related policies, projects and programs are gender-sensitive and promote empowerment of women. To this end, the government may: a) Compile statistics of gender-disaggregated environmental goods and services. b) Ensure effective participation of women in environmental projects and programs. c) Mainstream gender in all relevant policies and plans. d) Address the environmental issues which impact women more adversely such as indoor air pollution and lack of access to water supply sources. e) Include gender and environment" in the curricula of education and training programs on environment.
- 1095. 17 National Environment Policy2005 4.4. Health and Environment To prevent, minimize and mitigate detrimental health impacts associated with environmental hazards, the government may: a) Incorporate environmental health and healthcare waste management components into medical teaching and training programs. b) Develop and enforce occupational health and safety rules and regulations. c) Introduce effective waste management system in all healthcare facilities. d) Make the provision of safe water and sanitation facilities mandatory for all public facilities such as hospitals and schools. e) Promote dissemination of information on preventive health care at the grassroots level. 4.5. Trade and Environment To avail optimal benefit from, and safeguard Pakistan's environment and exports against any adverse effect of, trade liberalization, the government may: a) Certify/accredit private and public sector environmental laboratories. b) (b) Promote ISO 14000 series certification. c) Build the capacity of public and private sector organizations in relevant areas such as ISO certification, technology transfer, laboratory certification and testing. d) Undertake sector-specific research on the environmental effects of tariffs and subsidies. e) Develop strategies to deal with import of goods and technologies which could have detrimental effect on country's environment. 4.6. Environment and Local Governance Effective environmental management at the local level with active participation of all key stakeholders would be ensured. For this purpose, the government may: a) Develop and implement district and tehsil level environmental management plans. b) Build capacities of elected district government representatives and local government officials for effective management and participation in environmentalgovernance. c) Devolve necessary powers to local governments to ensure effective environmentalmanagement. d) Establish sustainable development funds at the district levels.
- 1096. 18 National Environment Policy2005 4.7. Natural Disaster Management To ensure disaster risk reduction and adequate preparedness for natural disasters, the government may: a) Develop and implement a natural disaster management strategy. b) Establish- disaster management institutions at the Federal and Provincial levels 5. Policy Instruments The following key instruments would be employed for achieving the objectives of the Policy: 1. Integration of environment into development planning 2. Legislation and regulatory framework 3. Capacity development - 4. Economic and market based instruments. 5. Public awareness and education 6. Public-private-civil society partnership 5.1. Integration of Environment into Development Planning a) Environmental considerations would be integrated into sectoral policies and plans. b) Environmental Impact Assessment related provisions of the Pakistan Environment Act, 1997, would be diligently enforced for all development projects. c) Environmental Protection Agencies/Environmental. Protection Departments would be made members of the Provincial Departmental Working Committees. d) Strategic Environmental Assessment would be promoted as a tool for integrating environment into decision-making. e) Environmental and natural resource accounting would be integrated in the national accounting system. 5.2. Legislation and Regulatory Framework a) Existing environmental legislative and regulatory framework would be strictly enforced. b) Necessary rules, regulations and standards would be developed for operatilization of the Policy at the Federal, Provincial and District level. c) Existing environmental legislation would be revised and new legislation would be enacted where required and appropriate.
- 1097. 19 National Environment Policy2005 5.3. Capacity Development a) Capacity of the Ministry of Environment, Provincial Environment Departments, Environmental Protection Agencies, district and tehsil governments and other relevant government and non-government institutions and organizations at all levels would be strengthened by provision of adequate staff, equipment, infrastructure and financial resources to enable them effectively implement the Policy. b) A national environmental information management system would be established to provide accurate and timely information for informed decision- making as well as ensure public access to environmental information. c) Short, medium and long-term programs would be designed and implemented after comprehensive training needs assessment. d) Public sector training institutions would be encouraged to integrate environment in their curricula. e) National research priorities in the environment sector would be identified and adequate funding would be made available to undertake need based research in priority areas. f) Relevant research and development institutions would be strengthened. 5.4. Economic and Market Based Instruments a) Environmental fiscal reforms would be promoted. b) Trade barriers for the import of clean technologies, fuels, and pollution control equipment would be removed. c) Incentives including reduced tariffs, tax concessions and other incentives (such as environment and energy award) would be offered to private and public sector for compliance with environmental laws and standards. d) Sustainable development funds would be operationalized at the federal and provincial levels. e) Industries would be encouraged to introduce environmental accounting systems in their financial management systems. f) Special credits/low interest loans/subsidies would be offered for the establishment of waste management system, introduction of clean technology and relocation of polluting industries. g) Opportunities for green business such as environmental engineering manufacturing and installations, environmentally-certified products and businesses, energy service and conservation companies, and ecotourism would be promoted. 5.5. Public Awareness and Education a) A national strategy would be developed and implemented for raising environmental awareness of the general public as well as selected target groups (e.g. elected representatives, religious scholars) at the Union Council, Tehsil, District, Provincial and Federal levels.
- 1098. 20 National Environment Policy2005 b) Environmental education would be integrated into all levels of curricula and syllabi from primary to university levels. c) Establishment of environmental education and training institutions would be encouraged. d) Educational institutions throughout the country would be supported in establishment of environmental clubs. 5.6. Public-Private-Civil Society Partnership a) Federal, provincial and local governments would be encouraged to build strategic partnerships with private sector and civil society organizations for effective environmental management through creation of enabling environment. b) Public-private partnerships for expansion and improvement of environmental services such as potable water supply, sewage disposal, efficient transport and efficient energy production would be promoted. c) Sector-specific advisory committees involving public, private and civil society organizations would be established. d) The concept of "participatory approaches and practices" would be included in the curriculum of environmental education and training programs. 6. Implementation and Monitoring Following the approval of the Policy, the Ministry of Environment would develop an "Action Plan" for its implementation. All relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies would also devise plans and programs to implement "the policy provisions relating to their respective sector/sub-sector. Similarly, the Provincial Governments, Federally Administrated Territories and local governments would also devise their own strategies, plans and programs for implementation of the Policy. To ensure effective coordination of Policy implementation and oversee the progress in this regard, a "National Environment Policy Implementation Committee" would be established at the Federal level. The composition of the Committee is as follows: 1. Secretary, Ministry of Environment Chair 2. Secretary, Planning and Development Division 3. Secretary, Ministry of Industries 4. Secretary, Ministry of Finance 5. Secretary, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock 6. Secretary, Ministry of Health 7. Secretaries of Provincial/ AJK/NA Environment Departments 8. Three representatives from the Corporate Sector/Chambers of Commerce and Industry 9. Three representatives from the Civil Society Organizations 10. Director General (Environment), Ministry of Environment (Secretary/Member)
- 1099. 21 National Environment Policy2005 "National Environment Policy Implementation Committee" would meet biannually. The Committee would report the status of implementation of the Policy to Pakistan Environmental Protection Council on regular basis. An "Environment Policy Directorate" would be established in the Ministry of Environment to serve as the Secretariat to the Committee. All relevant Federal Ministries as well as Provincial Governments' would also create special cells to coordinate implementation of the Policy. Furthermore, Provincial, District and Tehsil Governments would also constitute "Policy Implementation Committees" in order to ensure co- ordinated implementation of the Policy through effective participation of all stakeholders, including corporates and civil society organizations.
- 1100. Pakistan Environmental ProtectionAct (PEPA), 1997 The Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1997 was passed by the National Assembly of Pakistan on September 3, 1997, and by the Senate of Pakistan on November 7, 1997. The Act received the assent of the President of Pakistan on December 3, 1997. The text of the Environmental Protection Act 1997 is as follows: Act No. XXXIV of 1997 An Act to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, for the prevention and control of pollution, and promotion of sustainable development. Whereas it is expedient to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, prevention and control of pollution, promotion of sustainable development and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto; It is hereby enacted as follows: 1) Short Title, Extent and Commencement (1) This Act may be called the Environmental Protection Act 1997. (2) It extends to the whole of Pakistan. (3) It shall come into force at once. 2) Definitions In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context: (i) Adverse environmental effect means impairment of, or damage to, the environment and includes: (a) Impairment of, or damage to, human health and safety or to biodiversity or property; (b) Pollution; and (c) Any adverse environmental effect as may be specified in the regulation.
- 1101. (ii) Agricultural wastemeans waste from farm and agricultural activities including poultry, cattle farming, animal husbandry, residues from the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other farm chemicals; (iii) Air pollutant means any substance that causes pollution of air and includes soot, smoke, dust particles, odor, light, electro-magnetic, radiation, heat, fumes, combustion exhaust, exhaust gases, noxious gases, hazardous substances and radioactive substances; (iv) Biodiversity or biological diversity means the variability among living organizations from all sources, including inter alia terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems; (v) Council means the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council established under section 3; (vi) Discharge means spilling, leaking, pumping, depositing, seeping, releasing, flowing out, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping; (vii) Ecosystem means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit; (viii) Effluent means any material in solid, liquid or gaseous form or combination thereof being discharged from industrial activity or any other source and includes a slurry, suspension or vapor; (ix) Emission standards means the permissible standards established by the Federal Agency or a Provincial Agency for emission of air pollutants and noise and for discharge of effluent and waste; (x) Environment means- (a) Air, water and land; (b) All layers of the atmosphere; (c) All organic and inorganic matter and living organisms; (d) The ecosystem and ecological relationships; (e) Buildings, structures, roads, facilities and works; (f) All social and economic conditions affecting community life; and (g) The inter-relationships between any of the factors in sub-clauses (a) to (f)
- 1102. (xi) Environmental impactassessment means an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of preventive, mitigatory and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed; (xii) Environmental Magistrate means the Magistrate of the First Class appointed under section 24; (xiii) Environmental Tribunal means the Environmental Tribunal constituted under section 20; (xiv) Exclusive Economic Zone shall have the same meaning as defined in the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXII of 1976); (xv) Factory means any premises in which industrial activity is being undertaken; (xvi) Federal Agency means the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency established under section 5, or any Government Agency, local council or local authority exercising the powers and functions of the Federal Agency; (xvii) Government Agency includes- (a) A division, department, attached department, bureau, section, commission, board, office or unit of the Federal Government or a Provincial Government; (b) A development or a local authority, company or corporation established or controlled by the Federal Government or Provincial Government; (c) A Provincial Environmental Protection Agency; and (d) Any other body defined and listed in the Rules of Business of the Federal Government or a Provincial Government; (xviii) Hazardous substance means- (a) A substance or mixture of substance, other than a pesticide as defined in the Agricultural Pesticide Ordinance, 1971 (II of 1971), which, by reason of its chemical activity is toxic, explosive, flammable, corrosive, radioactive or other characteristics causes, or is likely to cause, directly or in combination with other matters, an adverse environmental effect; and (b) Any substance which may be prescribed as a hazardous substance;
- 1103. (xix) Hazardous wastemeans waste which is or which contains a hazardous substance or which may be prescribed as hazardous waste, and includes hospital waste and nuclear waste; (xx) Historic waters means such limits of the waters adjacent to the land territory of Pakistan as may be specified by notification under section 7 of the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXII of 1976); (xxi) Hospital waste includes waste medical supplies and materials of all kinds, and waste blood, tissue, organs and other parts of the human and animal bodies, from hospitals, clinics and laboratories; (xxii) Industrial activity means any operation or process for manufacturing, making, formulating, synthesizing, altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packing or otherwise treating any article or substance with a view to its use, sale, transport, delivery or disposal, or for mining, for oil and gas exploration and development, or for pumping water or sewage, or for generating, transforming or transmitting power or for any other industrial or commercial purpose; (xxiii) Industrial waste means waste resulting from an industrial activity; (xxiv) Initial environmental examination means a preliminary environmental review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative and quantitative impacts on the environment of a proposed project to determine whether it is likely to cause an environmental effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact assessment; (xxv) Local authority means any agency set-up or designated by the Federal Government or a Provincial Government by notification in the official Gazette to be a local authority for the purposes of this Act; (xxvi) Local council means a local council constituted or established under a law relating to local government; (xxvii) Motor vehicle means any mechanically propelled vehicle adapted for use upon land whether its power of propulsion is transmitted thereto from an external or internal source, and includes a chassis to which a body has not been attached, and a trailer, but does not include a vehicle running upon fixed rails; (xxviii) Municipal waste includes sewage, refuse, garbage, waste from abattoirs, sludge and human excreta and the like; (xxix) National Environmental Quality Standards means standards established by the Federal Agency under clause (e) of sub-section (1) of section 6 and approved by the Council under clause (c) of sub-section (1) of section 4; (xxx) Noise means the intensity, duration and character from all sources, and includes vibrations; (xxxi) Nuclear waste means waste from any nuclear reactor or nuclear or other nuclear energy system, whether or not such waste is radioactive; (xxxii) Person means any natural person or legal entity and includes an individual, firm, association, partnership, society, group, company, corporation, co- operative society, Government Agency, non-governmental organization, community- based organization, village organization, local council or local authority and, in the case of a vessel, the master or other person having for the time being the charge or control of the vessel; (xxxiii) Pollution means the contamination of air, land or water by the discharge or emission or effluents or wastes or air pollutants or noise or other matter which either
- 1104. directly or indirectlyor in combination with other discharges or substances alters unfavorably the chemical, physical, biological, radiational, thermal or radiological or aesthetic properties of the air, land or water or which may, or is likely to make the air, land or water unclean, noxious or impure or injurious, disagreeable or detrimental to the health, safety, welfare or property of persons or harmful to biodiversity; (xxxiv) Prescribed means prescribed by rules made under this Act; (xxxv) Project means any activity, plan, scheme, proposal or undertaking involving any change in the environment and includes; (a) Construction or use of buildings or other works; (b) Construction or use of roads or other transport systems; (c) Construction or operation of factories or other installations; (d) Mineral prospecting, mining, quarrying, stone-crushing, drilling and the like; (e) Any change of land use or water use; and (f) Alteration, expansion, repair, decommissioning or abandonment of existing buildings or other works, roads or other transport systems; factories or other installations; (xxxvi) Proponent means the person who proposes or intends to undertake a project; (xxxvii) Provincial Agency means a Provincial Environmental Protection Agency established under section 8; (xxxviii) Regulations means regulations made under this Act; (xxxix) Rules means rules made under this Act; (xl) Sewage means liquid or semi-solid wastes and sludge from sanitary conveniences, kitchens, laundries, washing and similar activities and from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works; (xli) Standards means qualitative and quantitative standards for discharge of effluents and wastes and for emission of air pollutants and noise either for general applicability or for a particular area, or from a particular production process, or for a particular product, and includes the National Environmental Quality Standards, emission standards and other standards established under this Act and the rules and regulations made there under; (xlii) Sustainable development means development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs; (xliii) Territorial waters shall have the same meaning as defined in the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXII of 1976); (xliv) Vessel includes anything made for the conveyance by water of human beings or of goods; and (xlv) Waste means any substance or object which has been, is being or is intended to be, discarded or disposed of, and includes liquid waste, solid waste, waste gases, suspended waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste, nuclear waste, municipal waste, hospital waste, used polyethylene bags and residues from the incineration of all types of waste.
- 1105. 3) Establishment ofthe Pakistan Environmental Protection Council- (1) The Federal Government shall, by notification in the official Gazette, establish a Council to be known as the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council consisting of; (i) Prime Minister or such other person as the Prime Chairperson Minister may nominate in this behalf. (ii) Minister In charge of the Ministry or Division Vice Chairperson dealing with the subject of environment. (iii) Chief Ministers of the Provinces. Members (iv) Ministers In charge of the subject of environment in the provinces. Members (v) Such other persons not exceeding thirty-five as the Federal Members Government may appoint, of which at least twenty shall be non -official including five representatives of the Chambers of Commerce and Industry and Industrial Associations and one or more representatives of the Chambers of Agriculture, the medical and legal professions, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations concerned with the environment and development, and scientists, technical experts and educationists. vi) Secretary to the Government of Pakistan, in-charge of Member/Secretary the Ministry or Division dealing with the subject of environment (2) The Members of the Council, other than ex officio members, shall be appointed in accordance with the prescribed procedure and shall hold office for a term of three years. (3) The Council shall frame its own rules of procedure. (4) The Council shall hold meetings as and when necessary, but not less than two meetings shall be held in a year. (5) The Council may constitute committees of its members and entrust them with such functions as it may deem fit, and the recommendations of the committees shall be submitted to the Council for approval. (6) The Council or any of its committees may invite any technical expert or representative of any Government Agency or non-governmental organization or other person possessing specialized knowledge of any subject for assistance in performance of its functions. 4) Function and Powers of the Council (1) The Council shall;
- 1106. (a) Co-ordinate andsupervise enforcement of the provisions of this Act; (b) Approve comprehensive national environmental policies and ensure their implementation within the framework of a national conservation strategy as may be approved by the Federal Government from time to time; (c) Approve the National Environmental Quality Standards; (d) Provide guidelines for the protection and conservation of species, habitats, and Biodiversity in general, and for the conservation of renewable and non-renewable resources; (e) Coordinate integration of the principles and concerns of sustainable development into national development plans and policies; and (f) Consider the National Environment Report and give appropriate directions thereon. (2) The Council may, either itself or on the request of any person or organization, direct the Federal Agency or any Government Agency to prepare, submit, promote or implement projects for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, the prevention and control of pollution, and the sustainable development of resources, or to undertake research in any specified aspect of environment. 5) Establishment of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (1) The Federal Government shall, by notification in the official Gazette, establish the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, to exercise the powers and perform the functions assigned to it under the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under. (2) The Federal Agency shall be headed by a Director General, who shall be appointed by the Federal Government on such terms and conditions as it may determine. (3) The Federal Agency shall have such administrative, technical and legal staff as the Federal Government may specify, to be appointed in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed. (4) The powers and function of the Federal Agency shall be exercised and performed by the Director General. (5) The Director General may, be general or special order, delegate any of these powers and functions to staff appointed under sub-section (3)
- 1107. (6) For assistingthe Federal Agency in the discharge of its functions, the Federal Government shall establish Advisory Committees for various sectors, and appoint as members thereof eminent representatives of the relevant sector, educational institutions, research institutes and non-governmental organizations. 6) Functions of the Federal Agency (1) The Federal Agency shall; (a) Administer and implement the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under; (b) Prepare, in coordination with the appropriate Government Agency and in consultation with the concerned sectoral Advisory Committees, national environmental policies for approval by the Council; (c) Take all necessary measures for the implementation of the national environmental policies approved by the Council; (d) Prepare and publish an annual National Environment Report on the state of the environment; (e) Prepare or revise, and establish the National Environment Quality Standards with approval of the Council; Provided that before seeking approval of the Council, the Federal Agency shall publish the proposed National Environmental Quality Standards for public opinion in accordance with the prescribed procedure; (f) Ensure enforcement of the National Environmental Quality Standards; (g) Establish standards for the quality of the ambient air, water and land, by notification in the official Gazette, in consultation with the Provincial Agency concerned; Provided that (i) Different standards for discharge or emission from different sources and for different areas and conditions may be specified; (ii) Where standards are less stringent than the National Environmental Quality Standards, prior approval of the Council shall be obtained; (iii) Certain areas, with the approval of the Council, may exclude from carrying out specific activities, projects from the application of such standards; (h) Co-ordinate environmental policies and programmes nationally and internationally;
- 1108. (i) Establish systemsand procedures for surveys, surveillance, monitoring, measurement, examination, investigation, research, inspection and audit to prevent and control pollution, and to estimate the costs of cleaning up pollution and rehabilitating the environment in various sectors; (j) Take measures to promote research and the development of science and technology which may contribute to the prevention of pollution, protection of the environment, and sustainable development; (k) Certify one or more laboratories as approved laboratories for conducing tests and analysis and one or more research institutes as environmental research institutes for conducting research and investigation, for the purposes of this Act; (l) Identify the needs for, and initiate legislation in various sectors of the environment; (m) Render advice and assistance in environmental matters, including such information and data available with it as may be required for carrying out the purposes of this Act; Provided that the disclosure of such information shall be subject to the restrictions contained in the proviso to sub-section (3) of section 12; (n) Assist the local councils, local authorities, Government Agencies and other persons to implement schemes for the proper disposal of wastes so as to ensure compliance with the standards established by it; (o) Provide information and guidance to the public on environmental matters; (p) Recommend environmental courses, topics, literature and books for incorporation in the curricula and syllabi of educational institutions; (q) Promote public education and awareness of environmental issues through mass media and other means, including seminars and workshops; (r) Specify safeguards for the prevention of accidents and disasters which may cause pollution, collaborate with the concerned person in the preparation of contingency plans for control of such accidents and disasters, and co-ordinate implementation of such plans; (s) Encourage the formation and working of non-governmental organizations, community organizations and village organizations to prevent and control pollution and promote sustainable development; (t) Take or cause to be taken all necessary measures for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, prevention and control of pollution and promotion of sustainable development; and
- 1109. (u) Perform anyfunction which the Council may assign to it. (2) The Federal Agency may; (a) Undertake inquiries or investigation into environmental issues, either of its own accord or upon complaint from any person or organization; (b) Request any person to furnish any information or data relevant to its functions; (c) Initiate with the approval of the Federal Government, requests for foreign assistance in support of the purposes of this Act and enter into arrangements with foreign agencies or organizations for the exchange of material or information and participate in international seminars or meetings; (d) Recommend to the Federal Government the adoption of financial and fiscal programmes, schemes or measures for achieving environmental objectives and goals and the purposes of this Act, including: (i) Incentives, prizes, awards, subsidies, tax exemptions, rebates and depreciation allowances; and (ii) Taxes, duties, cesses and other levies; (e) Establish and maintain laboratories to help in the performance of its functions under this Act and to conduct research in various aspects of the environment and provide or arrange necessary assistance for establishment of similar laboratories in the private sector; and (f) Provide or arrange, in accordance with such procedures as may be prescribed, financial assistance for projects designed to facilitate the discharge of its functions. 7) Powers of the Federal Agency Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Federal Agency may- (a) Lease, purchase, acquire, own, hold, improve, use or otherwise deal in and with any property both movable and immovable; (b) Sell, convey, mortgage, pledge, exchange or otherwise dispose of its property and assets; (c) Fix and realize fees, rates and charges for rendering any service or providing any facility, information or data under this Act or the rules and regulations made there under; (d) Enter into contracts, execute instruments, incur liabilities and do all acts or things necessary for proper management and conduct of its business;
- 1110. (e) Appoint withthe approval of the Federal Government and in accordance with such procedures as may be prescribed, such advisers, experts and consultants as it considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions on such terms and conditions as it may deem fit; (f) Summon and enforce the attendance of any person and require him to supply any information or document needed for the conduct of any enquiry or investigation into any environmental issue; (g) Enter and inspect and under the authority of a search warrant issued by the Environmental Tribunal or Environmental Magistrate, search at any reasonable time, any land, building, premises, vehicle or vessel or other place where or in which, there are reasonable grounds to believe that an offence under this Act has been or is being committed; (h) Take samples of any materials, products, articles or substances or of the effluents, wastes or air pollutants being discharged or emitted or of air, water or land in the vicinity of the discharge or emission; (i) Arrange for test and analysis of the samples at a certified laboratory; (j) Confiscate any article used in the commission of the offence where the offender is not known or cannot be found within a reasonable time: Provided that the power under clauses (f), (h), (i) and (j) shall be exercised in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898), or the rules made under this Act and under the direction of the Environmental Tribunal or Environmental Magistrate; and (k) Establish a National Environmental Coordination Committee comprising the Director General as its chairman and the Director-Generals of the Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies and such other persons as the Federal Government may appoint as its members to exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be delegated or assigned to it by the Federal Government for carrying out the purposes of this Act and for ensuring inter provincial co-ordination in environmental policies; 8) Establishment, Powers and Functions of the Provincial Environmental Protection Agencies (1) Every Provincial Government shall, by notification in the official Gazette, establish an Environmental Protection Agency, to exercise such powers and perform such functions as may be delegated to it by the Provincial Government under sub-section (2) of section 26.
- 1111. (2) The ProvincialAgency shall be headed by a Director-General who shall be appointed by the Provincial Government on such terms and conditions as it may determine. (3) The Provincial Agency shall have such administrative, technical and legal staff as the Provincial Government may specify, to be appointed in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed. (4) The powers and functions of the Provincial Agency shall be exercised and performed by the Director-General. (5) The Director-General may, by general or special order, delegate any of these powers and functions to staff appointed under sub-section (3). (6) For assistance of the Provincial Agency in the discharge of its functions, the Provincial Government shall establish sectoral Advisory Committees for various sectors and appoint members from amongst eminent representatives of the relevant sector, educational institutions, research institutes and non-governmental organizations. 9) Establishment of the Provincial Sustainable Development Funds (1) There shall be established in each Province a Sustainable Development Fund. (2) The Provincial Sustainable Development Fund shall be derived from the following sources namely; (a) Grants made or loans advanced by the Federal Government or the Provincial Governments; (b) Aid and assistance, grants, advances, donations and other non-obligatory funds received from foreign governments, national or international agencies, and non- governmental organizations; and (c) Contributions from private organizations, and other persons. (3) The Provincial Sustainable Development Fund shall be utilized in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed for: (a) Providing financial assistance to the projects designed for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, the prevention and control of pollution, the sustainable development of resources and for research in any specified aspect of environment; and (b) Any other purpose which in the opinion of the Board will help achieve environmental objectives and the purpose of this Act.
- 1112. 10) Management ofthe Provincial Sustainable Development Fund (1) The Provincial Sustainable Development Fund shall be managed by a Board known as the Provincial Sustainable Development Fund Board consisting of: i) Chairman, Planning and Development Board/Additional Chairperson Chief Secretary Planning and Development Department. (ii) Such officers of the Provincial Governments not exceeding Members six as the Provincial Government may appoint, including Secretaries in charge of the Finance, Industries and Environment Departments. (iii) Such non-official persons not exceeding ten as the Provincial Members Government may appoint including representatives of the Provincial Chamber of Commerce and Industry, non-governmental organizations, and major donors. (iv) Director-General of the Provincial Agency. Member/Secretary (2) In accordance with such procedure and such criteria as may be prescribed, the Board shall have the power to: (a) Sanction financial assistance for eligible projects; (b) Invest moneys held in the Provincial Sustainable Development Fund in such profit bearing Government bonds, savings schemes and securities as it may deem suitable; and (c) Take such measures and exercise such powers as may be necessary for utilization of the Provincial Sustainable Development Fund for the purposes specified in sub-section (3) of section 9. (3) The Board shall constitute committees of its members to undertake regular monitoring of project financed from the Provincial Sustainable Development Fund and to submit progress reports to the Board which shall publish an Annual Report incorporating its annual audited accounts, and performance evaluation based on the progress reports. 11) Prohibition of Certain Discharges or Emissions (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under no person shall discharge or emit or allow the discharge or emission of any effluent or waste or air pollutant or noise in an amount, concentration or level which is in excess of the National Environmental Quality Standards or, where applicable, the standards established under sub clause (i) of clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 6.
- 1113. (2) The FederalGovernment levy a pollution charge on any person who contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of sub-section (1), to be calculated at such rate, and collected in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed. (3) Any person who pays the pollution charge levied under sub-section (2) shall not be charged with an offence with respect to that contravention or failure. (4) The provisions of sub-section (3) shall not apply to projects which commenced industrial activity on or after the thirtieth day of June, 1994. 12) Initial Environmental Examination and Environmental Impact Assessment (1) No proponent of a project shall commence construction or operation unless he has filed with the Federal Agency an initial environmental examination or, where the project is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect, an environmental impact assessment, and has obtained from the Federal Agency approval in respect thereof. (2) The Federal Agency shall; (a) Review the initial environmental examination and accord its approval, or require submission of an environmental impact assessment by the proponent; or (b) Review the environmental impact assessment and accord its approval subject to such conditions as it may deem fit to impose, or require that the environmental impact assessment be re-submitted after such modifications as may be stipulated, or reject the project as being contrary to environmental objectives. (3) Every review of an environmental impact assessment shall be carried out with public participation and no information will be disclosed during the course of such public participation which relates to: (i) Trade, manufacturing or business activities, processes or techniques of a proprietary nature, or financial, commercial, scientific or technical matters which the proponent has requested should remain confidential, unless for reasons to be recorded in writing, the Director-General of the Federal Agency is of the opinion that the request for confidentiality is not well-founded or the public interest in the disclosure outweighs the possible prejudice to the competitive position of the project or it s proponent; or (ii) International relations, national security or maintenance of law and order, except with the consent of the Federal Government; or (iii) Matters covered by legal professional privilege. (4) The Federal Agency shall communicate is approval or otherwise within a period of four months from the date the initial environmental examination or environmental
- 1114. impact assessment isfiled complete in all respects in accordance with the prescribed procedure, failing which the initial environmental examination or, as the case may be, the environmental impact assessment shall be deemed to have been approved, to the extent to which it does not contravene the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under. (5) Subject to sub-section (4) the Federal Government may in a particular case extend the aforementioned period of four months if the nature of the project so warrants. (6) The provisions of sub-section (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) shall apply to such categories of projects and in such manner as may be prescribed. (7) The Federal Agency shall maintain separate Registers for initial environmental examination and environmental impact assessment projects, which shall contain brief particulars of each project and a summary of decisions taken thereon, and which shall contain brief particulars of each project and a summary of decisions taken thereon, and which shall be open to inspection by the public at all reasonable hours and the disclosure of information in such Registers shall be subject to the restrictions specified in sub- section (3). 13) Prohibition of Import of Hazardous Waste No person shall import hazardous waste into Pakistan and its territorial waters, Exclusive Economic Zone and historic waters. 14) Handling of Hazardous Substances Subject to the provisions of this Act, no person shall generate, collect, consign, transport, treat, dispose of, store, handle or import any hazardous substance except; (a) Under a license issued by the Federal Agency and in such manner as may be prescribed; or (b) In accordance with the provisions of any other law for the time being in force, or of any international treaty, convention, protocol, code, standard, agreement or other instrument to which Pakistan is a party. 15) Regulation of Motor Vehicles (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made there under, no person shall operate a motor vehicle from which air pollutants or noise are being emitted in an amount, concentration or level which is in excess of the National Environmental Quality Standards, or where applicable the standards established under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 6.
- 1115. (2) For ensuringcompliance with the standards mentioned in sub-section (1), the Federal Agency may direct that any motor vehicle or class of vehicles shall install such pollution control devices or other equipment or use such fuels or undergo such maintenance or testing as may be prescribed. (3) Where a direction has been issued by the Federal Agency under sub-section (2) in respect of any motor vehicles or class of motor vehicles, no person shall operate any such vehicle till such direction has been complied with. 16) Environmental Protection Order (1) Where the Federal Agency or a Provincial Agency is satisfied that the discharge or emission of any effluent, waste, air pollutant or noise, or the disposal of waste, or the handling of hazardous substances, or any other act or omission is likely to occur, or is occurring or has occurred in violation of the provisions of this Act, rules or regulations or of the conditions of a license, and is likely to cause, or is causing or has caused an adverse environmental effect, the Federal Agency or, as the case may be, the Provincial Agency may, after giving the person responsible for such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission an opportunity of being heard, by order direct such person to take such measures that the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency may consider necessary within such period as may be specified in the order. (2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such measures may include: (a) Immediate to stoppage, preventing, lessening or controlling the discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission, or to minimize or remedy the adverse environmental effect; (b) Installation, replacement or alteration of any equipment or thing to eliminate or control or abate on a permanent or temporary basis, such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or Commission; (c) Action to remove or otherwise dispose of the effluent, waste, air pollutant, noise, or hazardous substances; and (d) Action to restore the environment to the condition existing prior to such discharge, disposal, handling, act or omission, or as close to such condition as may be reasonable in the circumstances, to the satisfaction of the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency. (3) Where the person, to whom directions under sub-section (1) are given, does not comply therewith, the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency may, in addition to the proceeding initiated against him under this Act or the rules and regulations, itself take or cause to be taken such measures specified in the order as it may deems necessary, and
- 1116. may recover thecosts of taking such measures from such person as arrears of land revenue. 17) Penalties (1) Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of section 11, 12, 13, or section 16 or any order issued there under shall be punishable with fine which may extend to one million rupees, and in the case of a continuing contravention or failure, with an additional fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention or failure continues and where such contravention or failure continues: Provided that if contravention of the provisions of section 11 also constitutes contravention of the provisions of section 15, such contravention shall be punishable under sub-section (2) only. (2) Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of section 14 or 15 or any rule or regulation or conditions of any licence, any order or direction issued by the Council or by the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency shall be punishable with fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees, and in case of continuing contravention, or failure with an additional fine which extend to one thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues. (3) Where an accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-section (1) and (2), the Environmental Tribunal and Environmental Magistrate shall, in passing sentence, take into account the extent and duration of the contravention or failure constituting the offence, and the attendant circumstances. (4) Where an accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-section (1) and the Environmental Tribunal is satisfied that as a result of the commission of the offence monetary benefits have accrued to the offender, the Environmental Tribunal may order the offender to pay, in addition to the fines under sub-section (1), further additional fine commensurate with the amount of the monetary benefits. (5) Where a person convicted under sub-section (1) or sub-sections (2), and had been previously convicted for any contravention under this act, the Environmental Tribunal or, as the case may be, Environmental Magistrate may, in addition to the punishment award there under: (a) Endorse a copy of the order of conviction to the concerned trade or industrial association, if any, or the concerned Provincial Chamber of Commerce and Industry or the Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry; (b) Sentence him to imprisonment for a term which may extend upto two years; (c) Order the closure of the factory;
- 1117. (d) Order confiscationof the factory, machinery, and equipment, vehicle, material or substance, record or document or other object used or involved in contravention of the provisions of the Act; Provided that for a period of three years from the date of commencement of this Act the sentence of imprisonment shall be passed only in respect of persons who have been previously convicted for more than once for any contravention of sections 11, 13, 14 or 16 involving hazardous waste. (e) Order, such person to restore the environment at his own cost, to the conditions existing prior to such contravention or as close to such conditions as may be reasonable in the circumstances to the satisfaction of the Federal Agency or, as the case may be, Provincial Agency; and (f) Order that such sum be paid to any person as compensation for any loss, bodily injury, damage to his health or property suffered by such contravention. (6) The Director-General of the Federal Agency or of a Provincial Agency or an officer generally or specially authorized by him in this behalf may, on the application of the accused compound an offence under this Act with the permission of the Environmental Tribunal or Environmental Magistrate in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed. (7) Where the Director-General of the Federal Agency or of a Provincial Agency is of the opinion that a person has contravened any provision of this Act, he may, subject to the rules, by notice in writing to that person require him to pay to the Federal Agency or, as the case may be, Provincial Agency an administrative penalty in the amount set out in the notice for each day the contravention continues; and a person who pays an administrative penalty for a contravention shall not be charged under this Act with an offence in respect of such contravention. (8) The provisions of sub-sections (6) and (7) shall not apply to a person who has been previously convicted of offence or who has compounded an offence under this Act or who has paid an administrative penalty for a contravention of any provision of the is Act. 18) Offences by Bodies Corporate Where any contravention of this Act has been committed by a body corporate, and it is proved that such offence has been committed with the consent or connivance or, is attributed to any negligence on the part of, any director, partner, manager, secretary or other officer of the body corporate, such director, partner, manager, secretary or other officer of the body corporate, shall be deemed guilty of such contravention along with the body corporate and shall be punished accordingly: Provided that in the case of a company as defined under the Companies Ordinance, 1984 (XLVII of 1984), only the Chief Executive as defined in the said Ordinance shall be liable under this section.
- 1118. Explanation: For the purposeof this section, body corporate includes a firm, association of persons and a society registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 (XXI of 1860), or under the Cooperative Societies Act, 1925 (VII of 1925). 19) Offences by Government Agencies, Local Authorities or Local Councils Where any contravention of this Act has been committed by any Government Agency, local authority or local council, and it is proved that such contravention has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any negligence on the part of the Head or any other officer of the Government Agency, local authority or local council, such Head or other officer shall also be deemed guilty of such contravention along with the Government Agency, local authority or local council and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. 20) Environmental Tribunals (1) The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, establish as many Environmental Tribunals as it considers necessary and, where it establishes more than one Environmental Tribunal, it shall specify territorial limits within which, or the class of cases in respect of which, each one of them shall exercise jurisdiction under this Act. (2) An Environmental Tribunal shall consist of a Chairperson who is, or has been, or is qualified for appointment as, a Judge of the High Court to be appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court and two members to be appointed by the Federal Government of which at least one shall be a technical member with suitable professional qualifications and experience in the environmental field as may be prescribed. (3) For every sitting of the Environmental Tribunal, the presence of the Chairperson and not less than one Member shall be necessary. (4) A decision of an Environmental Tribunal shall be expressed in terms of the opinion of the majority of its members, including the Chairperson, or if the case has been decided by the Chairperson and only one of the members and there is a difference of opinion between them, the decision of the Environmental Tribunal shall be expressed in terms of the opinion of the chairperson. (5) An Environmental Tribunal shall not, merely by reason of a change in its composition, or the absence of any member from any sitting, be bound to recall and rehear any witness who has given evidence, and may act on the evidence already recorded by, or produced, before it.
- 1119. (6) An EnvironmentalTribunal may hold its sittings at such places within its territorial jurisdiction as the Chairperson may decide. (7) No act or proceeding of an Environmental Tribunal shall be invalid by reason only of the existence of a vacancy in, or defect in the constitution of, the Environmental Tribunal. (8) The terms and conditions of service of the Chairperson and members of the Environmental Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed. 21) Jurisdiction and Powers of Environmental Tribunals (1) An Environmental Tribunal shall exercise such powers and perform such functions as are, or may be, conferred upon or assigned to it by or under this Act, or the rules and regulations made there under. (2) All contravention punishable under sub-section (1) of section 17 shall exclusively be triable by an Environmental Tribunal. (3) An Environmental Tribunal shall not take cognizance of any offence triable under subsection (2) Except on a complaint in writing by: (a) The Federal Agency or any Government Agency or local council; and (b) Any aggrieved person, who has given notice of not less than thirty days to the Federal Agency or the Provincial Agency concerned of the alleged contravention and of his intention to make a complaint to the Environmental Tribunal. (4) In exercise of its criminal jurisdiction, the Environmental Tribunal shall have the same powers as are vested in the Court of Session under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898). (5) In exercise of the appellate jurisdiction under section 22 the Environmental Tribunal shall have the same powers and shall follow the same procedure as an appellate court in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908). (6) In all matters with respect to which no procedure has been provided for in this Act, the Environmental Tribunal shall follow the procedure laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908). (7) An Environmental Tribunal may, on application filed by any officer duly authorized in this behalf by the Director-General of the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency, issue bail able warrant for the arrest of any person against whom reasonable suspicion exists of his having been involved in contravention punishable under sub-
- 1120. section (1) ofsection 17: Provided that such warrant shall be applied for, issued, and executed in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898): Provided further that if the person arrested executes a bond with sufficient sureties in accordance with the endorsement on the warrant, he shall be released from custody, failing which he shall be taken or sent without delay to the officer-in-charge of the nearest police station. (8) All proceedings before the Environmental Tribunal shall be deemed to be judicial proceedings within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860), and the Environmental Tribunal shall be deemed to be a court for the purposes of sections 480 and 482 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898). (9) No court other than an Environmental Tribunal shall have or exercise any jurisdiction with respect to any matter to which the jurisdiction of an Environmental Tribunal extends under this Act or the rules and regulations made there under. (10) Where the Environmental Tribunal is satisfied that a complaint made to it under sub-section (3) Is false and vexatious to the knowledge of the complainant, it may, by an order, direct the complainant to pay to the person complained against such compensatory costs which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees. 22) Appeals to the Environmental Tribunal (1) Any person aggrieved by any order or direction of the Federal Agency or any Provincial Agency under any provision of this Act and rules or regulations made there under may prefer an appeal with the Environmental Tribunal within thirty days of the date of communication of the impugned order or direction to such person. (2) An appeal to the Environmental Tribunal shall be in such form, contain such particulars and be accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed. 23) Appeals from Orders of the Environmental Tribunal (1) Any person aggrieved by any final order or by any sentence of the Environmental Tribunal passed under this Act may, within thirty days of communication of such order or sentence, prefer an appeal to the High Court. (2) An appeal under sub-section (1) shall be heard by a Bench of not less than two Judges.
- 1121. 24) Jurisdiction ofEnvironmental Magistrates (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898), or any other law for the time being in force, but subject to the provisions of this Act, all contraventions punishable under sub-section (2) of section 17 shall exclusively be triable by a judicial Magistrate of the first class as Environmental Magistrate especially empowered in this behalf by the High Court. (2) An environmental Magistrate shall be competent to impose any punishment specified in subsection (3) And (4) of section 17. (4) An Environmental Magistrate shall not take cognizance of an offence triable under subsection (1) Except on a complaint in writing by: (a) The Federal Agency, Provincial Agency, or Government Agency or local council; and (b) Any aggrieved person. 25) Appeals from Orders of Environmental Magistrates Any person convicted of any contravention of this Act or the rules or regulations by an Environmental Magistrate may, within thirty days from the date of his conviction, appeal to the Court of Sessions, whose decision thereon shall be final. 26) Power to Delegate (1) The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, delegate any of its or of the Federal Agency s powers and functions under this Act and the rules and regulations made there under to any Provincial Government, any Government Agency, local council or local authority. (2) The Provincial Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, delegate any of its or of the Provincial Agency s powers or functions under this Act and the rules and regulations made there under to any Government Agency of such Provincial Government or any local council or local authority in the Province. 27) Power to give Directions In the performance of their function under this Act:
- 1122. (a) The FederalAgency and Provincial Agencies shall be bound by the directions give to them in writing by the Federal Government; and (b) A Provincial Agency shall be bound by the directions give to it in writing by the Provincial Government. 28) Indemnity No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against the Federal or Provincial Governments, the Councils, the Federal Agency or Provincial Agencies, the Director-Generals of the Federal Agency and the Provincial Agency, members, officers, employees, experts, advisors, committees or consultants of the Federal or Provincial Agencies or the Environmental Tribunal or Environmental Magistrates or any other person for anything which is in good faith done or intended to be done under this Act or the rules or regulations made there under. 29) Dues Recoverable as Arrears of Land Revenues Any dues recoverable by the Federal Agency or Provincial Agency under this Act, or the rules or regulations made there under shall be recoverable as arrears of land revenue. 30) Act to Override Other Laws The provisions of the Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the time being in force. 31) Power to Make Rules The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the purposes of this Act including rules for implementing the provisions of the international environmental agreements, specified in the Schedule to this Act. 32) Power to Amend the Schedule The Federal Government may, by notification in the official Gazette, amend the Schedule so as to add any entry thereto or modify or omit any entry therein. 33) Power to Make Regulations (1) For carrying out the purposes of this Act, the Federal Agency may, by notification in the official Gazette and with the approval of the Federal Government, make regulations not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act or the rules made there under. (2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such regulations may provide for:
- 1123. (a) Submission ofperiodical reports, data or information by any Government agency, local authority or local council in respect of environmental matters; (b) Preparation of emergency contingency plans for coping with environmental hazards and pollution caused by accidents, natural disasters and calamities; (c) Appointment of officers, advisors, experts, consultants and employees; (d) Levy of fees, rates and charged in respect of services rendered, actions taken and schemes implemented; (e) Monitoring and measurement of discharges and emissions; (f) Categorization of projects to which, and the manner in which, section 12 applies; (g) Laying down of guidelines for preparation of initial environmental examination and environmental impact assessment and Development of procedures for their filing, review and approval; (h) Providing procedures for handling hazardous substances; and (i) Installation of devices in, use of fuels by, and maintenance and testing of motor vehicles for control of air and noise pollution. 34) Repeal, Savings and Succession (1) The Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983 (XXXVII of 1983) is hereby repealed. (2) Notwithstanding the repeal of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983 (XXVII of 1983), any rules or regulations or appointments made, order passed, notifications issued, powers delegated, contracts entered into, proceedings commenced, rights acquired, liabilities incurred, penalties, rates, fees or charges levied, things done or action taken under any provisions of that Ordinance shall, so far as they are not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, be deemed to have been made, passed, issued, delegated, entered into, commenced, acquired, incurred, levied, done or taken under this Act. (2) On the establishment of the Federal Agency and Provincial Agencies under this Act, all properties, assets and liabilities pertaining to the Federal Agency and Provincial Agencies established under that Ordinance shall vest in and be the properties, assets and liabilities, as the case may be, of the Federal Agency and Provincial Agency established under this Act.
- 1124. SCHEDULE (See Section 31) 1.International Plant Protection Convention, Rome, 1951. 2. Plant Protection Agreement for the South-East Asia and Pacific Region (as amended), Rome 1956. 3. Agreement for the Establishment of a Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Eastern Region of its Distribution Area in South-West Asia (as amended), Rome, 1963. 4. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, Ramsar, 1971 and its amending Protocol, Paris, 1982. 5. Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Paris, 1972. 6. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Washington, 1973. 7. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, 1979. 8. Convention on the Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, 1982. 9. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985. 10. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987 and amendments thereto. 11. Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 1988. 12. Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal, Basel, 1989. 13. Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio De Janiero, 1992. 14. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Rio De Janiero, 1992
- 1125. PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLY OFSINDH NOTIFICATION KARACHI, THE 20TH MARCH, 2014. NO.PAS/Legis-B-06/2014-The Sindh Environmental Protection Bill, 2014 having been passed by the Provincial Assembly of Sindh on 24th February, 2014 and assented to by the Governor of Sindh on 19th March, 2014 is hereby published as an Act of the Legislature of Sindh. THE SINDH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACT, 2014. SINDH ACT NO.VIII OF 2014. AN ACT to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, for the prevention and control of pollution, and promotion of sustainable development. WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, prevention and control of pollution, promotion of sustainable development, and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto; PART- I It is hereby enacted as follows:- Preamble. 1. (1) This Act may be called the Sindh Environmental Protection Act, 2014. (2) It extends to the whole of the Province of Sindh. (3) It shall come into force at once. Short title and commencement. 2. In this Act, unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context- (i) "adverse environmental effect" means impairment of, or damage to, the environment and includes— (a) impairment of, or damage to, human health and safety or to biodiversity or property; (b) pollution; and (c) any adverse environmental effect as may be specified in the rules or regulations made under this Act; (ii) “Agency” means the Sindh Environmental Protection Agency established under section 5 of this Act; (iii) "agricultural waste" means waste from farm and agricultural activities including poultry, cattle farming, animal husbandry residues from the use of fertilizers, pesticides and other farm chemicals and agricultural runoff; Definitions.
- 1126. 2 (iv) "air pollutant"means any substance that causes pollution of air and includes soot, smoke, dust particles, odor, light, electro-magnetic, radiation, heat, fumes, combustion exhaust, exhaust gases, noxious gases, hazardous substances and radioactive substances; (v) "biodiversity" or "biological diversity" means the variability among living organisms from all sources, including inter-alia terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems; (vi) “biosafety” means the mechanism developing through policy and procedure to ensure human health and the environmentally safe application of biotechnology; (vii) "Council" means the Sindh Environmental Protection Council established under section 3 of this Act; (viii) "discharge" means spilling, leaking, pumping, depositing, seeping, releasing, flowing-out, pouring, emitting, emptying or dumping into the land, water or atmosphere; (ix) "ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit; (x) "effluent" means any material in solid, liquid or gaseous form or combination thereof being discharged from industrial activity or any other source and includes a slurry, suspension or vapour; (xi) "emission standards" means the permissible standards established by the Agency for emission of air pollutants and noise and for discharge of effluent and waste; (xii) “environment” means- (a) air, water, land and natural resources; (b) all layers of the atmosphere; (c) all organic and inorganic matters and living organisms; (d) ecosystems and ecological relationships; (e) buildings, structures, roads, facilities and works; (f) all social and economic conditions affecting community life; and (g) the inter-relationship between any of the factors in sub-clause (a) to (f) made under this Act; (xiii) “environmental aspect” means an organization’s activities or services that can interact with the environment;
- 1127. 3 (xiv) “environment audit”means a systemic scrutiny of environmental performance of an organization, factory, company or manufacturing and production unit regarding to its operations; (xv) "environmental impact assessment" means an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of preventive, mitigation and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed; (xvi) “Environmental Management Plan” means a site specific plan developed to ensure that all necessary measures are identified and implemented in order to protect the environment and comply with the environmental legislation; (xvii) “Environmental Protection Order" means an order passed under Section 21 made under this Act. (xviii) “Environmental Protection Tribunal” means the Environmental Protection Tribunal constituted under section 25 of this Act ; (xxix) “Environmental Review” means a quantitative and qualitative assessment of documents submitted by proponent, comments from public and Government agencies or organizations; (xx) "factory" means any premises in which industrial activity is being undertaken; (xxi) “genetically modified organism” means any organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology and which does not occur naturally through mating and or recombination and includes both living and non-living modified organisms; (xxii) “Government” means the Government of Sindh; (xxiii) “Government Agency” includes:- (a) A department, attached department or any other office of Government; and (b) A development authority, local authority, company body corporate established or control by Government;
- 1128. 4 (xxiv) “Court” meansthe Court of the Judicial Magistrate First Class; (xxv) “hazardous substance” means- (a) a substance or mixture of substances, other than a pesticide as defined in the Agricultural Pesticides Ordinance, 1971 (II of 1971), which, by reason of its chemical activity or toxic, explosive, flammable, corrosive, radioactive or other characteristics, causes, or is likely to cause, directly or in combination with other matters an adverse environmental effect; and (b) any substance which may be prescribed as a hazardous substance; (xxvi) "hazardous waste" means waste which is or which contains a hazardous substance or which may be prescribed as hazardous waste, hospital waste, nuclear waste, obsolete pesticides and persistent organic pollutants; (xxvii)"hospital waste" means waste medical supplies and materials of all kinds, and waste blood, tissue, organs and other parts of the human and animal bodies, from hospitals, clinics, laboratories and veterinary facilities; (xxviii) "industrial activity" means any operation or process for manufacturing, making, formulating, synthesising, altering, repairing, ornamenting, finishing, packing or otherwise treating any article or substance with a view to its use, sale, transport, delivery or disposal, or for mining, for oil and gas exploration and development, or for pumping water or sewage, or for generating, transforming or transmitting power or for any other industrial or commercial purposes; (xxix) "industrial waste" means waste resulting from an industrial activity; (xxx) "initial environmental examination" means a preliminary environmental review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative and quantitative impacts on the environment of a proposed project to determine whether it is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact assessment; (xxxi) "local authority" means any agency set up or designated by Government, by notification in the official Gazette, to be a local authority for the purposes of this Act;
- 1129. 5 (xxxii) "local council"means a local council constituted or established under a law relating to local government; (xxxiii) "motor vehicle" means any mechanically propelled vehicle adapted for use upon land whether its power of propulsion is transmitted thereto from an external or internal source, and includes a chassis to which a body has not been attached, and a trailer, but does not include a vehicle running upon fixed rails; (xxxiv) "municipal waste" includes sewage, refuse, garbage, waste from abattoirs, sludge and human excreta and the like; (xxxv) "noise" means the intensity, duration and character of sounds from all sources, and includes vibration; (xxvi) “non degradable plastic products” means a plastic product which are made from the non-biodegradable substances; (xxxvii) "nuclear waste" means waste from any nuclear reactor or nuclear plant or other nuclear energy system, whether or not such waste is radioactive; (xxxviii) “Oxo-biodegradable Plastic Products” means a plastic product made of a polymer by adding a pro-degrading additive containing a transition metal salt, except cobalt, which cause the plastic to degrade and bio-grade from oxidative and cell mediated phenomena either simultaneously or successfully; (xxxix) "person" means any natural person or legal entity and includes an individual, firm, association, partnership, society, group, company, corporation, co-operative society, Government Agency, non-governmental organization, community-based organization, village organization, local council or local authority and, in the case of a vessel, the master or other person having for the time being the charge or control of the vessel; (xl) "pollution" means the contamination of air, land or water by the discharge or emission of effluent or wastes or air pollutants or noise or other matter which either directly or indirectly or in combination with other discharges or substances alters unfavorably the chemical, physical, biological, radiational, thermal or radiological or aesthetic properties of the air, land or water or which may, or is likely to make the air, land or water unclean, noxious or impure or injurious, disagreeable or detrimental to the health, safety, welfare or property of persons or harmful to biodiversity;
- 1130. 6 (xli) "prescribed" meansprescribed by rules made under this Act; (xlii) "project" means any activity, plan, scheme, proposal or undertaking involving any change in the environment and includes- (a) construction or use of buildings or other works; (b) construction or use of roads or other transport systems; (c) construction or operation of factories or other installations; (d) mineral prospecting, mining, quarrying, stone-crushing, drilling and the like; (e) any change of land use or water use; and (f) alteration, expansion, repair, decommissioning or abandonment of existing buildings or other works, roads or other transport systems, factories or other installations; (xliii) "proponent" means the person who proposes or intends to undertake a project; (xliv) "regulations" means regulations made under this Act; (xlv) "rules" means rules made under this Act; (xlvi) "sewage" means liquid or semi-solid wastes and sludge from sanitary conveniences, kitchens, laundries, washing and similar activities and from any sewerage system or sewage disposal works; (xlvii) “Schedule Plastic Products” means all types of flexible plastic packaging and disposable plastic products made of Polythene, Polypropylene, Polystyrene and Poly-ethylene Terephthalate (PET), used for food and non-food items, like shopping bags, garbage bags, snacks packs, water and milk packaging, shrink wraps, bubble pellet wraps, films, liners, woven or non-woven bags, mulch films; (xlviii) “Sindh Environmental Quality Standards” means standards established by the Agency under clause (e) of sub-section(1) of section 6 and approved by the Council under clause (c) of sub-section(1) of section 4 made under this Act;
- 1131. 7 (xlix) "standards" meansqualitative and quantitative standards for discharge of effluent and wastes and for emission of air pollutants and noise either for general applicability or for a particular area, or from a particular production process, or for a particular product, and includes the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards, emission standards and other standards established under this Act and the rules and regulations; (l) “strategic environmental assessment” mean an analysis of a proposed policy, legislation, plan or programme to determine whether the principles of sustainable development have been integrated therein and to identify its likely environmental effects and such components as require an initial environmental examination or environmental impact assessment; (li) "sustainable development" means development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs; (lii) “trans-boundary environmental impacts” means environmental impact arising from beyond the boundaries or limits of Sindh province and causing any adverse environmental impact or pollution in the air, land, water and coaster water of Sindh province; (liii) "waste" means any substance or object which has been, is being or is intended to be, discarded or disposed-of, and includes liquid waste, solid waste, waste gases, suspended waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste, nuclear waste, municipal waste, hospital waste, used polyethylene bags and residues from the incineration of all types of waste. [ (liv) “waters (coastal waters, internal waters, territorial waters and historical waters)” means such limits of the waters adjacent to the land territory as may be specified in the Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Act, 1976 (LXXXII of 1976). PART-II THE SINDH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION COUNCIL. 3. (1) The Government of Sindh shall, by notification in the official Gazette, establish a Council to be known as the Sindh Environmental Protection Council consisting of- Establishment of the Sindh Environmental Protection Council.
- 1132. 8 (i) Chief Ministeror such other person as the Chief Minister may nominate in this behalf. Chairperson (ii) Minister-in-charge of the Environment Protection Department. Vice Chairperson (iii) Additional Chief Secretary, Planning and Development Department, Government of Sindh. Ex-officio Member (iv) Secretaries of the Environment, Finance, Public Health Engineering, Irrigation, Health, Agriculture, Local Government, Industries, Live Stock and Fisheries, Forest and Wildlife, Energy, Education, Departments of Government of Sindh and the divisional commissioners of Sindh. Ex-officio Members (v) Such other persons not exceeding twenty- five as Government may appoint from representatives of the Chambers of Commerce and Industry and industrial associations, representatives of the Chambers of Agriculture, the medical and legal professions, trade unions, non-governmental organizations concerned with the environment and sustainable development, and scientists, technical experts and educationists. Non-official Members (vi) Director General, Sindh Environment Protection Agency Member / Secretary (vii) Two Members of the Provincial Assembly of Sindh amongst the eleven Members of the Standing Committee on Environment nominated by the Speaker Members
- 1133. 9 2) The Membersof the Council, other than ex-officio members, shall be appointed in accordance with the prescribed procedure. (3) A non-official member, unless he sooner resigns or is removed, shall hold office for a term of three years and shall be eligible for re-appointment but shall not hold office for more than two terms. (4)The Council shall frame its own Rules of Procedure. (5) The Council shall hold meetings, as and when necessary, but not less than two meetings, shall be held in a year. (6) The Council may constitute committees of its members and entrust them with such functions as it may deem fit, and the recommendations of the committees shall be submitted to the Council for approval. (7) The Council, or any of its committees, may invite any technical expert or representative of any Government Agency or non-governmental organization or other person possessing specialized knowledge of any subject for assistance in performance of its functions. 4. (1) The Council shall- (a) co-ordinate and supervise the enforcement of the provisions of this Act and other laws relating to the environment in the Province; Functions and Powers of the Council. (b) approve comprehensive provincial environmental and sustainable development policies and ensure their implementation within the framework of a conservation strategy and sustainable development plan as may be approved by Government from time to time; (c) approve the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards; (d) provide guidelines for the protection and conservation of species, habitats, and biodiversity in general, and for the conservation of renewable and non-renewable resources. (e) coordinate integration of the principles and concerns of sustainable development into socio-economic and development policies, plans and programmes at the provincial, district and local levels; (f) consider the annual Sindh Environment report and give appropriate directions thereon and cause it to be laid before the Provincial Assembly;
- 1134. 10 (g) deal withinter-provincial and federal-provincial issues, and liaise and coordinate with other Provinces through appropriate inter-provincial forums regarding formulation and implementation of standards and policies relating to environmental matters with an inter-provincial impact; (h) provide guidelines for biosafety and for the use of genetically modified organisms; and (i) assist the Federal Government or Federal Agency in implementation and or administration of various provision of United Nation Convention on Laws on Seas, 1980 (UNCLOS) in coastal waters of the province; (2) The Council may, either itself or on the request of any person or organization, direct the Agency or any Government Agency to prepare, submit, promote or implement projects for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, the prevention and control of pollution, and the sustainable development of resources or to undertake research in any specified aspect of environment. PART-III THE SINDH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 5. (1) Government shall, by notification in the Official Gazette, establish the Sindh Environmental Protection Agency, to exercise the powers and perform the functions assigned to it under the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations made thereunder. Establishment of the Sindh Environmental Protection Agency. (2) The Agency shall be headed by a Director General who shall be appointed by Government on such terms and conditions as it may determine. (3) The Agency shall have such administrative, technical and legal staff as Government may specify, to be appointed in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed. (4) The powers and functions of the Agency shall be exercised and performed by the Director General. (5) The Director General may, by general or special order, delegate any of these powers and functions to staff appointed under sub-section (3). (6) For assisting the Agency in the discharge of its functions Government shall establish Advisory Committees for various sectors and appoint as members thereof eminent representatives of the relevant sector, educational institutions, research institutes and non-governmental organizations.
- 1135. 11 6. (1) TheAgency shall– Functions of the Agency. (a) administer and implement the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations; (b) prepare, in co-ordination with the appropriate Government Agency or local council and, in consultation with the concerned Advisory Committees where established, environmental policies for the approval of the Council; (c) take all necessary measures for the implementation of the environmental policies approved by the Council; (d) prepare and publish an annual Sindh Environment Report on the state of the environment in the province; (e) prepare or revise and establish the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards with approval of the Council: Provided that before seeking approval of the Council, the Agency shall publish the proposed Sindh Environmental Quality Standards for public opinion in accordance with the prescribed procedure; (f) ensure enforcement of the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards; (g)where the quality of ambient air, water, land or noise so requires, the Agency may, by notification in the Official Gazette establish different standards for discharge or emission from different sources and for different areas and conditions as may be necessary: Provided that where these standards are less stringent than the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards; prior approval of the Council shall be obtained; (h) establish systems and procedures for surveys, surveillance, monitoring, measurement, examination, investigation, research, inspection and audit to prevent and control pollution, and to estimate the costs of cleaning up pollution and rehabilitating the environment in various sectors; (i) take measures to promote research and the development of science and technology which may contribute to the prevention of pollution, protection of the environment, and sustainable development; (j) issue licences, approval for the consignment, handling, transport, treatment, disposal of, storage, handling or otherwise dealing with hazardous substances;
- 1136. 12 (k) certify laboratoriesas approved laboratories for conducting tests and analysis and one or more research institutes as environmental research institutes for conducting research and investigation for the purposes of this Act; (l) identify the needs for and initiate legislation in various sectors of the environment; (m) provide assistance to relevant Federal and Provincial Government Agencies in the management of environment accidents and natural and environmental disasters, including conduct of inquiry thereto; (n) render advice and assistance in environmental matters including such information and data available with it as may be required for carrying out the purposes of this Act: Provided that the disclosure of such information shall be subject to the restrictions specified in Part XI (Access to Information); (o) assist Government Agencies, local councils, local authorities and other persons to implement schemes for the proper disposal of wastes so as to ensure compliance with the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards; (p) provide information and guidance to the public on environmental matters; (q) recommend environmental courses, topics, literature and books for incorporation in the curricula and syllabi of educational institutions; (r) promote public education and awareness of environmental issues through mass media and other means including seminars and workshops; (s) establish and maintain mechanisms, including its own website, to disseminate information, subject to the provisions of this Act, regarding policies, plans and decisions of the Government, the Council and the Agency, relating to the environment; (t) specify safeguards for the prevention of accidents and disasters which may cause pollution, collaborate with the concerned persons in the preparation of contingency plans for control of such accidents and disasters, and co-ordinate implementation of such plans;
- 1137. 13 (u) review andapprove mitigation plans and give guidance and directions, where necessary, relating to clean up operations ordered under this Act; (v) encourage the formation and working of non- governmental organizations, community organizations and village organizations to prevent and control pollution and promote sustainable development; (w) take or cause to be taken all necessary measures for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, prevention and control of pollution and promotion of sustainable development; and (x) perform any function that the Council may assign to it. (2) The Agency may - (a) undertake inquiries or investigation into environmental issues, either of its own accord or upon complaint from any person or organization; (b) request any person to furnish any information or data relevant to its functions; (c) initiate, with the approval of Government, requests for foreign assistance in support of the purposes of this Act and enter into arrangements with foreign agencies or organizations for the exchange of material or information and participate in international seminars or meetings; (d) recommend to Government and the Council the adoption of financial and fiscal programmes, schemes or measures for achieving environmental objectives and goals and the purposes of this Act, including - (i) taxes, duties, cesses and other levies; and (ii) incentives, prizes, awards, rewards, subsidies, tax exemptions, rebates and depreciation allowances; (e) establish and maintain laboratories to help in the performance of its functions under this Act and to conduct research in various aspects of the environment and provide or arrange necessary assistance for the establishment of similar laboratories in the private sector; (f) arrange, in accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed, financial assistance for projects designed to facilitate in discharge of its functions; and (g) acquire assistance of concerned authorities of district administration and other relevant agencies, departments and police assistance for enforcement of this Act.
- 1138. 14 7. Subject tothe provisions of this Act, the Agency may- Powers of the Agency. (a) lease, purchase, acquire, own, hold, improve, use or otherwise deal in and with any property both moveable and immovable; (b) sell, convey, mortgage, pledge, exchange or otherwise dispose of its property and assets; (c) fix and realize fees, rates and charges for rendering any service or providing any facility, information or data under this Act or its rules and regulations; (d) enter into contracts, execute instruments, incur liabilities and do all acts or things necessary for proper management and conduct of its business; (e) appoint, with the approval of Government and in accordance with such procedures as may be prescribed, such advisers, experts and consultants as it considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions on such terms and conditions as it may deem fit; (f) summon and enforce the attendance of any person and require him to supply any information or document needed for the conduct of any enquiry or investigation into any environmental issue; (g) Director General may authorize any officer or official to enter and inspect or under a search warrant issued by Environmental Protection Tribunal or a Court, search at any time, any land, building, premises, vehicle or vessel or other place where or in which there are reasonable grounds to believe that an offence under this Act has been, or is being, or likely to be committed; (h) take samples of any materials, products, articles or substances or of the effluent, wastes or air pollutants being discharged or emitted or of air, water or land in the vicinity of the discharge or emission; (i) arrange for the testing and analysis of samples at a certified laboratory; (j) confiscate any article used in the commission of the offence where the offender is not known or cannot be found within a reasonable time: Provided that the powers under clauses (f), (g), (h) (i), and (j) shall be exercised in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898) or the rules and regulations and under the direction of the Environmental Protection Tribunal or a Court; and
- 1139. 15 (k) establish theSindh Environmental Co-ordination Committee comprising the Director-General as its Chairman and such other persons as Government shall appoint as its members to exercise such powers and perform such functions as shall be delegated or assigned to it by Government for carrying out the purposes of this Act and for ensuring coordination among Government Agencies in implementation of environmental policies. PART-IV SINDH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FUND 8. (1) There shall be established a Sindh Sustainable Development Fund. Establishment of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund. (2) The Sindh Sustainable Development Fund shall be derived from the following sources, namely— (a) allocations and grants made or loans advanced by the Government of Sindh or by the Federal Government; (b) aid and assistance, grants, advances, donations and other non-obligatory funds received from foreign governments, national or international agencies, and non- governmental organizations; and (c) voluntary contributions from private, corporate, multinational organizations and other persons. (d) Any fees generated under the provision of this act including the fines imposed against contraventions including penalties. (3)The Sindh Sustainable Development Fund shall be utilized, in accordance with such procedures as may be prescribed for - (a) providing financial assistance to projects designed for the protection, conservation, rehabilitation and improvement of the environment, the prevention and control of pollution, the sustainable development of resources and for research in any specified aspect of the environment; and (b) any other purposes which, in the opinion of the Board, will help achieve environment objectives and the purposes of this Act.
- 1140. 16 9. (1)The SindhSustainable Development Fund shall be managed by a Board known as the Provincial Sustainable Development Fund Board consisting of— (i) Additional Chief Secretary, Planning and Development Department, Government of Sindh, Chairperson (ii) Such officers of Government, not exceeding five (05), as Government may appoint including Secretaries of the Environment, Finance, Industries and Local Government Departments, Government of Sindh. Ex-officio Members (iii) Such non-official persons, not exceeding five(05), as Government may appoint, including representatives of the Chambers of Commerce and Industry, non- governmental organizations and major donors. Non-official Members (iv) Director General, Sindh Environmental Protection Agency. Secretary/ Member Management of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund. (2) The members of the Board, other than ex-officio members, shall be appointed in accordance with the prescribed procedure. (3) A non-official member of the Board, unless he sooner resigns or is removed, shall hold office for a term of three years and shall be eligible for re-nomination, but shall not hold office for more than two terms. (4) The Board shall frame its own rules of procedure with the approval of Government. (5) In accordance with such procedures and such criteria as may be prescribed, the Board shall have the power to — (a) sanction financial assistance for eligible projects; (b) invest moneys held in the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund in such profit-bearing Government bonds, saving schemes and securities as it may deem suitable; and (c) take such measures and exercise such powers as may be necessary for utilization of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund for the purposes specified in sub- section (3) of section 8.
- 1141. 17 (6) The Boardshall constitute committees of its members to undertake regular monitoring of projects financed from the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund and to submit progress reports to the Board which shall publish an Annual Report incorporating its annual audited accounts and performance evaluation based on the progress reports. 10. (1) The Agency shall maintain proper accounts of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund and other relevant records and prepare annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed. (2) The accounts of the Sindh Sustainable Development Fund shall be audited annually by the Auditor General of Pakistan. Accounts. PART-V PROHIBITIONS AND ENFORCEMENT 11. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations, no person shall discharge or emit or allow the discharge or emission of any effluent, waste, pollutant, noise or any other matter that may cause or likely to cause pollution or adverse environmental effects, as defined in section 2 of this Act, in an amount, concentration or level which is in excess to that specified in Sindh Environmental Quality Standards; or, where applicable, the standards established under Section 6(1)(g)(i); or direction issued under Section 17, 19, 20 and 21 of this Act; or any other direction issued, in general or particular, by the Agency. (2) All persons, in industrial or commercial or other operations, shall ensure compliance with the Environmental Quality Standards for ambient air, drinking water, noise or any other Standards established under section 6(1)(g)(i); shall maintain monitoring records for such compliances; shall make available these records to the authorized person for inspection; and shall report or communicate the record to the Agency as required under any directions issued, notified or required under any rules and regulations. (3) Monitoring and analysis under sub-section (1) and (2), shall be acceptable only when carried out by the Environmental Laboratory certified by the Agency as prescribed in the rules. Prohibition of certain discharges or emissions and compliance with standards. 12. No person shall import hazardous waste into Sindh province or its coastal, internal, territorial or historical waters, except acquiring prior approval of the Agency. Prohibition of import of hazardous waste.
- 1142. 18 13. Subject tothe provisions of this Act, no person shall import, generate, collect, consign, transport, treat, dispose of, store, handle or otherwise use or deal with any hazardous substance except- Handling of hazardous substances. (a) under a licence issued by the Agency; or (b) in accordance with the provisions of any other law, rule, regulation or notification for the time being in force, or of any international treaty, convention, protocol, code, standard, agreement or other instrument to which Government is a party. 14. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations, no person shall cause any act, deed or any activity, including- (a) recycling or reuse of hospital waste and infectious waste; (b) disposal of solid and hazardous wastes at unauthorized places as prescribed; (c) dumping of wastes or hazardous substances into coastal waters and inland water bodies; (d) release of emissions or discharges from industrial or commercial operations as prescribed; (e) recycling or reuse or recovery of hazardous wastes or industrial by-products in an unauthorized or non- prescribed manner or procedure; and (f) any activity which may cause adverse environmental affect due to trans boundary projects of Province of Sindh. which lead to pollution or impairment of or damage to biodiversity, ecosystem, aesthetics or any damage to environment and natural resources as defined in section 2 (xxxvi) of this Act. (2) No person shall generate, handle, transport, dispose of or handle the hospital waste and infections waste except in accordance with the Hospital Waste Management Rules and in such manner as may be prescribed. (3) No person shall import, manufacture, stockpile, trade, supply, distribute or sell any scheduled plastic product which is non-degradable. The scheduled plastic products must be oxo-biodegradable and the pro-degradant used must be approved by the Agency or any other department or agency and in such manner as prescribed. Prohibition of action adversely affecting Environment. 15. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, no person shall operate or manufacture a motor vehicle or class of vehicles from which air pollutants or noise are being emitted in an amount, Regulation of motor vehicles.
- 1143. 19 concentration or levelwhich is in excess of the Sindh Environmental Quality Standards or, where applicable, the standards established under sub-clause (i) of clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 6. (2) For ensuring compliance with the standards mentioned in sub-section (1), the Agency may direct that any motor vehicle or class of vehicles shall install such pollution control devices or other equipment or use such fuels or undergo such maintenance or testing as prescribed. (3) For ensuring compliance with the standards mentioned in sub-section (1), the Agency may direct that any manufacturer of motor vehicle or class of vehicles shall use such manufacturing standard or design or pollution control devices or other equipment or undergo such testing as may be prescribed. (4) Where a direction has been issued by the Agency under sub-section (2) and (3) in respect of any motor vehicles or class of motor vehicles, no person shall operate or manufacture any such vehicle till such direction has been complied with. 16. (1) The monitoring, testing and analysis carried out in compliance or for the enforcement of any provisions of this Act. (2) The laboratory or organization having any facility for environmental monitoring, testing and analysis and intend to perform under sub-section (1) shall register with the Agency in accordance with the Environmental Laboratory Certification Rules as prescribed. Certified Environmental Laboratory. PART-VI ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATIONS AND ASSESSMENTS 17. (1) No proponent of a project shall commence construction or operation unless he has filed with the Agency an initial environmental examination or environmental impact assessment, and has obtained from the Agency approval in respect thereof. Initial environmental examination and environmental impact assessment. (2) The Agency shall – (a) review the initial environmental examination and accord its approval, subject to such terms and conditions as it may prescribe, or require submission of an environmental impact assessment by the proponent; or (b) review the environmental impact assessment and accord its approval subject to such terms and conditions as it may deem fit to impose or require that the environmental impact assessment be re-submitted after such modifications as may be stipulated or decline approval of the environmental impact assessment as being contrary to environmental objectives.
- 1144. 20 (3) Every reviewof an environment impact assessment shall be carried out with public participation and, subject to the provisions of this Act, after full disclosure of the particulars of the project. (4) The Agency shall communicate its approval or otherwise within a period of two months from the date that the initial environmental examination is filed, and within a period of four months from the date that the environmental impact assessment is filed complete in all respects in accordance with the regulations, failing which the initial environmental examination or, as the case may be, the environmental impact assessment shall be deemed to have been approved, to the extent to which it does not contravene the provisions of this Act and the rules and regulations: (5) The provisions of sub-sections (1), (2), (3) and (4) shall apply to such categories of projects and in such manner as prescribed: (6) The Agency shall maintain separate registers for initial environmental examination and environmental impact assessment projects, which shall contain brief particulars of each project and a summary of decisions taken thereon, and which shall be open for inspection to the public during office hours. 18. (1) All provincial government agencies, departments, authorities, local councils and local authorities responsible for formulating policies, legislation, plans and programmes to be implemented in Sindh province which may cause any environmental impact in the jurisdiction of the province shall, before submitting the same to the competent authority for approval, forward to the Sindh Environmental Protection Agency a strategic environment assessment containing — Strategic environmental assessment. (a) description of the objectives and features of the proposed policy, legislation, plan or programme that are in consonance with the principles of sustainable development; (b) assessment of the adverse environmental effects, if any, likely to be caused during implementation of the policy, legislation, plan or programme alongwith proposed preventive, mitigation and compensatory measures; (c) analysis of possible alternatives; and (d) identification of those components of the policy, legislation, plan or programme, if any, in respect of which specific environmental impact assessment need to be carried out in due course.
- 1145. 21 (2) The Agencyshall, in consultation with the concerned Government Agencies and Advisory Committees where established, review the strategic environment assessment, within sixty (60) days of its filing, and prepare a report containing its comments and recommendations in respect thereof which shall be forwarded to the initiating Government Agency, authority, local council or local authority and duly considered by it and the competent authority before approval or otherwise of the proposed policy, legislation, plan or programme. (3) The provisions of sub-sections (1), and (2) shall apply to such categories of policies, plans and programmes and in such manner as may be prescribed. 19. (1) The Agency shall carry out or arrange environmental monitoring of all projects in respect of which it has approved an initial environmental examination or environmental impact assessment to determine whether the actual environmental impact exceeds the level predicted in the assessment and whether the conditions of the approval are being complied with. (2) For purposes of sub-section (1), the Agency may require the person in charge of a project to furnish such information as it may specify pertaining to the environmental impact of the project, including quantitative and qualitative analysis of - (a) discharge of effluents, wastes, emissions of air pollutants, noise and any other matter or action that may be found offensive under section 14 from the project on daily, weekly, monthly or annual basis; (b) ambient quality of the air, water, noise and soil before, during and after construction and during operation of the project. (3) On review of the data collected by it and information provided, the Agency may issue such directions to the person in charge as it may consider necessary to ensure compliance with the conditions of the approval. 20. (1) The Agency shall from time to time require the person in charge of a project to furnish, within such period as may be specified, an environmental audit or environmental review report or environmental management plan containing a comprehensive appraisal of the environmental aspects of the project. (2) The report of a project prepared under sub-section (1) shall include - (a) analysis of the predicted qualitative and quantitative impact of the project as compared to the actual impact; Environmental monitoring. Environmental Audit and Review.
- 1146. 22 (b) evaluation ofthe efficacy of the preventive, mitigation and compensatory measures taken with respect to the project; and (c) recommendations for further minimizing or mitigating the adverse environmental impact of the project. (3) Based on its review of the environmental audit report, the Agency may, after giving the person in charge of the project an opportunity of being heard, direct that specified mitigation and compensatory measures be adopted within a specified time period and may also, where necessary, modify the approval granted by it under section 17. PART-VII ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ORDER 21. (1) Where the Agency is satisfied that the discharge or emission of any effluent, waste, air pollutant or noise, or the disposal of waste, or the handling of hazardous substances, or any other act or omission is likely to occur, or is occurring, or has occurred, in violation of any provision of this Act, the rules or regulations or of the conditions of a licence, or is likely to cause, or is causing or has caused an adverse environmental effect, the Agency may, after giving the person responsible for such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission an opportunity of being heard, by order direct such person to take such measures as the Agency may consider necessary within such period as may be specified in the order. Environmental Protection Order. (2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such measures may include — (a) immediate stoppage, preventing, lessening or controlling the discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission, or to minimize or remedy the adverse environmental effect; (b) installation, replacement or alteration of any equipment or thing to eliminate, control or abate on a permanent or temporary basis, such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission; (c)action to remove or otherwise dispose of the effluent, waste, air pollutant, noise, or hazardous substances; (d) action to restore the environment to the condition existing prior to such discharge, disposal, handling, act or omission, or as close to such condition as may be reasonable in the circumstances, to the satisfaction of the Agency; and (e) impose a penalty as prescribed.
- 1147. 23 (3) Notwithstanding theprovisions of sub-section (1), in an emergency situation where, for reasons to be recorded, the Agency is satisfied that the discharge or emission of any effluent, waste, air pollutant or noise, or the disposal of waste, or the handling of hazardous substances, or any other act or omission is likely to occur, or is occurring, or has occurred, in violation of the provisions of this Act and that circumstances of the case warrant immediate action in the public interest, it may pass an ad-interim order of the nature described in sub-sections (1) and (2) by providing reasonable opportunity of hearing. PART-VIII OFFENCES AND PENALTIES 22. (1) Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of sections 11, 17, 18 and 21 or any order issued there under shall be punishable with a fine which may extend to five million rupees, to the damage caused to environment and in the case of a continuing contravention or failure, with an additional fine which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention or failure continues: Penalties. Provided that if the contravention of the provisions of section 11 also constitutes a contravention of the provisions of section 15, such contravention shall be punishable under sub-section (2). (2) Whoever contravenes or fails to comply with the provisions of sections 13, 14, 15 and 16 or any rule or regulation or conditions of any license, any order or direction, issued by the Agency, shall be punished with a fine, and in case of continuing contravention or failure with an additional fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues. (3) Where an accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-sections (1) and (2), the Environmental Protection Tribunal and Court shall, as the case may be, in passing sentence, take into account the extent and duration of the contravention or failure constituting the offence and the attendant circumstances. (4) Where an accused has been convicted of an offence under sub-sections (1) or (2), the Environmental Protection Tribunal or Court, as the case may be, shall endorse a copy of the order of conviction to the concerned trade or industrial association, if any, or the concerned Provincial Chamber of Commerce and Industry or the Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industry. (5) Where a person convicted under sub-sections (1) and (2) had been previously convicted for any contravention of this Act and its rules or regulations, the Environmental Protection Tribunal, as the case may be, may, in addition to the punishment awarded thereunder-
- 1148. 24 (a) sentence himto imprisonment for a term that may extend up to three years; (b) order the closure of the factory; (c) order confiscation of the facility, machinery and equipment, vehicle or substance, record, document or other object used or involved in contravention of the provisions of this Act; (d) order such person to restore the environment at his own cost, to conditions existing prior to the contravention or as close to such conditions as may be reasonable in the circumstances to the satisfaction of the Agency; and (e) order that compensation be paid to any person or persons for any loss, or damage to their health or property suffered by such contravention. (6) The Director General or an officer generally or specially authorised by him in this behalf may, on the application of the accused, compound an offence under this Act with the permission of the Environmental Protection Tribunal or Court in accordance with such procedure as prescribed. (7) Where the Director General is of the opinion that a person had contravened any provision of this Act, he may, subject to the rules, by notice in writing to that person require him to pay to the Agency a penalty in the amount set out in the notice for each day the contravention continues. 23. Where any contravention of this Act has been committed by a body corporate, and it is proved that such offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributed to any negligence on the part of, any director, partner, manager, secretary or other officer of the body corporate, such director, partner, manager, secretary or other officer of the body corporate, shall be deemed guilty of such contravention along with the body corporate and shall be punished accordingly: Offences by body corporate. Provided that in the case of a company as defined under the Companies Ordinance, 1984 (XLVII of 1984), only the Chief Executive as defined in the said Ordinance shall be liable under this section. Explanation.— For the purposes of this Section, “body corporate” includes a firm, association of persons and a society registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 (XXI of 1860), or under the Co-operative Societies Act, 1925 (VII of 1925). 24. Where any contravention of this Act has been committed by any Government Agency, local authority or local council, and it is proved that such contravention has been committed with the Offences by Government Agencies, local authorities or local
- 1149. 25 consent or connivanceof, or is attributable to any negligence on the part of, the Head or any other officer of Government Agency, local authority or local council, such Head or other officer shall also be deemed guilty of such contravention along with the Government Agency, local authority or local council and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. councils. PART-IX ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TRIBUNALS AND COURTS 25. (1) Government may, by Notification in the Official Gazette, establish as many Environmental Protection Tribunals as it considers necessary and, where it establishes more than one Environmental Protection Tribunal, it shall specify territorial limits within which, or the class of cases in respect of which, each one of them shall exercise jurisdiction under this Act. Environmental Protection Tribunals. (2) An Environmental Protection Tribunal shall consist of a Chairperson who is, or has been, or is qualified for appointment as a Judge of the High Court to be appointed after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court and two members to be appointed by Government, of which at least one shall be a technical member nominated from amongst the officers of the Agency with suitable professional qualifications and experience in the environmental field. (3) For every sitting of the Environmental Protection Tribunal, the presence of the Chairperson and not less than one Member shall be necessary. (4) A decision of an Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be expressed in terms of the opinion of the majority of its members, including the Chairperson, or if the case has been decided by the Chairperson and only one of the members and there is a difference of opinion between them, the decision of the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be expressed in terms of the opinion of the Chairperson. (5) An Environmental Protection Tribunal shall not, merely by reason of a change in its composition, or the absence of any member from any sitting, be bound to recall and rehear any witness who has given evidence, and may act on the evidence already recorded by, or produced, before it. (6) An Environmental Protection Tribunal may hold its sittings at such places within its territorial jurisdiction as the Chairperson may decide. (7) No act or proceeding of an Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be invalid by reason only of the existence of a vacancy in, or defect in the constitution, of, the Environmental Protection Tribunal.
- 1150. 26 (8) The termsand conditions of service of the Chairperson and members of the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be such as may be prescribed. 26. (1) An Environmental Protection Tribunal shall exercise such powers and perform such functions as are, or may be, conferred upon or assigned to it by or under this Act or the rules and regulations. Jurisdiction and powers of Environmental Protection Tribunals. (2) All contraventions punishable under sub-section (1) of section 22 shall exclusively be triable by an Environmental Protection Tribunal. (3) An Environmental Protection Tribunal shall not take cognizance of any offence triable under sub-section (2) except on a complaint in writing by— (a) the Agency or any Government Agency or Local Council; and (b) any aggrieved person, who has given notice of not less than thirty days to the Agency, of the alleged contravention and of his intention to make a complaint to the Environment Protection Tribunal. (4) In exercise of its criminal jurisdiction, the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall have the same powers as are vested under the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898). (5) In exercise of the appellate jurisdiction under section 27 the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall have the same powers and shall follow the same procedure as an appellate court in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908). (6) In all matters with respect to which no procedure has been provided for in this Act, the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall follow the procedure laid down in the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908). (7) An Environmental Protection Tribunal may, on application filed by any officer duly authorised in this behalf by the Director General, issue bailable warrant for the arrest of any person against whom reasonable suspicion exists, of his having been involved in contravention punishable under sub-section (1) of section 22: Provided that such warrant shall be applied for, issued and executed in accordance with the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898): Provided further that if the person arrested executes a bond with sufficient sureties in accordance with the endorsement on the warrant he shall be released from custody, failing which he shall be taken or sent without delay to the officer in-charge of the nearest jurisdiction police station.
- 1151. 27 (8) All proceedingsbefore the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be deemed to be judicial proceedings within the meaning of sections 193 and 228 of the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860), and the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be deemed to be a court for the purpose of sections 480 and 482 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898). (9) No court other than an Environmental Protection Tribunal shall have or exercise any jurisdiction with respect to any matter to which the jurisdiction of an Environmental Protection Tribunal extends under this Act and the rules and regulations. (10) Where the Environmental Protection Tribunal is satisfied that a complaint made to it under sub-section (3) is false and vexatious to the knowledge of the complainant, it may, by an order, direct the complainant to pay to the person complained against such compensatory costs which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees. 27. (1) Any person aggrieved by any order or direction of the Agency under any provision of this Act or the rules or regulations may prefer an appeal with the Environmental Protection Tribunal within thirty days of the date of communication of the impugned order or direction to such person. Appeals to the Environmental Protection Tribunal. (2) An appeal to the Environmental Protection Tribunal shall be in such form, contain such particulars and be accompanied by such fees as prescribed. 28. (1) Any person aggrieved by any final order or by any sentence of the Environmental Protection Tribunal passed under this Act may, within thirty days of communication of such order or sentence, prefer an appeal to the High Court. . Appeals from orders of the Environmental Protection Tribunal. (2) An appeal under sub-section (1) shall lie before the High Court of Sindh. 29. (1) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898 (Act V of 1898), or any other law for the time being in force, but subject to the provisions of this Act, all contraventions punishable under sub-section (2) of section 22 shall exclusively be triable by the Court of Judicial Magistrate of First Class having of First Class having jurisdiction. Jurisdiction of Judicial Magistrate. (2) A Judicial Magistrate shall be competent to impose any punishment specified in sub-sections (2) and (4) of section 22. (3) A Judicial Magistrate shall not take cognizance of an offence triable under sub-section (1) except on a complaint in writing by—
- 1152. 28 (a) the Agency;and (b) any aggrieved person. 30. Any person aggrieved by any final order or sentence passed by a Judicial Magistrate under section 28 may, within thirty days from the date of the communication of such order or sentence, appeal to the Court of the District and Sessions Judge defined as Green Court under this Act, whose decision thereon shall be final. Appeals from orders of the Judicial Magistrate. PART-X PUBLIC PARTICIPATION 31.(1)The Agency shall cause relevant details of any proposed project regarding which an Environmental Impact Assessment has been received to be published, alongwith an invitation to the public to furnish their comments thereon within a specified period. (2) In accordance with such procedure as may be prescribed, the Agency shall hold public hearings to receive additional comments and hear oral submissions. (3) All comments received under sub-sections (1) and (2) shall be duly considered by the Agency while reviewing the environmental impact assessment or strategic impact assessment, and decision or action taken thereon shall be communicated to the persons who have furnished the said comments. Public participation. PART-XI GENERAL 32. The Agency may, by notification in the official Gazette, make and amend the schedule. Power to make and amend schedule. 33. No suit, prosecution or other legal proceedings shall lie against Government, the Council, the Agency, the Director General of the Agency, members, officers, employees, experts, advisors, committees or consultants of the Agency or Environmental Protection Tribunal or Court or any other person for anything which is done or intended to be done in good faith under this Act or rules or regulations. Indemnity 34. Any dues recoverable by the Agency under this Act and rules or regulations shall be recoverable as arrears of land revenue. Dues recoverable as arrears of land revenue. 35. The provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent therewith contained in any other law for the time being in force. Act to override other laws. 36. The Sindh Environment Protection Agency may, by notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the Power to make rules.
- 1153. 29 purposes not inconsistence of this Act with the approval of Government. 37. (1) For carrying out the purposes of this Act, the Agency may, by Notification in the Official Gazette and with the approval of Government, make regulations not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act or the rules. Power to make regulations. (2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such regulations may provide for — (a) submission of periodical reports, data or information by any Government Agency, local authority or local council in respect of environmental matters; (b) preparation of emergency contingency plans for coping with environmental hazards and pollution caused by accidents, natural disasters and calamities; (c) appointment of officers, advisors, experts, consultants and employees as per prescribed rules; (d) levy of fees, rates and charges in respect of services rendered, actions taken and schemes implemented; (e) monitoring and measurement of discharges and emissions; (f) categorization of projects to which, and the manner in which sections 17, 18 and 20 applies; (g) laying down of guidelines for preparation of initial environmental examination, environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment, and development of procedures of their filing, reviews and approval. (h) laying down standard operating procedures for environmental sampling, examination of water, waste water, gaseous emissions, solid waste and noise; (i) providing procedures for handling hazardous substances; and (j) installation of devices in, use of fuels by, and maintenance and testing of motor vehicles for control of air and noise pollution. ____________________________________________ BY ORDER OF THE SPEAKER PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLY OF SINDH G.M.UMAR FAROOQ SECRETARY PROVINCIAL ASSEMBLY OF SINDH
- 1155. The designation ofgeographical entities in this book and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Published by: IUCN Pakistan (National Impact Assessment Programme) Copyright: © 2014 Government of Pakistan and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Environmental Impact Assessment Handbook for Pakistan was prepared under the National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP), a joint initiative of the Government of Pakistan and IUCN Pakistan, with the financial support of the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (EKN). Citation is encouraged. Reproduction and/or translation of this publication for educational or other non- commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from IUCN Pakistan, provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission from IUCN Pakistan. The opinions expressed in this document do not constitute an endorsement by the EKN. Citation: Fischer, Thomas B. et al. 2014. Environmental Impact Assessment Handbook for Pakistan. Islamabad: IUCN Pakistan. 164 pp. ISBN 978-969-643-008-7 Author: Zirgham Nabi Afridi, Javaid Afzal, David Annandale, Hamza Khalid Butt, Santiago Enriquez, Thomas B. Fischer, Rizwan Hameed, Mohammad Irfan Khan, Saima A Khawaja, Miriam Kugele, N J Nabeela, Obaidullah Nadeem, Parvaiz Naim, Reinoud Post, Ahmad Saeed, Ernesto Sánchez-Triana and Bobbi Schijf Compiled by: Thomas B. Fischer Editor: Thomas B. Fischer and Shadmeena Khanum Technical Support: Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA) Facilitation: Ahmad Saeed and Arfa Zaheer Azmat Design: Azhar Saeed Printed by: Elite Publishers (Pvt) Limited Available from: IUCN Pakistan National Impact Assessment Programme House No. 2, Street 83 Embassy Road, G-6/4, Islamabad Tel: +92 (51) 2271027-34 Fax: +92 (51) 2271017 www.niap.pk
- 1156. 1EIA Handbook forPakistan 1 Introduction to Handbook 8 2 EIA in Pakistan: An Overview – Evolution and Extent of Current Practice 13 2.1 EIA Roots in Pakistan 13 2.2 The Operational Directive Era 14 2.3 Post-PEPA Developments 16 2.4 The Netherlands Support 17 2.5 Devolution of Environmental Matters to Provinces and Outlook 18 3 EIA: Legal Requirements and Guidelines—A Critique 19 3.1 Background 19 3.2 Scope of an EIA 20 3.3 Administrative Institutional Structure 28 3.4 Committees 31 3.5 Monitoring Structure 33 3.6 Enforcement 35 3.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 37 4 EIA Teaching at Tertiary Level Institutions in Pakistan – Baseline and Development Needs 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Pre-workshops’ Questionnaire Results 40 4.3 Audience Response Survey 44 4.4 Group Work of Workshop Participants 45 4.5 Conclusions 45 5 Taking stock of EIA application in Pakistan: Findings of EIA mapping 48 5.1 Introduction 48 5.2 EIA Mapping in Practice 49 5.3 EIA Mapping Results for Pakistan 51 5.4 Interpreting the EIA Mapping Results for Pakistan 55 5.5 Looking Back and Looking Forward 57 Contents
- 1157. 6 The Roleof International Organisations and Development Banks in Pakistan’s Environmental Impact Assessment Practices 58 6.1 Introduction 58 6.2 Role of International Organisations and Development Banks in the Design and Implementation of Pakistan’s EIA System 59 6.3 Implementing EIA in Pakistan - International Organisations and Development Banks' Perspectives and Practices 61 6.4 Examining EIA Effectiveness 64 6.5 Enhancing Positive Impacts and Building Capacity through EIA 68 6.6 Insights from SEA Experience in Pakistan 70 6.7 Conclusions 74 7 Public Participation Practice in EIA in Pakistan 82 7.1 Introduction 82 7.2 Legal and Institutional Context 83 7.3 Consulting the Public During EIA studies 84 7.4 Inviting the Public for Written Comments and Public Hearing 84 7.5 Holding Public Hearings 85 7.6 Recording Public Concerns 86 7.7 Substantive Quality of the Outcome- Considering Stakeholders’ Concerns in EIA Reports 87 7.8 Influence of Stakeholders’ Concerns on the Final Outcome 88 7.9 Transparency of Decision-making and Dissemination of Decisions 89 7.10 Post-EIA Public Participation 89 7.11 Concluding Remarks 90 8 Climate Proofing and EIA 91 8.1 Introduction 91 8.2 Pakistan and Climate Change 92 8.3 Policy Context 94 8.4 Climate Proofing 95 8.5 Dimensions of Climate Proofing in EIA 96 8.6 Experiences with Climate Proofing in Practice in Developing Country Contexts 98 8.7 Lessons – Challenges and Opportunities for Climate Proofing and EIA in Pakistan 100 8.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 104 9 EIA in Pakistani Road Pplanning: The Lahore Experience 105 9.1 Introduction 105 9.2 Sources and Techniques of Baseline Data Ccollection 107 9.3 Identification and Assessment of Impacts 107 9.4 Stakeholders’ Consultation and Common Cconcerns 108 9.5 Consideration of Alternatives 109 9.6 Mitigation Measures 110 2 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1158. 9.7 Decision-making/Conditions ofApproval 110 9.8 Environmental Management Plan and EIA Follow-up Monitoring 111 9.9 Conclusion and Recommendations 111 10 Case Study: Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project 113 10.1 Introduction 113 10.2 Key Project Planning Events and Issues 114 10.3 EIA: Recommendations that Made the Difference 115 10.4 Innovative Approach to Interacting with Stakeholders 117 10.5 The Civil Society Protest 117 10.6 Conclusions 118 11 Strategic Environmental Assessment of Hydropower in Azad Jammu and Kashmir 120 11.1 Introduction 120 11.2 Methodological Approach to the Strategic Environmental Assessment 121 11.3 Outcomes and Recommendations from the SEA Pilot Study 123 11.4 Conclusions and Lessons Learned 128 12 Planning for the People: Introducing Strategic Environment Assessment in Pakistan 129 12.1 Introduction 129 12.2 Formulating Policies, Plans and Programmes 130 12.3 Public Participation in Formulating Policies, Plans and Programmes 132 12.4 Vision 2025 and its Realization 134 12.5 Using SEA in Formulating Policies, Plans and Programmes 135 12.6 Summary 138 13 Outlook: Future Development of EIA in Pakistan 139 13.1 Introduction 139 13.2 Setting the Context 140 13.3 Policy and Legal Framework 142 13.4 Institutional Setting and Transformation 143 13.5 Building a Professional Community 147 13.6 Oversight and Quality Control 148 13.7 Impact Assessment – The Next Generation 151 13.8 Conclusions 152 References 154 3EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1159. 4 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan Zirgham Nabi Afridi, Manager, Environmental Programmes at Hagler Bailly Pakistan (HBP) based in Islamabad, has a four-year Master of Engineering (MEng) degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering from Imperial College London. His academic specialisation is in the field of hydrology with a focus on bed, bank and shoreline protection; flood management and flood defenses. During his time at HBP, he has conducted environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and undertaken environmental audits for clients in the donor community, private industry, and state sector. The EIAs have covered a range of projects from hospitals to coal-fired power plants and have taken him to Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK), Sind and Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan and Bamiyan in Afghanistan. Mr Afridi has recently expanded upon his expertise by leading two pilot Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs)—the first of their kind in Pakistan. One of the SEAs is of a hydropower development plan in AJK and the other is of a master plan for development of Gilgit city. Dr Javaid Afzal is a Senior Environment Specialist at the World Bank’s Islamabad office. His responsibilities include moving the environment development agenda forward with client government agencies. He also task- manages operations in water resources and the environment, and provides environmental safeguards support for the Bank’s South Asia Region. Previously, he worked at a leading consulting company in Pakistan. He holds a PhD in water resources management from Cranfield University, UK, and master’s and bachelor’s degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Dr. Afzal has published in a number of peer-reviewed journals on the topics mentioned above. Dr David Annandale is an international environmental policy consultant, focused on SEA, EIA, and environmental safeguards procedures. He is based in Nova Scotia, and has 30 years of experience in assignments for the ADB, World Bank, UNDP, UNEP, IUCN and DANIDA. For thirteen years, he was a tenured academic at Murdoch University in Australia, ending up as Dean of the School of Environmental Science. In Pakistan he is the International Consultant on two SEA pilot projects managed by IUCN: an assessment of the impacts of the hydropower plan in Azad Jammu and Kashmir; and a strategic environmental assessment of the proposed Gilgit city master plan. For three years he has also been the Academic Advisor on the AusAID scholarship programme, where he provides advice for Master’s degree awardees prior to their departure for Australia. David has a Bachelor’s degree from Murdoch List of Authors
- 1160. University in EnvironmentalScience, a Master’s degree in Public Administration from the University of Virginia, and a PhD in Business Policy from the University of Western Australia. Hamza Khalid Butt is an environment and sustainability professional who has been a consultant with the National Impact Assessment Programme since June 2013. He holds an MSc in Environmental Technology from Imperial College London and specialises in business and environment. Hamza is also the acting head of sustainability services for the CSR Association of Pakistan and sits on the global corporate governance committee for ACCA Global. Santiago Enriquez is an international consultant with more than fifteen years of experience in the design, implementation, and evaluation of policies relating to the environment, conservation, and climate change. He has developed analytical work for the World Bank, United States Agency for International Development, and the Inter- American Development Bank. From 1998 to 2002, Mr. Enriquez worked at the International Affairs Unit of Mexico’s Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Mr. Enriquez holds a master’s degree in public policy from the Harvard Kennedy School. Professor Dr Thomas B Fischer, PhD, FIEMA, is Head of the Department of Geography and Planning, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK. His specialist areas revolve around ex-ante impact assessment tools in spatial, transport, energy, waste and other sectoral policy, plan, programme and project decision making, in particular strategic environmental assessment (SEA) and environmental impact assessment (EIA). He has worked in consultancy, public administration and academia for over 23 years and he is one of the most widely published authors on SEA and EIA globally. Professor Dr Rizwan Hameed, PhD, is Professor of City and Regional Planning at the University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Lahore, Pakistan. He gained his PhD at Heriot–Watt University, Edinburgh, UK, in the field of Environmental Planning and Management. He has over 23 years of professional experience as a teacher and researcher. He has also done consultancy assignments for national and international consulting firms on various urban planning and environmental management issues. He is the author of numerous refereed journal articles, book chapters and conference contributions. His research interests relate to environmental assessment, urban planning and housing, sustainable transport, and waste management. He is member of Advanced Studies and Research Board of the UET, and Editor of the Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Professor Dr Muhammad Irfan Khan, PhD, DIC, MIEMA, is the Head of the Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan and Convener, National Curriculum Review Committee, Higher Education Commission in Environmental Science. He also chairs the National Mirror Committee on Environmental Management and Sustainability, Pakistan Standard and Quality Control Authority. He was part of the team, which conducted Country Strategic Environmental Assessment - Pakistan for World Bank and developed environmental management framework for 5EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1161. World Bank financedprojects of National Highway Authority. He has worked in higher education for over 27 years and provided consultancy to UN organisations, World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank on social and environmental assessment of various projects in Middle East, South and Central Asia. He has published three books and more than 30 research papers in journals. Saima A Khawaja is a practicing lawyer and partner at Progressive Advocates and Legal Consultants. Environmental Law is one of her main areas of interest and she has been involved in analysing and drafting EIA Regulations, Administrative Penalty Rules and Water Conservation Law (for SAARC countries). She has done a number of litigations challenging environmental issues for over fifteen years now. She has also worked in consultancy and academia in the same subject and has given training to the district judiciary. Miriam Kugele has been working as an advisor at the intersection of environment, climate change and development. She is currently Coordinator Climate Change and Sustainable Energy for the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Pakistan. Her work experience includes policy advice on natural resource management and climate change, research including the topics of ecosystem-based adaptation and vulnerability analyses, planning for more sustainable development and project implementation, as well as building capacities of government and civil society. N J Nabeela is a practicing lawyer and partner at Progressive Advocates and Legal Consultants. Her main area of interest is Environmental Law and she has been involved in multiple aspects of the field, such as academia, review of Environmental Laws, Rules and Regulations, and consultancy work for the past eight years. She has been involved in analysing and drafting EIA Regulations, Administrative Penalty Rules and Water Conservation Law (for SAARC countries). She has given Environmental Law training courses to the district judiciary in Pakistan. Dr Obaidullah Nadeem, PhD, is currently working as Associate Professor of City and Regional Planning at the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan. His doctoral research focussed on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) practices in Pakistan. He has got 21 years’ experience of teaching, research and consultancy with various national and international organisations. He is co-author of the EIA Curriculum for Higher Education Institutions in Pakistan. He has published numerous research articles on various aspects of EIA and urban planning and management. He is also serving as a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of the Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management and reviewer of the some other international research journals. Dr Parvaiz Naim, PhD, has taught environmental subjects at seven universities in three continents. He led EIA Teams for mega projects, conducted EIA/SEA training workshops at home and abroad, and contributed to several books and publications including the UNEP EIA Training Resource Manual and OECD’s Applying Strategic Environment Assessment: Good Practice Guidance for Development Cooperation. Presently he works with the KfW Development Bank. 6 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1162. Reinoud Post waseducated in tropical agriculture in Deventer and environmental sciences in Enschedé. In his professional career he served long term assignments as agronomist in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Principe and Burkina Faso. Mid-1993, he joined the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment, assisting governments of developing countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa improving their EIA systems. Ahmad Saeed is currently employed with IUCN Pakistan as Project Manager National Impact Assessment Programme and Principal Expert Global Change. He has Masters in Environmental Engineering from the University of Oklahoma, USA. He has over twenty years of diverse experience in environmental management with a specific focus on impact assessment. He has been involved in various environmental policy and governance related initiatives both in Pakistan and abroad. For the last four years, he has been managing NIAP which is a joint initiative of the Government of Pakistan and IUCN Pakistan and is being implemented in all administrative regions of Pakistan. He has extensive experience in managing urban issues such as solid waste and air quality and has worked as third party monitor for safeguards compliance in Pakistan and Lao PDR. Dr Ernesto Sánchez-Triana, PhD, is Lead Environmental Specialist for the World Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Region. Prior to joining the Bank, he was a professor at the National University of Colombia and served as Director of Environmental Policy at Colombia’s National Department of Planning. From 2006 to 2012, he worked for the Bank’s South Asia Region, leading numerous operations including analytical work on “Policy Options for Air Quality Management in Pakistan”. Dr. Sánchez-Triana holds MS and PhD degrees from Stanford University and has authored numerous publications on environmental economics, energy efficiency, environmental policy, poverty and social impact assessment, and green growth. Dr Bobbi Schijf, PhD is a technical secretary at the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment. In her professional career, Bobbi Schijf has been singularly focused on the topic of impact assessment. She graduated with a Masters in Environmental Science from the University of Utrecht in 1997, with a comparative study on the impact assessment systems of the Netherlands and New Zealand. After this, she went on to do a PhD at the University of Otago, on the use of impact assessment information in decision-making. For the last decade she has been working with countries in Eastern Europe and Asia to improve their EIA and SEA practice. 7EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1163. 8 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan This Handbook is one of the outcomes of the National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP), which has been jointly implemented by the Government of Pakistan and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN - http://niap.pk/). NIAP has aimed to contribute to sustainable development in Pakistan through strengthening the environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, and through introducing strategic environmental assessment (SEA) in national development planning. The Programme had four implementation partners: the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak EPA), the Environment Wing of the Ministry of Climate Change (previously Ministry of Environment), the Planning Commission of Pakistan and IUCN Pakistan. Additionally, the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA) had an advisory role in the Programme, providing technical backstopping. The total duration of the Programme was four and a half years and it had been running from November 2009 to May 2014. The necessity of the Handbook was established on the basis of a total of seven NIAP workshops on EIA teaching in higher education institutions in Pakistan that were conducted between 2011 and 2013. A total of over 150 individuals were involved in these workshops, representing over 30 higher education institutions, the Higher Education Commission, Federal and provincial EPAs, as well as various other private and public sector organisations, institutions and companies. Workshops 1 to 4 aimed at establishing a basic overview of EIA teaching activities. This included identifying those institutions that currently teach EIA and establishing their teaching methods and techniques. Workshops 5 and 6 involved empirical data collection exercises within a targeted NIAP assignment on the ‘Development of EIA curricula for tertiary level academic and public administrations’. This assignment had the following five objectives to: 1. Identify strengths and weaknesses of existing EIA curricula being taught at tertiary level institutions in Pakistan; 2. Support the development of EIA curricula for these institutions, taking international research and best practices into account; 3. Identify the feasibility of including SEA in the curriculum; 4. Prepare an action plan for implementation of different curricula; and 5. Advise on a comprehensive one week EIA training curriculum for public administration institutions. 1 Introduction to Handbook By Thomas B. Fischer
- 1164. The results ofthese various exercises are described in a NIAP Report ‘Development of an EIA Curriculum for Tertiary Level Institutions in Pakistan - Baseline, Development Needs, Curriculum Outline and Suggestions for Further Action’ which can be accessed via http://niap.pk/docs/Knowledge%20Repository/Reports/ReportEIAeducationPakistanFis cher.pdf. The ‘Suggestions for Further Action’ also included responding to a perceived need for improved teaching and study materials on EIA in Pakistan. This Handbook together with another NIAP document, the ‘Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Curriculum for Higher Education Institutions in Pakistan’ (http://www.niap.pk/docs/ Knowledge%20Repository/Reports/Draft%20EIA%20Curriculum% 20for%20Tertiary%20Level%20Institutions%20in%20Pakistan.pdf) is a direct response to those needs. This Handbook consists of thirteen chapters, representing the work of seventeen authors. Chapters range from the basics of EIA in Pakistan e.g. history, legislation, guidelines), over the role of NIAP in improving the instrument to issues of climate change, case studies, SEA and an outlook on the path ahead. In the subsequent Chapter 2, Parvaiz Naim reflects on the history and development of EIA in Pakistan. He highlights the fact that the origins of environmental protection, and thus EIA, in the country go back to the Penal Code of 1860. EIA first became a legal requirement on the basis of the 1983 Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance and was subsequently provided with a clear procedural framework in the 1997 Environmental Protection Act. Naim describes some of the attempted attacks on the instrument that were done with the intention to weaken it for making international investment easier. In this context, he underlines the important role the media and interational organisations have and are playing in Pakistan for keeping EIA on the agenda and enhancing its effectiveness. Finally, he stresses the important role the National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP) has been playing for the further development of both, EIA and SEA in the country. In Chapter 3, Saima Khawaja and N J Nabeela provide for a critique of the legal requirements and guidelines of Pakistani EIA. This critique is driven by a continuing ineffective implementation. In this context, it is of particular importance that EIA is usually not initiated at the planning, but rather at the construction stage. Furthermore, quality review and monitoring is said to be not satisfactory, in particular because of insufficient staffing numbers at the relevant environmental authorities. Furtermore, public participation is said to be restricted to the EIA review stage and finally, the system strongly relies on self-monitoring which means that both, monitoring itself, as well as enforcement tend to be weak. In Chapter 4, Thomas B Fischer, Ahmad Saeed, Bobbi Schijf and Irfan Khan look at the results of the NIAP mission on the ‘development of EIA curricula for tertiary level academic and public administrations’. They state that of those 74 institutions offering tertiary level degree programmes in Pakistan in 2012/2013, 33 were found to teach EIA in various undergraduate and postgraduate courses. While many strengths were identified, there were also certain shortcomings in current teaching, including in 9EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1165. particular decision makingtheory and practice and involvement in real life EIA practice cases. Those teaching EIA in Pakistan are particularly keen to see further and enhanced capcity-building and knowledge exchange opportunities with other national and international institutions. In Chapter 5, Bobbi Schijf and Reinoud Post present the results of the first NIAP EIA mapping exercise of Pakistani legislation and practice, which was conducted in 2010 (a second exercise was completed in early 2014). Overall, they found many positive aspects, underlining the great potential of EIA in this country. In particular, a comprehensive and mature legislative framework was found to be in place, which was flanked by professional environmental agencies. Democratic accountability was well developed and decision processes were of a public nature. With regard to challenges, Schijf and Post found that that EIAs were of variable quality and that effective participation was often limited. Furthermore, EIA monitoring and follow-up was often deficient. In Chapter 6, Ernesto Sánchez-Triana, Santiago Enriquez and Javaid Afzal look at the role of international organisations and development banks (IODBs) in Pakistan’s EIA development and current practices. IODBs have played a key role not just in the development of EIA but also in raising an interest in SEA in the country. In this context, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the Netherlands EIA Commission are said to have played a particularly important role. Their involvement has raised the quality of EIAs on the basis of international best practice guidelines and numerous capacity-building activities. The authors stress the success of policy level SEA in Pakistan, which they say has had significantly greater influence on decision making than EIA. Chapter 7 by Obaidullah Nadeem and Rizwan Hameed deals with the key issue of public participation in EIA in Pakistan. They state that while public hearings are held for every project which includes EIA, their effectiveness and influence on actual decisions is questionnable. Public concerns are recorded, but frequently there is a lack of transparency with regard to how decisions are finally formulated. A particular problem is that public participation comes too late, i.e. not during the planning stages, but often only when construction has already begun. Furthermore, even if conditions are formulated in connection with environmental approvals, proponents try to avoid their implementation. Finally, Nadeem and Hameed suggest that in order to make public participation more effective, the public needs to be involved as early as possible and monitoring and follow-up arrangements need to be strengthened. In Chapter 8, Miriam Kugele elaborates on climate proofing (i.e. mainstreaming of climate change in policy, plan, programme and project making processes) and SEA/EIA. In this context, two main aspects are covered, namely mitigation and adaptation, and the important role of SEA for addressing those in addition to EIA. Pakistan is seen as one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change effects and therefore, the effective inclusion in EIA (and SEA) is of particular importance. Kugele introduces a ‘how to’ mainstream climate change in policy, plan programme and project making through SEA and EIA matrix, based on a number of related assessment questions, goals and 10 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1166. processes. She concludesby formulating challenges and opportunities for climate change proofing and EIA in Pakistan. In Chapter 9, Obaidullah Nadeem reflects on the Lahore experience with regard to EIA in Pakistani transport infrastructure planning. In this context, first he gives an overview of how transport infrastructure planning is done in the country and how EIA fits in. Using the Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS) as an example, he summarises the various elements contributing to EIA in the country. Here, he focuses on sources and techniques of baseline data collection, the identification and assessment of impacts, stakeholders’ consultation, consideration of alternatives, mitigation, decision-making and conditions of approval, the drafting of an environmental management plan and monitoring / follow-up. Nadeem concludes by pinpointing weaknesses of the EIA process and provides some recommendations on how to make the instrument more effective in the future. In Chapter 10, a case study is introduced and described by Parvaiz Naim, namely the Ghazi-Barotha Hydropower Project, where EIA was conducted as part of a feasibility study by the Pakistan Water and Power Development Auhority. Key project planning events and issues are described and the overall success of the EIA is underlined. The EIA for this project, which was supported by the World Bank, has been widely perceived as effectve in influencing decision-making. Furthermore, EIA is said to have played a key role, resulting in a minimisation of relocation needs, fostering of an effective resettlement plan, ensuring environmental releases, facilitating surface and groundwater flow across the power channel, giving people easy access in crossing the power channel and reclaiming eroded areas for agriculture. Naim concludes that this case is a prime example of an EIA which was effective in minimising negative effects and enhancing the overall benefits of a project. In Chapter 11, David Annandale and Zirgham Nabi Afridi introduce a NIAP funded Pakistani SEA case study for hydropower development in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The main purpose of this study was to assess the cumulative impacts of about 60 hydropower projects, for which no overall development plan was in place. A seven-step method was developed, resulting in the ranking of the proposed hydropwer projects (HPPs) according to their overall cumulative impact potential. The authors establish a number of lessons learned from the project and conclude that the approach introduced here may be the basis for other cumulative assessment SEAs. In Chapter 12, Parvaiz Naim elaborates on how SEA may be introduced in Pakistan. He starts by underlining that Pakistan is well poised to use the instrument effectively, based on a number of reasons. In particular, there are some well developed institutions, specialising in planning and also having expertise in various environmental issues. Furthermore, over three decades of experience with project EIA are said to provide for a solid basis for the development of SEA. The Government of Pakistan’s development vision itself (‘Vision 2025’) has introduced a range of measures for achieving sustainable and inclusive higher growth and Naim suggest that this may greatly benefit from SEA, for example, the proposed large water reservoirs and new cities. The author concludes that there is great potential for this strategic decision support instrument which may results in many benefits for the people of Pakistan. 11EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1167. In chapter 13,finally, Hamza Khalid Butt, Ahmad Saeed and Bobbi Schijf provide an outlook for the future development of EIA in Pakistan. Starting with a historical overview, they go on to outline key chracteristics of the current EIA system. They then reflect on the challenges and opportunities posed by the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan, i.e. the devolution of environmental, and also higher education, matters to the provincial level. They argue that there is great potential to develop EIA further and list a number of aspects they consider important in this context. SEA is seen as playing a key role in helping to realise this potential, supporting a more environmentally sustianable development of Pakistan. 12 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1168. 13EIA Handbook forPakistan Pakistan’s efforts to protect the environment by using Environmental Impact Assessment in project planning can be said to be based on the Penal Code of 1860 which considered fouling of water and air as punishable offences. Promulgation of an Ordinance in 1983 followed by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1977, made EIA a legal requirement. For enabling the project proponents in designing EIAs, the Pakistan Environment Protection Agency (Pak-EPA) first developed an elaborate form, and later completed guidelines and regulations. In the interim, the World Bank’s Operational Directives filled the gaps. Presently, EIAs are conducted for all large developmental projects, albeit with varying attention to public participation and Environmental Management Plans. Devolution of environmental matters to the provinces has caused uncertainty about the Environmental Act and the role of Pak-EPA. Nonetheless, the efforts of Netherlands supported National Impact Assessment Programme ( NIAP), and the watchdog role of the civil society and media ensure survival of EIA in Pakistan. 2.1 EIA Roots in Pakistan Lord Macaulay would never have anticipated how his masterpiece would affect the lives of well over a billion people. Now, one and a half centuries on, his Penal Code of 1860 continues to be used in much of South Asia, covering all types of crimes, including those against the environment. Shortly after its creation in 1947, Pakistan adopted this Code, and modified it over the years as needed. In addition, separate legislation was promulgated for addressing environmental issues from forest cutting to noise. It was the cumulative effect of all factors plus a growing international concern for the environment that Pakistan drafted a comprehensive law on the environment in the mid-1970s. Nonetheless, it could not make it to the agenda of the Parliament for years. As a last resort, the bureaucracy pushed this through with a Presidential Order, thus giving birth to the Pakistan Environmental Protection Ordinance, 1983. This Ordinance made Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) a requirement for any proposed project with possible adverse impacts on the environment. EIA thus became part of the project planning process, and it was made mandatory from July 1, 1994, to seek prior approval of the relevant Environmental Protection Agency (PEPO, 1983). 2 EIA in Pakistan: An Overview - Evolution and Extent of Current Practice By Parvaiz Naim
- 1169. 2.2 The OperationalDirective Era Like any new initiative, the Environmental Ordinance needed to be operationalised with suitable rules and guidelines. Here, the newly formed Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency was struggling on two fronts; first to save the existence of the Agency by having the Presidential Ordinance endorsed by Pakistan’s Parliament; and secondly to prepare the necessary rules and guidelines for pollution control, and EIA. One major achievement of the Pakistan EPA was the development of a 16-page “Proforma for Environmental Impact Assessment” (Pak-EPA, 1990). This was essentially an outline for an EIA Report that helped in presenting the findings in a cohesive manner. During this period, the donor agencies generally relied on World Bank Guidelines for Environmental Assessment - the Operational Directives. EIAs during that period remained confined to large developmental projects funded by bilateral and multilateral donors. Some of the earliest such EIAs were done in energy sector projects, like Ghazi Barotha Hydropower Project (PHC, 1991), and the oil and gas fields of Dhodak (BMG, 1991) and Qadirpur (BMG, 1992). Very few local consultants with qualifications acquired abroad worked on these assignments along with foreign experts. In the early 1990s, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Council became very active, but much of its focus was on chasing after public and private institutions in planting a certain number of trees. The Pakistan EPA continued its work on setting environmental standards like the National Environmental Quality Standards. Special committees were formed for such purposes with representation from the concerned Government institutions, academia and the Federation of Pakistan Chambers of Commerce and Industries (SRO, 1993). In general, many governments in Pakistan tried to soften the stance on EIA. Apparently this was part of the effort to lure foreign investment. A stark example is the Power Policy 1994 that blatantly allowed the setting up of power generation projects using any type of fuel, any technology, and gave a carte blanche for setting up power plants anywhere in Pakistan. In May 2014, this policy was still in place. Ironically, this policy came on the heels of Pakistan’s emergence as the leader of the developing countries (G-77) at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 1992. There, Pakistan had proudly presented the National Conservation Strategy (IUCN, 1992), and signed important international environmental treaties like the United Nation Conventions on Climate Change and Biological Diversity. Most importantly, Pakistan signed the all encompassing Agenda 21, and the Rio Declaration. By doing so, Pakistan agreed to integrate environmental consideration in decision-making “at all levels and in all ministries”, and explicitly agreed that EIA would be used as a ‘National Instrument’ for all proposed activities that are likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment, and that this process would be regulated by a ‘Competent National Authority’(UNCED, 1992). As a follow up to Agenda 21, IUCN engaged with the media in developing a better and clearer understanding of environmental issues, especially the significance of EIA for development projects. A series of awareness-raising workshops were organised under 14 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1170. the IUCN EnvironmentalCommunication Programme in different cities involving EIA experts and media personalities. The dynamic young journalists who participated in these programmes not only understood the messages being conveyed, but became strong advocates of EIA, as was amply reflected in their news coverage, especially for the local English newspapers. While the Power Policy of 1994 came under fire from environmentalists, it nonetheless did lure in scores of investors who wanted to set up power generating units of all kinds in whatever locality they thought was convenient. For example, one company came in to set up an 800MW Barge-Mounted assemblage of old diesel generators right in the middle of a mangrove forest. Another wanted to set up a huge 5,280MW coal-fired power complex at the coast, upwind of Karachi City. Dealing with such powerful investors was no small task, but the IUCN investment in journalists paid off. The media effectively picked up the issue and played an active role by widely disseminating expert opinions and raising a strong voice explicitly requiring the government to make use of EIA. The local English news media led this campaign. At least three of the proposed power projects had to roll up their plans and leave. These included the two above-mentioned plants and another one proposed to be located on Manora Island off the Karachi Coast. A startling event unfolded when the then Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto performed a Ground Breaking Ceremony for the Lakhra Coal-Fired Thermal Power Station. Just a day after the ceremony was covered by the media with the usual fanfare, came a strong- worded letter expressing surprise why the Prime Minister performed the Ground Breaking for a Project for which no EIA was conducted and approved. This letter was written by the then Director General Sindh EPA Mehtab Akbar Rashdi to the Prime Minister’s Office. Somehow the media got hold of the letter and made quite an issue out of it. The Prime Minister Secretariat had to issue a Press Release stating that the Prime Minister was not properly briefed on the status of the project, and that the Prime Minister in fact regretted the oversight. While such events were heartwarming for the environmentalists, they also raised alarms for clever investors. These understood that they could no longer avoid having an EIA done for their proposed projects. They now focused their attention on finding short cuts to simply obtaining a No Objection Certificate from the concerned EPAs. As a ‘standard’ practice, the Project Proponents first purchased or leased land, placed order for the machinery so that they could benefit from the incentives promised in the Policy for speedily setting up plants. At the same time, the Project Proponents selectively arranged EIA Consultants who guranteed in advance of obtaining No Objection Certificates from EPAs (Nadeem and Hameed, 2006). The EPAs, on the other hand, were still in the infancy stage, mostly staffed with young inexperienced people for EIA Scrutiny. There was an urgent need there for capacity-building. With regard to capacity-building of local institutions, the most persistent efforts were made by IUCN. A major challenge was trying to persuade senior management of 15EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1171. relevant government departmentsin allowing their staff to participate in EIA Training Workshops. From there onwards, the participating staff was never found lacking interest in learning about this project planning tool. From 1996 onwards, IUCN’s training workshops used the UNEP EIA Training Resource Manual (UNEP, 1996) In the meantime, the Pakistani Government was eventually able to honor the long pending draft, and promulgated the much awaited Pakistan Environmental Protection Act in 1997. This Act in a way legitimized the existence of the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency and the Provincial EPAs. Donor support increased, and the Pakistan EPA was able to develop detailed EIA Guidelines (Pak-EPA, 1997), and Regulations (Pak-EPA, 2000). The Schedule-II of the Regulations specified the types of Projects that required EIA. 2.3 Post-PEPA Developments Appearance of EIA Guidelines and Regulations (see above) caused a new surge of interest in the EIA ‘Business’. Small-scale EIA Consulting groups began to approach the business community, each claiming that if given the consultancy assignment, the consultant would ensure the issuance of EPA Clearance for the proposed project. In that wake, some clever approaches were used to either mask the real picture, fudge data, share only selective information with stakeholders, or sugar-coat data in such a way that a rosy picture of a proposed project was painted. In some cases, even coercive techniques were applied on the local communities in persuading them not to raise any objections on a proposed project. News about such approaches appeared, for example, in the local press for cement factories proposed in Districts of Haripur and Soon Valley. The feudal hold in many communities often caused suppression of voices that some of the under-privileged wanted to raise. If the dominating family in an area wanted a project, no one could dare oppose it openly (Nadeem and Fischer, 2011). On top of that, some prominent consultants were lured away from their professional responsibilities. They chose to convert the public consultation process into a theatrical event staged for earning applause for their performance rather than an opportunity for an honest debate on the merits and demerits of the proposed project (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010). In some cases, the Consultants propped up a minor issue as a major one, wrote detailed comments, and then gave some apparently strict recommendations to be followed for addressing the problem. At the same time, the consultants downplayed some really important issues and avoided making any strong recommendations. One such example was an EIA conducted for a proposed caustic soda factory where used mercury cells were to be installed. The resulting EIA Report gave an overall flavour of deep passion shown for the environment rather than focusing on the potential problems of the technology. The key problem here was with the EIA checking process (Post and Schijf, 2011). In the concerned EPAs, the task of scrutinizing EIA Reports was given to mid-career or even junior officials. Most of them had no personal experience of conducting EIA, had little knowledge of the location of the proposed project, and invariably, had no access to 16 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1172. baseline data, especiallytechnical information that could be used to verify any statements or claims made in the EIA reports. In addition, rarely was there any effort for examining the performance of any given project in light of the EIA Recommendation, especially monitoring the implementation of the Environmental Management Plan (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010). The entire EIA process thus became confined to early assessment of the likely impacts, and of course, obtaining the No Objection Certificate from the concerned EPA for executing the project. The emergence of this situation could well be due to the earlier approach used in raising Environmental Awareness. For quite some time, when an expert was asked how to save the environment, the most frequently given answer was ‘save the trees’, and ‘do the EIA’. Somehow, the idea of integrating environmental considerations into what gets done could not take root. For example, when an ex-minister of Environment was asked about the environmental implications of the manifesto of his political party, he took pride in saying that he would add a separate chapter on the Environment in his Party Manifesto (Pak Observer, 2013). Surely such opinion leaders had not absorbed the idea that a given action could be planned in a way to not only avoid harmful impacts, but in fact to enhance its secondary and tertiary benefits for the community. In the shadow of these ground realities, the academic community in Pakistan appeared unable to impart the knowledge and skill needed to conduct quality EIAs. The main reason was the absence of ‘approved’ text books. Different teachers used the publications of their choice. Some even assumed that EIA meant examining the environmental condition of an existing project. Students of one particular university were found engaged in conducting EIA of Tarbela Dam in the late 1990s. The Dam had been built in the 1970s. In a recent survey, Pakistani universities were found to be using predominantly the British and American books for teaching EIA, without any effort to adapting those country-specific guidelines to Pakistani conditions (Fischer, 2012). 2.4 The Netherlands Support For improving the situation, perhaps the most persistent donor was the Netherlands Government. For many years, the Netherlands’ support helped many people from Pakistan to attend the conferences organised by the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA). In addition, the Netherlands’ funding enabled IUCN to launch a Regional Environment Assessment Programme for South Asia. This Programme succeeded in creating institutional bases in five countries, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Called the Environmental Assessment Associations, these institutions provided a platform to Impact Assessment professionals in exchanging views for promoting an effective use of EIA in project planning. Meetings, seminars, training programmes and conferences were organised at national and South Asian levels, and a new sense of professional distinction was given to the EIA Practitioners. Technical advice for all these activities was provided by the Netherlands Commission for Environment Assessment. Unfortunately, the donor funding exhausted before these Associations could become self-sustaining. The EIA situation began to show mixed trends. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (earlier called 17EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1173. NWFP) and Punjab,EIA processing by the respective EPAs was generally good. This, however, was not so common for EIA Reports submitted to the EPAs in other provinces. It must have been a re-examination of at least some of the success stories from the Regional EA Programme that encouraged the Netherlands’ Government in supporting a big programme focused on Pakistan. This happened because Pakistan presented a strong case, riding on four strong institutional pillars in the country; The Planning Commission of Pakistan, The Environment Wing of the Ministry of Climate Change, The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency and IUCN. Called the National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP), it picked up some of the threads from the previous Regional EA Programme, and added the new dimension of introducing Strategic Environment Assessment in the formulation of Policies, Plans and Programmes1 . 2.5 Devolution of Environmental Matters to Provinces and Outlook Just when NIAP was about to take off the ground, it received a strong jolt by the dissolution of the Ministry of Environment in 2010. This dissolution came as an aftermath of the 18th Amendment in Pakistan’s Constitution which devolved the subject of Environment to the Provinces. A chaotic situation prevailed for quite a while as the Pakistan EPA drifted, rudderless, with its staff hoping to land in a suitable ministry. For a while it was attached to the Islamabad Capital Development Division. Then it went to the Ministry of Disaster Management. This ministry was renamed in 2013 as the Ministry of Climate Change. Until there is more clarity on the institutional functions and relations, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1977 continues to prevail. Under this Act, The Pakistan EPA continues to have a coordinating and course setting role for the Provincial EPAs. What will happen after that depends largely on the degree of success achieved by NIAP in its efforts to streamline procedures and strengthen institutions. Over the years, civil society in Pakistan has undisputedly accepted EIA as the tool for safeguarding the environment in planning any developmental project. Now, all developmental agencies of the government faithfully arrange EIA for their proposed large developmental projects as an integral part of the planning process. Similarly, the proponents of all large projects in the private sector that come under Schedule-II of the Pak-EPA Regulations arrange EIA Reports for EPA approval. It is not uncommon to hear the need for proper EIA echoed if an environmental concern related to any proposed project catches the attention of the civil society organisations or the media. This public realisation is a big achievement of the struggle that the civil society and the media embarked on since the appearance of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring or, perhaps, Lord Macaulay’s Penal Code. Today, in spite of the clouds of uncertainty surrounding the Environmental Protection Act and the institutions designated for its implementation, the EIA is most certainly here to stay! 18 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 1 NB: Details of NIAP mandate and activities are covered in another chapter.
- 1174. 19EIA Handbook forPakistan EIA was introduced in Pakistan under the environmental law in 1997, and more detailed regulations have been put in place since then. However, effective implementation remains an issue. There are multiple gaps in the law, e.g. the process of EIA is not initiated at the planning stage but much later at the construction stage. The Regulations provide a list of projects, which require IEE/EIA, but this list is incomplete and needs to be technically reviewed. Furthermore, the institutional structure is also very weak, with a limited number of personnel available to review and monitor EIAs with no adequate job qualification. Public participation is only restricted to reviewing of an EIA, with no public participation happening at screening, scoping or monitoring stages. The law relies strongly on self-monitoring and there is no adequate structure for regular monitoring, hence monitoring and enforcement are both weak. 3.1 Background As a follow-up of the Stockholm Declaration of 1972, Pakistan established the Ministry of Environment (MoE) in 1975. It proposed and drafted the first consolidated Federal Environmental Law, i.e. the Pakistan Environment Protection Ordinance, in 1983 (the “1983 Ordinance”), which was applicable to all provinces of Pakistan. Environmental Assessment was introduced in Pakistan as a legal requirement for the first time in 1983 through this Ordinance. Section 8 of the 1983 Ordinance required from every proponent of a project that was likely to adversely affect the environment to file a detailed environment impact statement, with support of the environmental protection agency at the time of planning the project. However, the Ordinance did not define or explain the process of an environment impact assessment. The reporting requirements under § 8 of the 1983 Ordinance were applicable to such industrial activities, discharges of air pollutants and waste, public waters and on such persons and areas as may be prescribed through regulations to be made under the 1983 Ordinance. Section 12 of the 1983 Ordinance also stipulated fines and imprisonment for non-compliance. However, there were no rules or regulations made under the 1983 Ordinance (Ministry of Environment, LG and RD). In 1997, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, which had been formed under the 1983 Ordinance, in 3 EIA: Legal Requirements and Guidelines – A Critique By Saima A. Khawaja and NJ Nabeela
- 1175. consultation with otherkey stakeholders prepared a comprehensive package of procedures and guidelines for environmental assessment, which included general and sectoral guidelines (See: Box-5, below). It was intended that these guidelines may be read as a whole and reliance be placed on both, the general guidelines and sectoral guidelines for compliance (Ministry of Environment). Along with these Federal Guidelines that are applicable to all the provinces, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) and Balochistan subsequently developed supplementary guidelines for other sectors (See: Box-5, below). The 1983 Ordinance was never strictly adhered to and the concept of screening through environmental assessment was never practiced at any level by the authorities until 1994 (Nadeem and Hameed 2006, Shah 2013). In 1997, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (the “Federal Act”) replaced the 1983 Ordinance. Once again, it was a Federal law, applicable in all provinces. In its §s 2 (xi) and (xxiv), the Federal Act defined for the first time the concepts of “Environmental Impact Assessment” (“EIA”) and “Initial Environmental Examination” (“IEE”). It also provided a stepwise process of conducting IEEs and EIAs, which was lacking in the 1983 Ordinance and through § 12 of the Federal Act, the concept of public hearing was made an essential part of the reviewing process. In 2000, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Review of IEE and EIA) Regulations (“Regulations 2000”) were notified for providing detailed steps for the review process and project inspection and monitoring of IEE and EIA as provided by the Federal Act. In 2010, through the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1973, environment became a purely provincial subject, empowering each province to make its own law. In 2012, Punjab adopted the Federal Act with minor amendments, calling it The Punjab Environmental Protection Act, 1997 (the “Punjab Act”). In early 2013, Balochistan also framed its own law—The Balochistan Environmental Protection Act, 2012 (the “Balochistan Act”). The Balochistan Act, while primarily built upon the Federal Act, had some substantial additions and improvements in it over and above the Federal Act. As per the information given by the respective EPA, KP is in the process of framing its own law and the Federal Act continues to be applicable to this province in the interim. Sindh promulgated the Sindh Environment Protection Act in March 2014. In addition to the Acts, at present all the provinces are following the Regulations 2000 and the existing Federal Guidelines. 3.2 Scope of an EIA Definition of EIA: Box 3.1 below states the definitions of EIA and IEE given under the Federal Act. The Punjab and Balochistan Acts have adopted the same definitions. 20 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 3.1: Section 2 (xi) and (xxiv) respectively of the Pakistan Environment Protection Act, 1997 Environmental Impact Assessment means an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of preventive, mitigatory and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed.
- 1176. The definition ofEIA under the Federal Act provides for the different components/heads of an EIA (scoping), but does not actually explain the purpose of this exercise. It fails to explain when and where the tool is required and what role it is desired to play. Without being clear on the purpose of the tool, it is difficult to prepare a meaningful EIA. On the other hand, the definition of IEE does state where these tools are actually applicable. The definition states that an IEE is undertaken prior to a project to assess if any adverse environment effects might result because of the project and in that case an EIA may be required. The Department of Environment, UK (1989) defined EIA in a comprehensive manner as “a technique and a process by which information about environmental effects of a project is collected, both by the developer and from other sources, and taken into account by the planning authority in forming the judgment on whether the development should proceed”. This definition distinctly describes the purpose of EIA, stating that it is a tool to assist the planning authority to decide on whether a development should be undertaken or not. The definition of EIA in Pakistan does not provide where and who will use the resulting report. Projects Requiring an EIA (Screening) Section 12 of the Federal and Punjab Acts and § 15 of the Balochistan Act require filing of an EIA for projects that are likely to cause adverse environmental effects. The term “adverse environmental effect” means impairment of, or damage to, the environment and includes: (a) impairment of, or damage to, human health and safety or to biodiversity or property; (b) pollution; and (c) any adverse environmental effect as may be specified in the regulations (§ 2 (i)). Primarily, the statutes require Rules/Regulations to provide for lists of projects requiring an IEE/EIA. As per the requirement of the Statutes, the Regulations 2000 (Regulation 3 and 4, Schedule I and II) list categories of projects requiring either IEE or EIA, which are given below (See:Box 3.2). However, the Balochistan Act has included a few categories of projects within the Act that require an EIA/IEE along with a list under the Regulations 2000. It states that no concession for any developmental activities shall be awarded to any developer without the approval of EPA. Licenses for mining, quarrying and crushing are not be granted without an IEE or an EIA, whichever may be applicable. Section 15 of the Balochistan Act requires approvals from the Balochistan EPA prior to setting up of cellular base transceiver stations (BTS) as well as specific approvals from the relevant building authorities prior to any construction or operation. 21EIA Handbook for Pakistan Initial environmental examination means a preliminary environmental review of the reasonably foreseeable qualitative and quantitative impacts on the environment of a proposed project to determine whether it is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect for requiring preparation of an environmental impact assessment.
- 1177. 22 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan Box 3.2: The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Review of IEE and EIA) Regulations, 2000, Schedule Iand II Schedule I Requiring IEE- Regulation 3 A. Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries Poultry, livestock, stud and fish farms with total cost more than Rs.10 million. Projects involving repacking, formulation or warehousing of agricultural products B. Energy Hydroelectric power generation less than 50 MW. Thermal power generation less than 200 KW. Transmission lines less than 11 KV, and large distribution projects. Oil and gas transmission systems. Oil and gas extraction projects, including exploration, production, gathering systems, separation and storage. Waste-to-energy generation projects. C. Manufacturing and processing Ceramics and glass units with total cost more than Rs.50 million. Food processing industries including sugar mills, beverages, milk and dairy products, with total cost less than Rs.100 million. Man-made fibres and resin projects with total cost less than Rs.100 million. Manufacturing of apparel, including dyeing and printing, with total cost more than Rs.25 million. Wood products with total cost more than Rs.25 million D. Mining and mineral processing Commercial extraction of sand, gravel, lime- stone, clay, sulphur and other minerals not included in Schedule II with total cost less than Rs.100 million. Crushing, grinding and separation processes. Smelting plants with total cost less than Rs.50 million. Schedule II Requiring EIA-Regulation 4 ____ A. Energy Hydroelectric power generation over 50 MW. Thermal power generation over 200 MW. Transmission lines (11 KV and above) and grid stations. Nuclear power plants. Petroleum refineries. B. Manufacturing and processing Cement plants. Chemicals projects. Fertilizer plants. Food processing industries including sugar mills, beverages, milk and dairy products, with total cost of Rs.100 million and above. Industrial estates (including export processing zones). Man-made fibres and resin projects with total cost of Rs.100 million and above. Pesticides (manufacture or formulation). Petrochemicals complexes. Synthetic resins, plastics and man-made fibres, paper and paperboard, paper pulping, plastic products, textiles (except apparel), printing and publishing, paints and dyes, oils and fats and vegetable ghee projects, with total cost more than Rs.10 million. Tanning and leather finishing projects. C. Mining and mineral processing Mining and processing of coal, gold, copper, sulphur and precious stones. Mining and processing of major non-ferrous metals, iron and steel rolling. Smelting plants with total cost of Rs.50 million and above.
- 1178. 23EIA Handbook forPakistan E. Transport Federal or Provincial highways (except maintenance, rebuilding or reconstruction of existing metalled roads) with total cost less than Rs.50 million. Ports and harbour development for ships less than 500 gross tons. F. Water management, dams, irrigation and flood protection Dams and reservoirs with storage volume less than 50 million cubic meters of surface area less than 8 square kilometres. Irrigation and drainage projects serving less than 15,000 hectares. Small-scale irrigation systems with total cost less than Rs.50 million. G. Water supply and treatment Water supply schemes and treatment plants with total cost less than Rs.25 million. H. Waste disposal Waste disposal facility for domestic or industrial wastes, with annual capacity of less than 10,000 cubic meters. I. Urban development and tourism Housing schemes; Public facilities with significant off-site impacts (e.g. hospital wastes). Urban development projects. ______ J. Other projects Any other project for which filing of an IEE is required by the Federal Agency under sub- regulation (2) of Regulation 5. D. Transport Airports. Federal or Provincial highways or major roads (except maintenance, rebuilding or reconstruction of existing roads) with total cost of Rs.50 million and above. Ports and harbour development for ships of 500 gross tons and above. Railway works. E. Water management, dams, irrigation and flood protection Dams and reservoirs with storage volume of 50 million cubic meters and above or surface area of 8 square kilometres and above. Irrigation and drainage projects serving 15,000 hectares and above. F. Water supply and treatment Water supply schemes and treatment plants with total cost of Rs.25 million and above. G. Waste Disposal Waste disposal and/or storage of hazardous or toxic wastes (including landfill sites, incineration of hospital toxic waste). Waste disposal facilities for domestic or industrial wastes, with annual capacity of more than 10,000 cubic meters . H. Urban development and tourism Land use studies and urban plans (large cities) Large-scale tourism development projects with total cost of more than Rs.50 million. I. Environmentally Sensitive Areas All projects situated in env. sensitive areas. J. Other projects Any other project for which filing of an EIA is required by the Federal Agency under sub- regulation (2) of Regulation 5. Any other project likely to cause an adverse environmental effect.
- 1179. Furthermore, the relevantagency may direct an applicant to file an IEE/EIA even if it does not fall under either of the schedules, where it considers that a project is adversely affecting the environment, on the written recommendations of Environmental Assessment Advisory Committee constituted under the law (Regulation 5). In addition, the courts have held that construction of a multi-storied residential building did not require EIA (PLD 2007 Kar 498) while conversion of land from residential to commercial did require an EIA (2010 YLR 2624 Kar). The present categorisation needs a thorough technical review. Problems include missing project types, projects in the wrong category and an incorrect threshold between IEE and EIA. For example, renewable energy (solar, wind, etc.), large buildings, and hospitals are not included in any list. Some projects in Schedule I (IEE) can at times have significant impacts because of their size or other reasons and therefore need reviewing for re-classification. Expert views of an Environment and Energy Consultant (Mr. Hidayat Hassan of Hagler Bailley (Pvt.) Ltd.; personal communication) suggest that, for example, cross-country oil and gas pipelines can have significant impacts but are covered by an IEE whereas, they should be covered by an EIA. Similarly, coal-fired power plants even if smaller than 200 MW merit an EIA. This Expert also pointed out that for some types of projects the total project cost is used to determine the size of the EIA. With inflation, the thresholds have changed and in many cases the existing division is meaningless. For example, highways with total cost of Rs. 50 million or less require an IEE. No highway, however small, can be constructed in Rs. 50 million. Modifications to existing projects are often undertaken. The regulations and guidelines do not provide any directions on how to handle environmental assessment of these types of projects. Sometimes, projects change during the course of implementation. Again, the regulations and guidelines are silent on change management. Moreover, the law is silent with regard to cumulative or clustered growth, i.e. setting up of a number of industrial units in close proximity. The law only envisages an EIA of each unit, but does not analyse or calculate the cumulative effect, which could be disastrous in certain cases. The Lahore Tribunal in the Lahore Canal Road case pointed out this issue and observed that the EIA presented was not sufficient and instead of an EIA being prepared for small portions of the road, it should have been done for the entire canal road to provide the correct impact (2008 CLD 1185). This issue is extremely critical in Pakistan as there are no ambient standards for air, water, etc. The Ministry of Environment through the Federal Environmental Protection Agency has laid down the “National Environmental Quality Standards”, but these can only be truly effective if ambient standards are in place to check the growth of pollution in an area—something which is lacking in the standards at the moment. Preparation of an EIA and IEE The statutes (§ 12 of Federal and Punjab Act and § 15 of the Balochistan Act) stipulate that no proponent of a project shall commence any construction or operation unless it has filed with the relevant agency an IEE and in case a project is likely to cause an adverse environmental effect, an EIA. The requirement is both, for public as well as private proponent’s projects. 24 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1180. The present definitionof “Project” is: Although the definition of “project” includes plans and schemes, one very serious problem with the law is the timing of the carrying out an IEE/EIA. Under the Federal (§ 12) as well as Provincial laws (§ 12 of Punjab Act, § 15 of Balochistan Act ) the proponent of a project is required to submit the environmental assessment reports only very late in the scheme of things, i.e. prior to commencing of construction or operation of a project and not at the planning stage. Furthermore, the courts have mostly taken a very lenient stance even at the stage of construction and construction is rarely stopped (2006 SCMR 1202); usually it is allowed to continue (2008 SCMR 468 and 2009 CLD 682 Kar.) while also requiring the proponent to submit the EIA. The law does not provide any criteria, benchmarks or standards for how or who is qualified to prepare IEEs and EIAs and what should be the required content for IEE and EIA reports. However, the definition of EIA does list certain components that are required in an EIA. Furthermore, Regulations 2000 (Regulation 6) state that “The Federal Agency may issue guidelines for preparation of an IEE or an EIA…”, However, the Regulations 2000 dilute the enforceability of the guidelines by providing “Where guidelines have been issued ….an IEE or EIA shall be prepared, to the extent practicable, in accordance therewith and the proponent shall justify in the IEE or EIA any departure there from.” Hence, the proponent has the discretion to depart from the guidelines. The Federal Government prepared guidelines for the Preparation and Review of Environmental Reports in 1997. The scope of these guidelines is confined to those aspects of environmental report preparation that are general in nature and for the sector specific guidelines, the federal and provincial governments prepared many sectoral guidelines (details are given below in Box3.5). The guidelines for the Preparation and Review of Environmental Reports provide details of the contents that are to be included in IEE/EIA reports (Box 3.4) as well as the drafting style of the report. The guidelines require the proponents to prepare a “non-technical executive summary” of the report, realizing that this is the part of the report that most people will read. However, they fail to define who is competent to prepare the IEE/EIA. For this very reason, even though the guidelines are quite comprehensive, the end result might not be very effective due to the incompetency of the person making the report (Faisal, 2006). Examination of most of the EIAs (EIA of remodelling of Canal Bank Road (Dharampura underpass to Canal View Bridge) (2007); EIA of Bus Rapid Transit System 25EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 3.3: Section 2 (xxxv) of Federal Act and Punjab Act and Section 2 (ss) of Balochistan Act. “….any activity, plan, scheme, proposal or undertaking involving any change in the environment and includes– (a) construction by use of buildings or other works; (b) construction or use of roads or other transport systems; (c) construction or operation of factories or other installations: (d) mineral prospecting, mining, quarrying, stone-crushing, drilling and the like:(e) any change of land use or water use; and (f) alteration, expansion, repair, decommissioning or abandonment of existing buildings or other works, roads or other transport systems, factories or other installations.”
- 1181. in Lahore alongFerozepur Road (2012)) clearly establishes that the exercise is taken as a mere formality, and the purpose for taking up this exercise is not achieved (Faisal, 2006). For example, considering all alternatives at the planning stage is one of the core requirements provided in the guidelines. However, alternatives considered in almost all the EIAs are meaningless, taking a narrow view (Faisal, 2006) and without considering the purpose of the project and its objectives (§ 4 ) “alternatives” in EIA of remodelling of Canal Bank Road (Dharampura underpass to Canal View Bridge) (2007); § 3.4 “project alternatives’ in EIA of Bus Rapid Transit System in Lahore along Ferozepur Road (2012). The issue persists and becomes more serious due to weaknesses at the monitoring stage (discussed below). Apart from the general guidelines for preparing IEE/EIA reports, the Federal Government, KP and Balochistan have also developed sectoral guidelines for preparing EIA reports (See:Box 3.5). Sectoral guidelines by the Federal Government are applicable to all provinces. These guidelines lay down sector wise requirements for preparing environment assessment reports. 26 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 3.4: Contents of the EIA report Description of the project - type and objectives; location; cost and magnitude; schedule for implementation; rest and recreation plans; government approvals. Alternatives considered - demand alternatives; activity alternatives; location alternatives; process alternatives; input alternatives. Description of the environment - physical and ecological resources; human and economic development; quality of life values. Potential environment impacts - baseline data collection to understand impacts on- biophysical impacts; social impacts; health impacts; economic impacts and impact analyses and predictions. Mitigating measures - purpose of mitigation measures; ways of achieving mitigation. Environment Management Plan (EMP) - schedule for implementing mitigation measures; list of persons responsible for mitigation; monitoring programme; reporting and reviewing procedure; training needs. Conclusion - IEE report must also include a conclusion whether environmental impacts exist requiring an EIA. Non-technical executive summary - title and location of the proposal; name of the proponent; name of organisation preparing the environment report; brief outline of the proposal; major impacts; mitigation measures; proposed monitoring. Appendices - glossary; abbreviations; TORs; summary of management of environmental study process including public involvement and list of persons and agencies consulted; sources of data and information; details of members carrying out the study. Box 3.5: List of sectoral guidelines Federal Guidelines Environmentally Sensitive and Critical Areas Major Thermal Power Stations Major Chemical and Manufacturing Plants Housing States and New Town Development Industrial States Major Roads Sewage Schemes
- 1182. Preparation of anEIA is entirely at the proponents’ discretion with some recommendations through the various guidelines stated above. However, there is leverage provided under the Regulations 2000 to bypass some of the guideline requirements. The Regulations 2000 (Regulation 6) only state that where guidelines have been issued, an IEE or EIA shall be prepared, to the extent practicable in accordance to those guidelines (Nadeem and Hameed 2006), i.e. the proponent can in fact bypass these requirements. As stated above, lack of clarity on how EIA and IEE are to be prepared is a major lacuna in the law. The law does not specify who has to prepare the EIA or IEE, how it is to be prepared, within what timelines it is to be prepared and who the necessary stakeholders are in its preparation process. There is no public participation at this stage for framing of issues to be dealt with in the EIA. Furthermore, operating merely through non-binding guidelines is inefficient and is unlikely to achieve much. A practical analysis of the situation reaffirms this presumption that practically EIAs do not follow the parameters provided in various guidelines. 27EIA Handbook for Pakistan Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Wind Power Projects Using Tyre Derived Fuel (TDF) in cement industry Using Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in cement industry KP Guidelines Brick kiln units Construction/expansion of bus terminals Carpet manufacturing units Canal cleaning Flour mills Forest harvesting operations Forest road construction Housing schemes Marble units Petrol and CNG stations Poultry farms Rural schools and basic health units Sanitation schemes Sound plantation Stone crushing units Tourist facilities in ecologically sensitive areas Tube-well construction for agriculture Urban areas road construction Water courses construction and lining Water reservoirs in arid zones Water supply schemes Solid waste management Balochistan Guidelines Dairy farms and slaughter houses
- 1183. What is alsomissing from the law is any punishment or penalty for non-compliance with these guidelines. It is impossible to ensure compliance with rules/regulations/guidelines for the failure to meet which the law does not provide a penalty for. Process of an EIA 3.3 Administrative Institutional Structure Review and Approval Authority for IEE/EIA As per law, the relevant body that is to review the EIA is the Government Agency (GA). The GA in turn is defined as the division, department, attached department, bureau, section, commission, board office or the unit of the federal or provincial government; a development or local authority or a company controlled or established by government; Provincial Environmental Agency or any other body (§ 2 (xvii)). In practice before devolution of the environment to provinces, Provincial EPAs were entrusted to review EIAs for projects in provinces and projects shared by more than one province or in federal areas were reviewed by the federal EPA. The Balochistan Act has made substantial amendments in this structure and has further devolved the power at district/regional level and now there can be district agencies along with a provincial EPA (§ 8). The Director General (DG) (Deputy Director in case of Balochistan) (§ 8) of EPA, appointed by the relevant Federal or Provincial Government, heads the EPAs and all powers, including reviewing of IEE/EIAs vest with the DG/ Deputy Director appointed. The DG/Deputy Director has the power to delegate his powers to other personnel within the EPA on a case-to-case basis. In practice, each province has its own structure that is examining the IEE/EIAs submitted to the EPA. For example, as per the information received from the Punjab EPA, in Punjab there is a Director for EIA along with a Deputy Director and two Assistant Directors who are assigned to review the reports. 28 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 3.5-A: Stepwise EIA process Under the present laws the process of environmental assessment starts with the proponent filing either an IEE or EIA as the case may be, before construction or operation of a project (§ 12 of the Federal and Punjab Act and § 15 of the Balochistan Act). In case of an IEE the relevant agency after reviewing/screening of the report shall decide on whether any further investigation is required in the form of EIA. In case an EIA is required, the proponent is directed to submit the same before construction of the project. On receiving the EIA, the government agency scrutinises the documents and satisfaction of completeness of documents (Regulation 9). The government agency then gives notice of the public hearing (Regulation 10). At this stage the report may also be sent to the honourary advisory committee if constituted (Regulation 10). Once comments from both, the public hearing and advisory committee are received, the government agency will review the report in the light of the comments and make its final decision (Regulation 10). In case of accepting the EIA and allowing construction, specific conditions enumerated in the Environmental Master Plan approved under the EIA needs to be taken into account. Otherwise, commencement of the project could be rejected (Regulations 13 and 14). Where the reviewing body fails to give its decision within a period of four months the EIA will be “deemed to be approved” (Regulation 15).
- 1184. 29EIA Handbook forPakistan Figure 3.1: EIA process in Pakistan Planning & Project Preparing IEE No EIA Required EIA Required Preliminary Scrutiny of Documents Advisory Committee/ Committee of Experts Public Hearing Review Decision Construction/ Operation of Project Preparing EIA
- 1185. The Law onlyenvisages the post of DG/Deputy Director and all other appointments are to be made on the basis of need and for enforcement and implementation of the law. This is a serious institutional gap in the law as it fails to provide a substantial institutional structure. The DG/Deputy Director is the sole authority empowered to handle all environmental issues stipulated under the law, including the review of IEEs/EIAs. The law neither specifies the qualifications of the DG/Deputy Director empowered to review technical matters (Faisal), nor does it provide for any tenure of the DG. It only envisages hiring of additional administrative, technical and legal staff on the recommendation of the relevant government and even for such hiring, no parameters are provided (§s 5 and 8 of statutes). Staff at the EPAs do not appear to be tenured either, since there is no process for the hiring of staff. If we look at the example of the province of Punjab, which is the most populous province, housing 55% of the total population of the country on a land area of 205,344 km2 , there are only 4 persons reviewing IEEs/EIAs as mentioned above and even these four are not exclusively dealing with IEEs/EIAs. As per the information received from the Punjab EPA, they are also responsible for other matters. There is no job description for any employee creating lack of clarity regarding each job, which leads to inefficiencies. The data provided by the Punjab EPA shows that a large number of IEEs and EIAs are filed each year and looking at this number, one can safely assume that it is impossible to critically analyse all the necessary documents by the existing staff of four (See:Box 6). In spite of being the most populous province leading to a large number of projects requiring EIAs, Punjab has kept the power centralized as compared to Balochistan where the provincial law has devolved the powers to the regional/district levels (§ 8 of Balochistan Act). Furthermore the data below show that, in the past 5 years, less than 1% of EIAs were rejected, also establishing the same contention i.e. the review process is a mere formality. The information gathered for other provinces show similar problems. The number of EIAs is very small when compared to the size and development programmes taking place in each province. As is the case in Punjab, there are very few EIAs that are being rejected, establishing that EIA review is a mere formality and critical review and scrutiny is missing. 30 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 3.6: EIAs/IEEs submitted each year before Punjab Environmental Agency Sr. # Year EIAs Approved Rejected IEEs Approved Rejected (01 January to 31 December) 1 2012 106 29 — 730 348 — (till Sept.) 2 2011 94 61 01 842 590 02 3 2010 73 51 — 565 437 15 4 2009 63 50 02 189 163 — 5 2008 78 62 — 176 147 01
- 1186. 3.4 Committees The Regulations2000 envisage various committees that the reviewing body may consult while reviewing an IEE or EIA (Regulation 11). The first such committee is the “Committee of Experts” that the DG may constitute for facilitating the reviewing body and in case any such committee is constituted, the reviewing body shall consult it. The Federal and Provincial Governments are also supposed to establish various “Sectoral Advisory Committees” consisting of eminent experts, educationists and NGOs for assisting the relevant EPAs (Regulations 5 and 8). The Regulations 2000 state that if such advisory committees are constituted, the reviewing body may also solicit their views while making decisions on IEE/EIAs (Regulation 11). Another committee provided by the Regulations 2000 is the Inspection Committee that the DG may constitute to inspect the site of the project. The Regulations 2000 further state that the review of an IEE/EIA shall be based on, among other things, views of the above-mentioned committees (Regulation 11). Finally, the Regulations 2000 state that the DG shall constitute an Environmental Assessment Advisory Committee for the purposes of rendering advice on all aspects of environmental assessment, including guidelines, procedures and categorization of projects. The Regulations 2000 also provide the constitution of this particular committee—i.e. the DG Federal EPA; one member from each provincial EPA; representatives of Federal Planning Commission and Provincial Planning and Development Departments; and, representatives of the industry, NGOs as well as legal and other experts (Regulation 23). Although there are a number of committees provided in the law, it is not a mandatory requirement to engage such committees (Nadeem and Hameed, 2006). Furthermore, necessary details such as how these committees are to be constituted, the qualifications of committee members, their tenure, remuneration and other aspects are missing. This gap renders the whole concept of “engaging with experts” for various aspects of an IEE/EIA meaningless. The law fails to institutionalise the idea of expert committees and this weakness is reflected in practice. The Deputy Director EIA at the Punjab EPA stated that, depending upon the complexity of an EIA, the EPA may decide to constitute a committee of experts. However, it is not a mandatory body for EIA review. It is also pointed out that generally speaking when an EPA has appointed or engaged any experts, it failed to get their meaningful assistance because of various reasons primarily because the EPA has limited resources and there is no allocation of funds for hiring experts, hence, there are few incentives for independent experts to facilitate the EPA (Faisal, 2006). Monitoring After approval of an EIA and before commencing operation of the project, the proponent has to inform the Provincial EPA that all conditions of approval have been complied with 31EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1187. and submit itsEnvironmental Management Plan (EMP), indicating mitigating measures to be taken along with compliance documents (Regulation 14). At this point the federal agency may carry out such inspection of the site and seek such additional information as it may deem fit (Regulation 14). On completion of construction of the project, the proponent shall submit another report of completion with the Provincial EPA and subsequently submit annual reports regarding operational performance of the project with reference to the conditions of approval and maintenance and mitigating measures adopted by the project (Regulation 19). The Provincial EPA is empowered to cancel approval on the basis of information regarding non-compliance received from any source or through inspection of the site and project when it is of the opinion that the conditions undertaken in EIA are not being met, after giving a fair opportunity to the proponent to justify why its approval should not be cancelled (Regulation 20). 32 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 3.2: Institutional Monitoring Structure Distirct Cordination Officer (DCO) District Officer (Environment) Deputy District Officer (DDO) (Environment) Inspectors Field Assistants Lahore Seikhpura Gujranwala Faisalabad Sialkot Multan Kasur Executive District Officer (EDO) (Municipal Services)/Executive District Officer (Works & Services)
- 1188. The Provincial EPAmay carry out inspection of the site and the plan prior to, during construction and operation phase through duly authorised personnel (Regulation 18) and shall be entitled to enter and inspect the project site, factory etc. The proponent shall ensure full co-operation at site to facilitate the inspection (Regulation 18). The proponents are required to monitor their environmental performance and keep an environmental log as per the conditions accorded in the Environmental Approval. Furthermore, in practice the District wise setup operating under the EPA is required to undertake field monitoring. As per the representatives of the Punjab EPA, the responsibility for this lies with the District Officer Environment (DOE) to constitute and supervise a monitoring team. 3.5 Monitoring Structure The law places heavy emphasis on project proponents to keep the EPAs informed regarding compliance with the conditions provided in the EIA. The proponent is to report to the EPA and to provide accurate information. What should be the parameters, nature, format and extent of these reports is not specified in the law. Furthermore, the law does not provide for strict and substantial timelines during the construction period and annual reports are only required from the proponents after completion of the project. There is no specific penalty for not complying with the reporting requirements under the law. An Environmental Protection Order (EPO) may be issued, but in practice it is rarely done. Another serious gap in the law is the lack of institutional structure and mechanism for post approval monitoring. The law, as stated above, primarily relies on self-reporting of the proponent and does not specify who, under the Provincial EPA, is empowered to inspect, what should be its process and parameters. In a way, the entire concept of monitoring is missing from the law. Furthermore, there is no compulsion on the proponent to report and to implement the conditions committed to under EIA approval. Without a strong monitoring regime, the whole EIA process becomes questionable. As stated by the Punjab EPA, in practice, local government assists it, however, it is an ad hoc arrangement without any laid down rules and procedures. Public Participation The law recognizes public participation at the time of review of an EIA (§s 12 and 15 of the Federal/Punjab Act and Balochistan Act respectively read with Regulation 10 of the Regulations.). On receiving a completed EIA report, the provincial agency issues a confirmation of completion to the proponent and gives a public notice in Urdu and English local newspapers, giving details regarding type of project, its exact location, the name and address of the proponent, and giving at least a 30 day notice of EIA review. The public participation elements of the IEE/EIA rules could be strengthened considerably. There are several issues concerning public participation, which can be divided into three sections: screening, scoping; response to comments; and minimum binding standards. 33EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1189. Screening and Scoping Accordingto Regulation 10 of the Regulations 2000, public participation in the EIA process does not begin until an EIA report is submitted to the provincial agency. There are two issues that arise with this provision. Firstly, the rules completely eliminate public participation in the preparation and review of IEEs (Screening) and secondly, the public has no notice of the proposed activity or project, and no opportunity to participate and express their views, until after the EIA is prepared (Scoping) (Faisal, 2006). Engaging the public at this point is much too late in the process. As stated above there is no public involvement at IEE level (screening) and the law simply provides a list of projects requiring IEE and EIA as mentioned above bypassing any public participation. Furthermore, public involvement at the beginning of the EIA process is commonly known as “scoping.” This is a key stage for informing the public about a proposed activity and framing issues that will be discussed in the environmental report. This step is often combined with the process for determining the terms of reference for the report. As described by Fischer and Nadeem (2013, 71-72) “Scoping is the EIA stage at which issues, impacts and preliminary alternatives are determined that should be addressed at subsequent stages. It directly follows the screening stage and is a systematic exercise that establishes the boundaries and Terms of Reference (ToR) for the EIA. A quality scoping study reduces the risk of including inappropriate components or excluding components which should be addressed. It helps to avoid the problem of unfocused, voluminous reports and the attendant delay while their deficiencies are addressed and corrected. Scoping helps to make sure that resources are targeted on collecting the information necessary for decision-making and that they are not wasted on undertaking excessive analysis.” Scoping is entirely absent from the process of IEE and EIA under the present laws, significantly affecting the quality of IEEs and EIAs. A good example of a scoping process is contained in §s 27 and 28 of South Africa’s EIA regulations. In the said regime, after submitting an application for development permission or other activity that requires preparation of an EIA, the EIA consultant must conduct a public participation process to solicit comments concerning: 1) General issues about the proposed activity; 2) Potential environmental impacts of the proposed activity; and 3) Possible alternatives to the proposed activity that are feasible and reasonable. The EIA consultant must prepare a “scoping report” which, among other things, summarizes the issues raised during scoping, and provides details about the public participation process and the comments received. Members of the public who participated in the scoping process are entitled to review and comment on the scoping report before it is submitted to the government authority. The scoping report is then used to identify issues that will be evaluated in the EIA report. 34 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1190. Response to Comments Regulations2000 (Regulation 10) state that all comments received by the Government Agency shall be “collated, tabulated and duly considered” before rendering a decision. However, the Regulations 2000 do not provide any procedure or process as to how these are to be tabulated, nor is there any requirement for government agencies to provide written comments. Minimum, Binding Standards for Public Participation The Regulations 2000 briefly discuss public participation and primarily address how notice of the availability of an EIA is to be published. The Regulations 2000 do not provide any uniform or binding standards governing the public participation process, nor does the Regulations 2000 ensure that interested and affected individuals and organisations are effectively notified of proposed activities and afforded ample opportunity to become involved in the decision-making process. The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, through its website, has published a set of guidelines for public participation which provide minimum requirements but are not binding under the law. The current system gives project proponents and government authorities too much discretion, and poses a risk that the public will be arbitrarily shut out of important and/or controversial decisions. Justice and Environment, a network of European Environmental Law Organisations, has published a “Good Examples of EIA and SEA Regulation and Practice in Five European Union Countries, 2008”, § 1.4 whereof providing a good outline of best practices in public participation. Decision Currently, the Regulations 2000 do not require the Provincial Authority to inform the public of its final decision concerning a proposed project or activity. The decision is communicated solely to the project proponent (Regulation 12). 3.6 Enforcement Administrative Measures Under the law, Environmental Agencies have the power to impose an Environmental Protection Order (EPO) (§s 16 and 24 of the statutes) against violation of provisions of the Act, rules, regulations or of the conditions of licence, which are likely to cause, is causing or has caused an adverse environmental effect. After giving a project proponent an opportunity to be heard, the Provincial Agency may take measures to control the adverse environmental effects as follows: l immediate stoppage, prevention, lessening or controlling the discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission, or to minimise or remedy the adverse environmental effect; l installation, replacement or alteration of any equipment or thing to eliminate or control or abate on a permanent or temporary basis, such discharge, emission, disposal, handling, act or omission; l action to remove or otherwise dispose of the effluent, waste, air pollutant, noise, or hazardous substances; and 35EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1191. l action torestore the environment to the condition existing prior to such discharge, disposal, handling, act or omission, or as close to such condition as may be reasonable in the circumstances, to the satisfaction of the Provincial Agency. If the proponent fails to take action, as per the direction of the EPO, the provincial agency can do the same on its behalf and charge the person the cost of doing the same. EPOs are a potent deterrent available with the relevant agencies if applied efficiently. However, very few, if any, EPOs have been issued against violation of proper implementation of IEE/EIA (Deputy Director EIA, Punjab). The law further specifies action if the directions given under EPO are not followed. In this case the provincial agencies may file a case against the proponent before the Environmental Tribunal. In addition to an EPO, the provincial Agency also has the power to impose administrative penalties in the form of fines (§s 17 and 25) upon the responsible person for any omission or violation in implementing the provisions and conditions of IEE or EIA. To date penalty provisions have not been used, due to the lack of rules and procedures to impose them. However, in April 2013, the Punjab Government formulated the Punjab Environmental Protection (Administrative Penalty) Rules, 2013, but by May 2014, they were still to be implemented. Environmental Tribunals Non- compliance to file an IEE/EIA is an offence under the Federal Act punishable with a fine, which may extend to one million rupees and in case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine, which may extend to one hundred thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues (§ 17 of the Federal Law). Furthermore, second-time offenders may be imprisoned for a term that may extend to two years; their development (e.g. a factory) may be closed; machinery, equipment, vehicles, materials, substances, records and documents may be confiscated; orders to restore the environment may be given; and order to pay damages for any loss, bodily injury, damage to health and property may also be passed (§ 17). The Balochistan Act has adopted exactly the same provisions (§ 25). The Punjab Act has enhanced the fines from one million to five million and for continuing offence the fine is enhanced to five hundred thousand rupees for every day during which such contravention continues (§ 17) and the rest is the same as the Federal Act. The law also recognizes personal liability of directors, partners, managers, secretaries and other officers of a corporate body where non-compliance is done with their consent, or is attributed to any negligence on their part and assumes that the responsible person shall be deemed guilty of such non-compliance along with the corporate body and shall be punished accordingly (§s 18 and 26). In the same manner the heads or officers of government bodies shall be punished where non-compliance occurs with their consent, or is attributed to any negligence on their part (§s 1927). The Federal Act, Punjab Act and Balochistan Act all establish Environmental Tribunals and Environmental Magistrates to exclusively try offences under these Acts. Non- compliance to file an IEE/EIA is an offence exclusively triable by an Environmental 36 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1192. Tribunal (§s 21and 29). The Environmental Tribunal can take cognisance of an offence only on written complaint of an EPA or any other government agency or local council aggrieved person. The law does not provide for punishments that are true deterrents. For first-time offenders especially, only fines are imposed and anyone can carry on with the offence as long as nominal fines are being paid continuously. This is seriously problematic where bad projects are started without complying with the requirements of IEE/EIA, since once a project is completed there is no turning back unless the whole project is scrapped. Another serious issue is the expertise, understanding and capacity of the Tribunals. There is not a single case in which any of the tribunals have discussed and laid down a jurisprudential principal in any matter including matters relating to IEE and EIA. It is interesting to note that in some cases projects were set up and functional prior to the Acts or the Regulations but the factories are fined in some cases; in others ordered to prepare an EIA after years of construction (2011 CLD 1271 Kar and 2011 CLD1295). 3.7 Conclusions and Recommendations This chapter has demonstrated that the laws governing EIA regime are weak on multiple levels. However, the most central is an almost non-existent functioning institutional setup that leads to all other problems, including implementation complications. Constitution, expertise and human and financial resources of the EPAs are at the heart of the problem which leads to all other issues. Unfortunately, the recent provincial laws have failed to recognise and address this concern so far. Punjab, where most of the development projects are taking place, has adopted exactly the same structure as the 1997 Federal Act. An encouraging step in the right direction is the amendment in the Balochistan Act where EPAs are devolved to district level. However, the recently drafted provincial laws i.e. Punjab and Balochistan Acts fail to provide a comprehensive structure of the EPAs with clear-cut qualifications and responsibilities as far as the human resource is concerned. Furthermore, the EPAs are not given independence in raising funds for themselves and are still dependent on whatever is allocated to them. Any desire to improve the EIA mechanism in Pakistan cannot be achieved unless the overseeing body is qualified, competent, resourceful and financially and politically independent. Although there are other serious issues, this would be the first step in the right direction. To make the IEE/EIA process more meaningful and potent, it is essential to amend the law in the following areas: l The definition of EIA needs to be amended in the light of the more comprehensive international definitions in order to clearly specify the objectives and rationale for carrying out these exercises. l The existing Schedules need to be revised with the assistance of technical experts. In order to make the schedules more holistic, such revision must be done with regard to two parameters;- to include in the list of IEE/EIA all other technologies which may have adverse environmental impact; and to enhance monetary benchmarks to make the thresholds more meaningful. 37EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1193. l The regulationsshould provide for periodical revisions of schedules to meet the changes of time. l The Acts and Regulation 2000 need to recognise and separately deal with “cluster growths” to require proponents to provide assessment on cumulative effects of clusters instead of individual effects. l It is important to amend the Acts and Regulations to require proponents to submit IEE/EIA at the planning stage of a project instead of construction stage. l It is important that a list of approved consultants who are qualified with appropriate experience is made. The list should be included in a schedule attached with the Regulations 2002. All EIAs to be carried out by these approved consultants only. l The approved consultants should be made personally liable for any negligence or misinformation provided in the report. In case of any grave negligence or misconduct the consultant may be black-listed. l It is important to introduce a comprehensive institutional structure for reviewing and monitoring of IEEs/EIAs for better implementation of EIA at every stage. The reviewing body needs to have technical expertise/experience to be able to critically analyse EIAs and the monitoring body should have a detailed manual to inspect each detail according to the manual and to report in a more structured manner. Additionally, monitoring through third party auditing and public scrutiny must be included in the law. l The Regulations 2000 need to be amended and a proper structure for Committee of experts, and other committees for reviewing purposes must be provided, details such as their remuneration, qualification, hiring process, their working and decision- making process, etc. l The Acts and Regulations 2000 may be amended to make public participation mandatory at screening, scoping and reviewing stages of an IEE/EIA. l To make public participation more meaningful, the Regulations 2000 may be amended to provide a formal structure for public participation. Requiring a minimum quorum and at least representation of one NGO from development sector to be present. Moreover, the comments/decision of the reviewing body must respond to the comments/concerns raised by the Committees and the public. l For better enforcement of EIAs it is important to restructure Environmental Tribunals to bring them within the domain of the mainstream judicial system for better implementation. It is also important to train the judiciary, especially the Tribunal judges, in environmental laws with special focus on tools used for accessing environmental impacts for appropriate interpretation of the law. l For meaningful implementation of IEE/EIAs, it is important to promulgate ambient standards. Case Law: 2006 SCMR 1202 Sheri-CBE Versus Lahore Development Authority PLD 2007 Kar 498 Shamsul Arfin Versus Karachi Building Control Authority 2008 SCMR 468 Farooq Hamid Versus Lahore Development Authority 2008 CLD 1185 Sumaira Awan Versus Government of Pakistan 2009 CLD 682 (Kar.) Ms. Salma Iqbal Chundrigar Versus Federation of Pakistan 2010 YLR 2624 Nighat Jamal Versus Province of Punjab 2011 CLD 1271 Sindh Particle Board Mills Ltd. Versus EPA—Sindh 2011 CLD 1295 Lafarge Pakistan Cement Company Versus DG EPA 38 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1194. 39EIA Handbook forPakistan This chapter presents some of the results of the National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP) Pakistan assignment on the ‘Development of EIA curricula for tertiary level academic and public administrations’, focusing on baseline data collection exercises connected with two workshops which took place in Islamabad in September and November 2012. Based on these, tertiary level development needs were established. While some of the findings and suggestions from other professional authors are confirmed, there are some aspects emerging that are specific to Pakistan, in particular, with regard to the consideration of specific cultural aspects. The results of the surveys presented have led to the development of the EIA curriculum for higher education institutions in Pakistan (http://www.niap.pk/docs/Knowledge%20Repository/Reports/ Draft%20EIA%20Curriculum%20for%20Tertiary%20Level%20Institutions%20i n%20Pakistan.pdf) and this handbook. 4.1 Introduction In Pakistan, EIA teaching has taken place for over two decades and many of those involved in it have suggested that there is a need to reflect on experiences and practices in terms of strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and challenges. It is within this context that NIAP had been conducting a review of EIA teaching at tertiary level academic institutions in Pakistan. Based on a basic survey of those 74 institutions that are currently offering tertiary level degree programmes in Pakistan, 33 were found to teach EIA in various undergraduate or postgraduate courses, almost entirely within environmental science and engineering faculties and departments2 . Not all of the courses are fully dedicated to EIA, though, and none of the institutions is currently offering a specific EIA degree programme. 4 EIA Teaching at Tertiary Level Institutions in Pakistan – Baseline and Development Needs By Thomas B Fischer, Ahmad Saeed, Bobbi Schijf and Muhammad Irfan Khan 1 Internationally, whilst EIA teaching is also mostly happening in Science and Engineering related departments / faculties, (Sanchez and Morrison Saunders 2010; Fischer et al 2008), there is a significant share of social science related EIA education. In the EU, for example, Fischer and Jha-Thakur (2013) found that about 30% of EIA master level degree programmes were offered in planning / management / geography / other social science departments / faculties. Furthermore, the share of degree programmes offered in an interdisciplinary set-up was 8%.
- 1195. This chapter presentssome of the findings of a number of dedicated workshops in Islamabad, held between 2011 and 2013. While in this context, a total of seven data collection exercises took place, the main focus here is on three exercises, namely (1) a pre-workshop questionnaire survey with twenty representatives of tertiary level education institutions; (2) an anonymous survey, which was conducted using an audience response system (Genee World) to which 21 workshop participants contributed; and (3) group work conducted during one of the workshops. 4.2 Pre-workshop Questionnaire Results The pre-workshop survey revolved around questions on the extent to which EIA was taught, the teaching techniques used, the topics covered and the teaching materials used (e.g. textbooks and other sources). Of the twenty representatives of tertiary level education institutions that were contacted, seveteen responded, i.e. the response rate is 85%. These represented sixteen public institutions (universities). The sixteen institutions were found to offer 30 degree programmes in which EIA was taught (four were offering three related degree programmes, six were offering two and another six were offering one related degree programme). Fifteen programmes were of an undergraduate and fifteen of a post-graduate nature. In total, 35 courses were identified that were fully or partly dedicated to EIA. Of these, 29 had three credit-hours (one credit-hour is the equivalent of one classroom contact hour over a sixteen week teaching semester3 ), four had four credit-hours and one had two credit-hours. Furthermore, one course was offered, in which the EIA part was said to represent less than one credit-hour. Only some respondents specified the split between theoretical (i.e. lecture-based) and practical (i.e. active student) work within the modules. Of those courses that were specified, nine were found to be of a two-one credit-hour nature (i.e. two theory and one practical related credit hours), four of a 3+0 (i.e. no practical element), three of a 3+1 and one of a 2+0 nature. Most post-graduate degree programmes lasted two years (one each also lasted one, two and a half and three years). All undergraduate degree programmes lasted for four years. Regarding the extent of EIA teaching in the 35 courses (See: Figure 4.1), in eleven institutions EIA was said to be covered in one course only in any one programme and in five institutions EIA was said to be covered in more than one course, usually two. Moreover, in one institution EIA was said to be dealt with in six 50-minute lectures. Representatives of six institutions said that EIA coverage can be extended further through e.g. specific individual coursework or related dissertations. Eleven institutions were offering EIA related courses in both, undergraduate and postgraduate degree programmes. Furthermore, three institutions each were either offering a post- or an undergraduate degree only in which EIA related courses were offered. While in undergraduate degree programmes, EIA courses were taught mostly in course years 3 and 4, there was no clear pattern emerging for post-graduate degree programmes. 40 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 3 A three credit hour module makes up about one-tenth of a 2-year post-graduate programme of 30 credit-hours or one- fortieth of a 4-year undergraduate degree programme of 130-136 credit-hours.
- 1196. Representatives of sixinstitutions said that EIA coverage could be extended further through e.g. specific individual coursework or related dissertations. While in undergraduate degree programmes, EIA courses were taught mostly in course years 3 and 4, there was no clear pattern emerging for post-graduate degree programmes. It is important that literally all institutions followed requirements formulated by the Higher Education Commission (HEC) of Pakistan. The pre-workshop survey also looked at the extent to which a total of 35 EIA related topics were covered in current EIA teaching (compiled from Sanchez and Morrison- Saunders (2010) and Fischer et al. , (2008)). Here, respondents were asked whether topics were (1) well covered, and (2) covered, but not well. Figure 4.2 displays the results. All institutions covered ‘legislation’, ‘theory’, ‘process’, ‘social’ and ‘cultural’ issues, even though some said they were not covered well. Topics that were covered in at least thirteen of the sixteen institutions (i.e. 80%) included ‘guidance’, ‘history of EIA’, ‘alternatives’, ‘cumulative impacts’, ‘public participation’, ‘impact significance’, ‘mitigation’, ‘environmental planning’, ‘environmental management’, ‘environmental science’, ‘SEA’, ‘bio-physical aspects’, ‘health aspects’, ‘economic aspects’ and ‘sustainable development’. Again, while all of these aspects were covered, quite a few were thought to be not covered well (in the cases of ‘alternatives’, ‘cumulative impacts’ and ‘SEA’ nearly half of the respondents said this was the case). On the other hand, seven or fewer institutions (i.e. less than about 40%) covered ‘overlay mapping’, ‘uncertainty’, ‘multi-criteria analysis’, ‘environmental economics’, environmental engineering’ and ‘modelling’. Regarding the latter, none said the topic was covered well, 41EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 4.1: Extent of EIA teaching in seventeen institutions 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 2 3 4 EIA coverage can be extended through individual coursework ! FullDegreeProgramme MajorPartinanother DegreeProgramme MinorPartinanother Degreeprogramme Currentlynottaught EIA is taught
- 1197. and only twosaid this was covered at all. Topics that were covered by between 40% and 80% of the institutions included ‘life-cycle assessment’, ‘environmental integration’, development planning’, ‘dealing with trade-offs’, ‘organisational behaviour’, ‘environmental economics’, ‘GIS’ and ‘indicators’. What is somewhat surprising about these findings is that quite a few of what are more technical issues (e.g. specific prediction techniques) were covered less well than what might be expected from science and engineering departments/faculties. While it might be the case that some technical knowledge is taught in other courses, there is undoubtedly a need to make connections with what might be taught elsewhere and EIA clear. Overall, there are quite a few similarities between the Pakistani situation and the ‘content topics of impact assessment courses’ identified by Sanchez and Morrison-Saunders (2010) with regard to EIA teaching in eighteen countries throughout the world. This relates to both, the topics that were covered well and those that were not, with a few notable exceptions. Social and cultural impacts in particular obtained some considerable attention in Pakistan. In this context, during discussion, one workshop participant said: “Moral and ethical aspects, and in this context religious considerations, are given to almost everything in Pakistan”. On the other hand, modelling and multi- criteria analysis were covered poorly in Pakistan when compared with institutions elsewhere in the world. Representatives from the sixteen institutions also gave their opinions on what topics needed to be covered or should be better covered (See: Figure 4.3). Representatives of over eight institutions thought that there was a particular need to cover (better) ‘overlay 42 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 4.2: topics covered in EIA related teaching 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Legislation Guidance Theory History EIAprocess Alternatives Cumulative PublicP Overlays LCA Uncertainty Significance Mitigation MCA Modeling EnvPlanning EnvIntegration DevPlanning Trade-offs EnvManagement OrganBehaviour EnvScience SEA EnvEconomics GIS EnvPolitics Ecology EnvEngineer Biophysical Health Social Cultural Economics Indicators SustDevelop Currently covered, but not well Currently well covered
- 1198. mapping’, ‘life-cycle assessment’,‘uncertainties’ ‘multi-criteria analysis’, ‘modelling’, ‘environmental economics’ and environmental politics’. Other topics for which representatives of at least five institutions (i.e. about 30%) thought that (better) coverage was needed include ‘cumulative impacts’, ‘environmental integration’, ‘trade-offs’, ‘organisational behaviour’, GIS’, ‘ecology’, ‘environmental engineering’ and indicators’. Again, the science and engineering nature of many of these suggests that there may be scope for linking up closer or better with courses taught elsewhere in the Department / Faculty within which EIA is taught. Furthermore, there were suggestions from some institutions that there should be an increased effort in teaching decision-making and its political nature. When asked what other aspects of importance were not included in the list used as a basis for Figures 4.2 and 4.3, respondents mentioned ‘environmental risk assessment’, ‘writing skills’, ‘national EIA practices’, ‘sectoral and regional EIA practices’, ‘relationships between actors in the process’, ‘post EIA monitoring/auditing’, ‘international conventions and protocols’, ‘EIA project and data base management’, ‘trans-boundary impacts’, ‘role of sponsors / donors’, ’compensation and resettlement plans’, ‘practical work, study tours, site visits and participation in hearings’, ‘analytical hierarchy process (AHP)’, ‘internships’, ‘evaluation/review of reports’, ‘checklists’, ‘matrices’, ‘networking’, ‘costs and benefits of EIA’. Some of these aspects are not surprising, including, in particular, the references made to the various EIA procedural stages. These were deliberately omitted from the already lengthy list of 35 topics in the survey and the general term ‘EIA procedure’ was used instead. Others are clearly more Pakistan / developing country specific, i.e. ‘role of donors’. Still others refer to what authors elsewhere in the world had also identified as weaknesses in EIA education, including e.g. ‘writing skills’, ‘practical work’ and ‘internships’ (Weiland, 2012). Finally, 43EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 4.3: Topics that need to be covered or should be (better) covered. Legislation Guidance Theory History Process Alternative Cumulative Public Overlay LCA Uncertainty Significance Mitigation MCA Modeling EnvPlanning EnvIntegrate DevPlanning Trade-offsC EnvManag. OrgBehav. EnvScienc SEA EnvEconomics GIS EnvPoliticas Ecology EnvEngineer Biophysical Health Social Cultural Economics Indicators SustDevelp. Should be (better) covered ! ! 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Needs to be covered
- 1199. ‘risk assessment’ isexplicitly mentioned in Pakistani EIA guidance and it is therefore not surprising that this was mentioned. Respondents also provided some useful statements when asked what they thought was of particular importance for teaching of EIA in Pakistan, as follows: l Students should be encouraged to do EIA practically in the field; l There is currently inadequate expert knowledge in the EIA field and university education plays a crucial role to amend this; l EIA monitoring should be covered better; l At least one university should offer dedicated EIA/SEA degree programmes at undergraduate and postgraduate levels; l Training of teachers is important; l Establishing links with developed countries is important; l There is currently a gap between academia, consultancies and the government; l Engineers don’t know EIA well; l There is weak enforcement and lack of technical assistance; l EIA should be a compulsory subject in all environmental sciences degrees; and l Bridging theory-practice gap is important. 4.3 Audience Response Survey Thirty questions were put to participants at the beginning of one of the workshops, using an audience response system (Genee World), which allows for anonymous replies, but providing the audience with results (e.g. in terms of the number of yes’ and nos) straightaway. Fifteen out of 21 tertiary level institutions based workshop participants specified what disciplines were represented by EIA staff members. While ten said that these were representing natural science and engineering only, five also mentioned social sciences. Three of the latter were saying that there was also management expertise. This means that while programmes were offered almost entirely in science and engineering departments / faculties, there was also social science expertise present in EIA teaching. Regarding their own university education (i.e. their alma mater), an equal number of respondents (meaning there was a half-half split) said they held degrees from (1) Pakistani institutions and (2) overseas institutions from North America, Europe or Australia. A very similar picture was emerging when asked where EIA teaching colleagues had done their degree. There is thus a high degree of exposure to education in tertiary level institutions from elsewhere in the world with an international knowledge base accumulated among EIA teachers in Pakistan. Regarding an involvement in real life EIA practice, thirteen out of nineteen respondents said they had been involved in real life EIAs as both, stakeholders or general members of the public and in organising parts of an EIA process. One each had done either of the above. Only four had not been involved in any real life EIAs, but had studied related documentation. When asked what their main focus of EIA related teaching was, only one out of eighteen said that this was lecturing alone. While two each said that either seminars or practical work was the main focus of teaching, thirteen stated that practical 44 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1200. work was partof the main focus in their teaching activities, i.e. there clearly is an emphasis on practice, not simply theory. Further evidence for EIA practice being of great importance in current teaching was obtained when workshop participants were asked about teaching strengths and weaknesses (Figure 4.4). While practice along with science and engineering was perceived more of a strength than a weakness, an equal number of participants perceived theory as both, a weakness and a strength. Decision theory and the social sciences were seen by most workshop participants (thirteen out of seventeen) as the main shortcoming of EIA teaching materials. Only three thought the main shortcoming was practice related and only one thought there weren’t any shortcomings at all. In line with this, fifteen out of nineteen workshop participants thought that the EIA literature did not provide them with everything they needed. While this indicates that the theory element in particular needs some close attention, this does not mean that the connections made with practice are satisfactory. It rather suggests that the literature does currently cover practice to a greater extent than, Pakistan relevant, decision theory. In this context, it is important that many participants saw creating better connections with real practice as particularly urgent. Creating better teaching materials was also seen as a priority. Furthermore, eighteen out of 21 respondents saw the creation of truly international textbooks (i.e. textbooks that are not dominated by theory and practice form a certain country or system) along with national or regional textbooks as being particularly urgently needed. All workshop participants stated that EIA needed to be adapted to national circumstances. In line with this, sixteen out of 21 respondents stated EIA teaching currently did not cater to the needs of practice. While five said that it was at least partly achieving this, none said it was fully doing so. 45EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 4.4: Strengths and weaknesses of EIA teaching 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Practices Engineering and Science Theory Decision Theory/ Social Science Strength Weakness Neither Weakness nor strength Don’t know
- 1201. 4.4 Group Workof Workshop Participants Workshop participants were split into three groups in order to discuss questions revolving around the further development of EIA teaching at tertiary level institutions in Pakistan. The first question was about the specific training needs of EIA teachers / lecturers in Pakistan. The second question was about what initiatives may be useful to achieve effective training. Box 4.1 shows the bullet points compiled by those discussing the topics. Regarding specific training needs, the interaction between practitioners i.e. consultants, governments/ public administration i.e. EPAs, and the education sector was stressed. To have these engaged in EIA training is thus not only of particular importance but also a great challenge. Furthermore, the engagement in ‘real’ projects (through e.g. field trips and participation in public hearings) was seen to be of great importance, even though field trips were seen as problematic, due to the difficult security situation and socio- cultural settings in some parts of the country. Effective training should deal with data availability for EIA as well as providing access to the wider literature and best practice / success stories. Appropriate funding for training was also seen as important, in particular for training activities abroad. 4.5 Conclusions This chapter contributes to the growing international literature on EIA higher education, looking at the current baseline and development needs in Pakistan, where about 40% of all higher education institutions offer courses which also cover EIA. There is currently no dedicated EIA degree programme available, though. Overall, it is found that the extent to which different EIA related topics are covered in Pakistan is not dissimilar from elsewhere in the world, with the exception of cultural and social aspects that are covered rather well. Problems are currently associated in particular with a lack of Pakistan specific textbooks and other sources, as well as insufficient connections between the academic and practice worlds. The handbook this chapter forms part of 46 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 4.1: Replies of participants to questions on specific training needs and initiatives for effective training Specific training needs: l Collaboration between national and international EIA experts; l Sharing of knowledge/data with consultants, EPA’s and other stakeholders; and l Practical exposure to EIA concerned projects and sites and exchange of views with EIA experts and related stakeholders. Initiatives for effective training: l EIA data availability; l Access to literature related to best practices/success stories; l Short training sessions; l Workshops for all EIA teaching faculty from a university; and l Provision of funds for EIA trainings for EIA faculty abroad.
- 1202. and the EIAcurriculum for higher education institutions in Pakistan (http://www.niap.pk/docs/Knowledge%20Repository/Reports/ Draft%20EIA%20Curriculum%20for%20Tertiary%20Level%20Institutions%20in%20Paki stan.pdf) are a direct response to this. Furthermore, the teaching of social science theory / decision-making theory is perceived to be a weakness by those teaching EIA. Bridging the theory-practice gap is seen to be of particular importance for developing EIA education in the country further. Also, training of trainers is seen as a priority. However, overall, there are clearly many positive aspects of existing EIA higher education in Pakistan and there is a high awareness of concepts and practices. Furthermore, the EIA teaching body in Pakistan is well aware of international debates, trends and developments. 47EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1203. 48 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan In an Environmental Impact Assessment mapping workshop, practitioners jointly analyse the EIA system in their country or region. EIA mapping looks both, at the EIA legislation and the practice in a given country, and considers the EIA procedure as well as the project approval decision-making that is based on the EIA. The mapping analysis is undertaken in an interactive setting, with participants involved in EIA practice. In 2010, a series of EIA mappings was undertaken in Pakistan. The image that emerges from the mapping results is one of a comprehensive and mature legislative framework, outfitted with professional environmental agencies to oversee it. At the same time, there are major challenges: EIAs are of variable quality, there is limited participation, and generally a low level of monitoring and follow-up. This chapter describes how EIA mapping works and outlines the results of the Pakistani mappings. 5.1 Introduction All around the world professionals are actively improving impact assessment in their own working environment. Sometimes through small daily efforts, but at other times by implementing more comprehensive multi-year impact assessment improvement programmes. Before investing in such larger scale efforts, it is helpful to get a good grip on how the current impact assessment system is working and what its strengths and weaknesses are. Such an understanding can help to identify priorities and to decide where time and financial resources, which are usually scarce, should be focussed. To be able to come to such understanding, the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA – See: Box 5.1) developed a tool called EIA mapping. As the name suggests, this tool is focussed specifically on project level impact assessment. EIA mapping assesses the quality of the regulatory framework for EIA in a given jurisdiction, and the level of compliance with this framework in practice. At the heart of the tool is a questionnaire of several hundred questions, which is completed in a two day workshop by a group of representatives of all stakeholders in EIA. In the course of the workshop, the EIA practitioners discuss the full range of EIA aspects. Their collective answers are processed in a spreadsheet, producing a range of diagrams that clearly display the strengths and weaknesses of EIA. 5 Taking Stock of EIA Application in Pakistan: Findings of EIA Mapping By Bobbi Schijf and Reinoud Post
- 1204. A series ofEIA mapping workshops were undertaken in 2010 throughout the provinces of Pakistan, and Azad Jammu Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, in support of the Pakistan National Impact Assessment Programme (NIAP). One of the key objectives of this programme, which ran from 2009 until 2014, was to improve EIA. The EIA mapping workshops helped to focus the design of EIA activities within the programme. In this chapter, the EIA mapping tool will be further explained, and we will also describe the results of the application of EIA mapping within Pakistan. EIA mapping provides an in-depth exploration of EIA, and consequently substantial time and effort goes into using this tool. Before delving deeper into the workings of EIA mapping, it is important to note that there are also other approaches available to analyse EIA. Most notably, we want to mention here the EIA barometer, which was developed by the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA), and which has been applied in different countries in Africa. The EIA Barometer is based around a condensed list of questions, and could be regarded as a ‘first cut’ tool, more suitable to a situation where a more superficial analysis is sufficient. 5.2 EIA Mapping in Practice National EIA systems differ in their set-up; however, there are generic elements that define EIA systems everywhere. And though there is no one size fits all, the approach chosen by one country may inspire another. With this in mind, the NCEA inventoried and structured hundreds of elements of EIA systems that occur somewhere in the world and developed an interactive questionnaire which addresses each of these elements in turn. This questionnaire is the core of the EIA map. It takes the shape of a workbook of interlinked spreadsheets. Each spreadsheet focuses on a different element of an EIA system, both the legal procedure concerning this element as well as how it plays out in practice. See Figure 5.1 for an overview of the elements addressed. On the basis of its experience with capacity-building for impact assessment, the NCEA looks at the EIA process through a wide lens. As a result the elements included in the EIA map look at the core activities within EIA, such as screening, scoping, assessment, and review, but also the inter-links with the whole cycle of development projects. In 49EIA Handbook for Pakistan Box 5.1 Netherlands Commission on Environmental Assessment When the Dutch legislation on EIA entered into force in 1987, it provided the legal basis for the establishment of the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Assessment (NCEA). This commission has been set up as an independent advisory body tasked with reviewing the quality of EIAs (as well as strategic environmental assessments). The NCEA has a statutory role in the review stage of most EIA procedures in the Netherlands. In 1993, the NCEA started to provide advice outside of the Netherlands. It was tasked to do this by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the focus of the NCEA international activities is on countries eligible for Dutch International Cooperation. Strengthening EIA systems, including the capacities needed for the system to function, is the core of the work of the NCEA internationally. The technical staff of the Commission can give tailored advice on developing EIA systems. Additional information can be found on the NCEAs website: www.eia.nl.
- 1205. particular, the EIAmap addresses decision-making on environmental permitting and project approval, and explores how the information on environmental and social risks identified in the EIA is actually used in decisions on development. Furthermore, the EIA map looks at inspection and enforcement, and how environmental conditions that are designed on the basis of an EIA are imposed and then followed up. For each of these elements i.e. screening, scoping, assessment, review, decision- making, inspection and enforcement, the EIA map analyses the measures in place to ensure participation, and transparency. To what degree are decisions within the EIA process open for input from others? And are decisions supported by clear argumentation, documented and published? In the experience of the NCEA, participation and transparency can make an important difference to the quality and consistency of EIA practice in a country. The map looks at how these qualities are guaranteed on paper, but also at how they are realised in practice. Finally, EIA mapping explores the general prerequisites for sound EIA procedures, including: l funding of the EIA system; l EIA knowledge infrastructure; l legal appeal and mediation; and l democratic accountability. In a workshop setting, each of the questions is addressed by a group of professionals, representing different perspectives on EIA. To develop a good and balanced discussion, participation in EIA mapping workshops should be broad. It should include participation of staff members of government agencies administering EIA, representatives of line 50 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 5.1: EIA process components as addressed in NCEA EIA map Project identification Preliminary study / screening Impact Analysis Mitigation and management of impacts Comparison of alternatives Scoping and ToR approval Quality check Décision about approval of the EIA report EIA: Yes /No? Under which conditions? Décision about development permit Follow-up and enforcement Administrative appeal Appeal to justice Fine: Yes /No? Formal decision Published Published Published Involvement of the public EIA: Yes /No? Involvement of the public Involvement of the public Formal decision Formal decision
- 1206. agencies, representatives oflocal governments, inspectorate, NGOs, EIA-consultants, investors, the media, academics and others. Many of the questions have a quick and clear yes/no answer, others require a quality judgement or an estimation from the group and generally take more discussion. Some examples of questions are: l Is there a legal requirement for public participation in EIA? l How do you judge the quality of the written justifications for EIA screening decisions? l Which % of investment projects requires an EIA according to the regulation? and l Which % of investment projects actually undergoes an EIA? When the EIA mapping was applied within Pakistan, it was clear that one workshop would not suffice. Because EIA practice in Pakistan differs from region to region, mapping workshops were organised in Islamabad (federal territory), Baluchistan, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Punjab, Sindh, Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) and Azad Jammu Kashmir (AJK). In October 2010, at the end of the series of workshops, a national session was held to share the mapping outcomes and get feedback on the results. Overall, in these workshops, the participation was skewed towards governmental representatives. This does not invalidate the results, but must be borne in mind when interpreting them. The complete mapping results were documented in a report prepared by the NCEA. A selection of the results is shared below. 5.3 EIA Mapping Results for Pakistan Preconditions for EIA performance EIA mapping identifies two sets of contextual conditions that are crucial to how an EIA system operates. These are specific characteristics of the country, province or regional context that influence how EIA is implemented. The first set of conditions concerns the checks and balances that exist within a society, which help to ensure that government delivers on the policies it has set and enforces the rules and regulations which have been agreed upon. In EIA mapping these are called “external preconditions”, and include; an active and critical press, active and strong civil society, and an independent judiciary. The second set of criteria is more internal to government, and concerns the checks and balances that exist to ensure that the government agencies that have a role in EIA fulfil their specific responsibilities. These internal preconditions include; the public nature of procedures, possibilities to lodge a complaint when procedures are not properly applied, accountability of officials and politicians and ways in which government agencies improve their functioning through learning. From an international perspective the EIA mapping scores on preconditions external to government are high in Pakistan. The preconditions for EIA at the level of society are generally scored well, although workshop participants mentioned that (civil) society is not especially active in EIA. Concerning the checks and balances internal to government, the scores given in the different workshops are lower overall and there is a more marked difference between the regions. The scores suggest that internal preconditions may be an important critical factor throughout Pakistan. 51EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1207. Legal basis forEIA in Pakistan The EIA mapping workshops in 2010 predate the 18th amendment to the Pakistani constitution, which decentralised environmental management responsibilities. At the time of the mapping workshops, the legal basis for EIA was the Pakistani PEPA. Combining all the scores from the different workshops, Figure 5.2 shows the averaged results on the legal basis for EIA. Each axis of this amoeba represents one aspect of the regulation. Where the coloured line cuts the axis is the score for that specific aspect. The EIA map does not compare against any specific good practice standard, but against all- inclusive regulation, that incorporates the maximum of regulatory options that can be found for that aspect internationally. So, a 100% score on a specific axis means that the Pakistani regulation includes a very comprehensive set of requirements on that aspect. The EIA mapping results shows that the legal framework for EIA is mostly well developed in Pakistan. The workshop participants reported that the regulations are in place, environmental norms and standards exist (although they are not entirely complete), and there are some EIA sector guidelines. Generic EIA guidance is also available in Pakistan, but there is some disagreement on its status among the various EIA mapping workshop participants: is it a requirement to follow the guidance, or is it voluntary? The extent to which the regulation covers projects that potentially have environmental impact is far-reaching. There are few or no relevant projects that do not fall under this requirement. The public nature of the EIA process has also been regulated, meaning that decisions should be transparent. The diagram also highlights aspects which have not been regulated to any great extent, for example, the solidity EIA system funding. This aspect is about the arrangements in the regulation for structural funding for EIA roles, for hiring external experts if needed, and for doing EIA of government projects. The provisions to provide information 52 EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 5.2: Legal basis for EIA (Pakistan average) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 percentage projects covered completeness/clarity/coherence legal texts public nature of procedures guidance obligation to provide information beforehand screeningrequirements on contents scoping requirements for quality information reviewing solidity of EIA system funding
- 1208. beforehand, at anearly stage of the EIA process, are also not strong. This is about the requirements to ensure that the start and the subject of an EIA is announced early (in a starting notice/ToR for the EIA, for example), and made public, so that there are possibilities to direct the focus of the EIA to those issues that are most relevant to decision-makers and the public. In the discussion on these results, representatives from the AJK and Punjab environmental protection agencies point out that they have additional requirements for early provision of information, on top of what the regulation demands. This aspect is well organised in their provinces, and may serve as an example for other provinces. The presentation of the mapping results prompted the discussion of several other topics concerning the legislative framework. For example, participants agreed that the screening criteria and schedules should be further specified, and that the EIA content requirements should be strengthened. The quality of documents was also singled out as a factor which needs attention. All participants have experiences with poor quality EIAs, which do not provide sufficient information on impacts (especially “cut-and-paste EIAs” which use content from other EIAs, without adapting this content to the project or location at hand). On reviewing of EIA, the key issue participants focus on is the lack of technical knowledge to assess the content of EIAs. Especially of EIAs that are more complex. Legal basis for EIA-based decision-making in Pakistan The EIA map examines both, the EIA procedure as well as the decision-making process that the EIA should support. In the Pakistani context, the EIA map focussed on the No Objection Certificate (NOC) decision, and the conditions for project implementation given therein. This NOC is in effect the environmental approval for a project. The mapping analysis looked at aspects such as public involvement in decision-making, transparency and accountability, appeal options against decisions taken, and more. In Figure 5.3, again, the axes for the scores represent a maximum of regulatory options for organising a specific aspect. 53EIA Handbook for Pakistan Figure 5.3: Legal base decision-making (Pakistan average) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 exhaustiveness and coherence legal framework customer friendliness public nature decision-making public participation decisions decentralisation of decision-taking power sharing and control on power transparency/justification appeal options
- 1209. In Pakistan, decision-makingis comprehensive. Power sharing and control on power also score higher. In this context, participants felt that the division of mandates mostly prevent political pressure on decision-maker to “go easy” on the EIA requirement, and that mechanisms are in place to make sure decision-makers can be held accountable. Options to appeal EIA-related decision also exist; both administrative and court appeals are possible. Mediation is a possibility that is allowed for in the regulatory framework, but it is not applied to environmental disputes. This possibility could be worth exploring as a low cost, low threshold mechanism to use when NOC conditions are not respected, for example. The scores on customer friendliness are also high. This means that there are realistic procedural timelines, and that the amount of red tape is limited. There are also weakly regulated areas concerning decision-making. The requirements for publication of the decisions are not comprehensive, and for justification of decision they are very limited. Scores on transparency and justification of decisions are consequently low. Participation also scored lower. This score represents the level of participation that the legal framework prescribes in the different decision-making steps of the EIA process. The Pakistani regulation requires participation in the EIA review and NOC decision (which are combined) but not in other steps, such as scoping. Institutional Capacity and EIA Enforcement The results of the EIA mapping questions on the level of application of EIA stand out. In all regions, EIA application is much too low when compared to the level of ongoing development and number of project licensing decisions taken. The estimates among the workshop participants for each region varied greatly, from 50% to under 10%, meaning that half or less of the projects that should undergo EIA in Pakistan, actually do. Here, clearly lies an enforcement challenge for the future. There is qualified staff who can meet this challenge. All provinces as well as AJK and GP score the availability of expertise for managing the EIA procedures high, and indicate that there are good opportunities for people working with EIA to further develop their skills. However, there are too few staff available for EIA related work, meaning that any effort to increase enforcement of the EIA requirements would quickly run into a bottleneck in EIA processing capacity at the EPAs. Practice of EIA in Pakistan Across the provinces as well as AJK and GP, EIA mapping scores for public participation are not strong, as a result of the relatively low number of EIA procedures within which public meetings are actually held, as well as the low number of participants that show up and take part. The workshop participants were similarly unified on the quality of EIA. Low scores were given on the extent to which all steps in the EIA process are undertaken and on the completeness of the EIA reports. Generally the quality of EIA scores too low, although there are examples of good EIAs as well. At federal level the quality of EIAs appears to be somewhat higher. Also, monitoring of implementation of project for which EIAs have been done is considered insufficient overall. Dissemination of knowledge on legal requirements varies across the regions. Most participants score the awareness among planning and sectoral agencies as not sufficient. This contributes to the low application of EIA, participants say, although the EIA requirement is also knowingly avoided, even by government agencies. There were low scores also concerning the involvement of independent experts in review. The 54 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1210. regulation allows forthis possibility, but it is not a common occurrence across the country, mostly because funds are lacking to compensate these experts for their time. Practice of EIA-based decision-making in Pakistan The EIA mapping results concerning decision-making show that appeal practice is practically non-existent, there are very few EIA related cases going to court. A high profile EIA court case might be an interesting development for Pakistan, which can boost the level of awareness and compliance in the country. Across the provinces and AJK and GP there are also low scores for inspection tasks and enforcement. Few environmental inspections are being undertaken, as there is not enough staff available to do this. Only rarely are sanctions imposed if inspection shows infringement of the environmental conditions of the NOC. In the Punjab EIA mapping the EPA reported that it had been requested to act on NOC infringements approximately 25 times in the previous year, and had administered sanctions in 12 cases. Scores for the publicity of decision are also low. In practice decisions on the NOC are not usually published, although they may be available for inspection at the EPA. In practice, participation in decision-making is also limited, going by the number of written reactions that are submitted to different decisions that the EPAs take in the EIA process (screening, approval, etc.). At federal level the score is higher; here there is a more vocal public. The aspect of transparency/justification gets mixed scores, although most of the scores in the local EIA mapping workshops are low, meaning that written and detailed justifications for EIA decisions are not readily published. It is also rare to find a reference to the input received through public participation in the decision document. 5.4 Interpreting the EIA Mapping Results for Pakistan The EIA mapping results from the workshops across the provinces of Pakistan, as well as AJK and GB, give a snapshot of EIA legislation and practice in 2010. The image that emerges is one of a comprehensive and mature legislative framework, outfitted with professional environmental agencies to administrate it. At the same time, major challenges lie in the practice of EIA: the variable quality of EIA reports, the limited participation, and the low level of monitoring and follow-up. What is striking in the mapping results is the estimated number of projects with potential environmental impacts that are approved without EIA. There was some discussion at the workshops when the results were displayed about whether the numbers of projects and percentages entered in the different EIA maps were correct. During the workshops there had been some confusion about whether the requested statistics concerned the full EIAs or the more limited initial environmental examinations (IEE). The distinction between the two types of assessment had not been made consistently throughout the country, it turned out. This is an important lesson learned for the mapping method. However, though the exact percentages might need some adjustment, the overall conclusion that the level of application of EIA is too low, was uncontested. All participants seemed to agree that enforcement of the EIA requirement should be improved. Two constraining factors for enforcement stand out in the mapping results: one being the lack of capacity at the environmental administrations, and the other the limited 55EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1211. accountability and transparencyin decision-making. Accountability of the environmental administrations could be one avenue to explore further. Going by similar experiences that the NCEA has had in other countries, including in Asia, enforcement can be greatly improved when there is more personal and political risk attached to the lack of enforcement. In Pakistan it seems that there is limited risk of repercussions attached to avoidance of the EIA requirement. Risks are limited for the initiators of projects, but they are also minimal for the authorities that approve projects without an NOC, such as the Provincial planning and development departments. When negative environmental effects materialise after project approval, who should be held accountable? This is worth looking at more closely in Pakistan, if the level of application of EIA is to be elevated. Lack of capacity is closely related to the lack of resources for environmental protection agencies to execute the tasks assigned to them. At each of the EIA mapping workshops, the participants agreed that financial resources allocated to these tasks are not sufficient. To illustrate: the regulatory framework for EIA in Pakistan allows Environmental Protection Agencies to engage external experts to review EIA reports, which is a particularly valuable option when the EIA to be reviewed is complex and requires expert knowledge that the EPA does not have in house. However, EPAs by and large do not have the funds to compensate such experts for their efforts. They need to rely on volunteers, with mixed results. Resource constraints are also evident in the levels of staffing and equipment at EPAs. The Pakistani mapping participants did not consider these sufficient to administer the EIA procedure, nor for compliance monitoring of environmental conditions. A potential solution that could be explored in Pakistan is the introduction of EIA processing fees that better reflect the true costs that government incurs in carrying out its responsibilities. However, any revenues raised in such a way would have to be channelled to the Pakistani EPAs in order to benefit EIA application specifically. There are examples from which Pakistan could draw here. The Ghanaian EIA fee system, for example, scores on both these counts (NCEA and INECE, forthcoming). The EIA permit processing fee in Ghana is determined by a project’s industry sector, project value, and the scale of the impact, and ranges from several hundred US dollars for a small manufacturing installation to over 50.000 US dollars for a large-scale mining project. Revenues generated are deposited into the National Environment Fund and a set percentage is used for the operations of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Robust rules have been established for the administration of the fund, to ensure no resources are misappropriated. As noted earlier in this chapter, the goal of the series of EIA mapping exercises was to inform the National Impact Assessment Programme of Pakistan. The mapping effort seems to have done so in different ways. First of all, the NIAP has tried to tackle one of the key constraints to EIA performance that mapping brought into view. The NIAP helped to strengthen the capacity at the environmental protection agencies. Each of the agencies was provided with additional staff for the four and a half year duration of the project. All of the EPA staff involved in EIA was given training opportunities, and an information system was developed for the agencies to ease their administrative workload and facilitate the provision of information to projects developers and to the 56 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1212. public at large.Such an information system should also make it easier to expose the “cut-and-paste” EIA reports. The NIAP also concentrated efforts on increasing the quality of EIA in Pakistan. Guidance was developed for EIA, for example. The programme also instigated, and supported, a country-wide discussion on the possibility of introducing accreditation for consultants that prepare EIAs. Different accreditation options were further developed (but at the date of print, none had been chosen or implemented yet). Transparency and accountability were not nominated as priorities for improvement. The participants of the workshops felt that the regulatory basis for decision-making in Pakistan met the current needs and ambitions. Consequently, neither of these themes was taken up by the NIAP partners. Perhaps this can be explained by the fact that many of the workshop participants represented governmental agencies. Similarly, the NIAP partners are governmental. There is an understandable unease around the topics of accountability and transparency among governmental stakeholders, If for no other reason than that it would increase the pressure on these parties. The NIAP did include a range of activities geared towards increasing awareness of both the EIA requirements, and the potential added value of EIA. This should also help to raise the level of application of EIA in Pakistan. 5.5 Looking Back and Looking Forward Interestingly, the EIA mapping workshop participants throughout Pakistan more often remark on the opportunity that the EIA mapping experience gave them to discuss EIA with their peers, than they do on the actual mapping results. It is not often that professionals involved in EIA have the occasion to jointly review their EIA system. The EIA map provides a structure for these professionals to discuss not just the core EIA activities, but also what EIA contributes to decision-making and to environmental management on the ground. It facilitates a debate of the EIA system on paper, and as it is in practice. For the NIAP it seems to have helped bring focus to the programme activities, and create momentum for EIA improvement among those involved. In 2014 a second round of mappings is planned. This EIA mapping series will again engage a wide range of EIA stakeholders in discussion, and can feed a debate on where to focus efforts to improve EIA in Pakistan in the near future. Perhaps some of the limitations identified in 2010 will no longer need attention. A new set of priorities might surface. The 2014 mapping results will also be compared to those of the first mapping round, and in this way provide a means to track the progress that has been made in EIA legislation and practice in the past four years. 57EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1213. 58 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan International Organisations and Development Banks (IODBs) shared global experience which helped Pakistan in its adoption of environmental impact assessment (EIA) system. From a procedural standpoint, IODBs have been effective in complying with their internal policies and procedures on environmental assessment. While the substantive effectiveness of EIAs for opening up decision-making processes to public scrutiny has not been substantiated yet, selected EIAs have contributed to build environmental management capacity and enhance positive environmental impacts. IODBs, particularly the Asian Development Bank, The Netherlands Government and the World Bank have been instrumental in promoting the use of policy strategic environmental assessments (SEA) at the sectoral, national, and regional levels. In Pakistan, policy SEAs have tended to be more widely influential than traditional EIAs in the last several years because of the extent of stakeholder participation to validate the process, ownership by Pakistani decision-makers, and strategic timing of analytical work and social learning process with respect to country actions and priorities. 6.1 Introduction Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has become a widespread environmental management tool. The United States was the first country to adopt it as part of its legal framework in 1969 and this effort was emulated by both, developed and developing countries over the next few decades. In this chapter we argue that such growth in the number of developing countries with a formal EIA system was significantly spurred by international organisations 6 The Role of International Organisations and Development Banks in Pakistan’s Environmental Impact Assessment Practices4-5 By Ernesto Sánchez-Triana, Santiago Enriquez and Javaid Afzal 4 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank and its affiliated organisations, or those of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The authors are grateful to Thomas Fischer and Herbert Acquay for their helpful comments to previous versions of this chapter. 5 This chapter was prepared by Ernesto Sanchez-Triana, Javaid Afzal and Santiago Enriquez from The World Bank.
- 1214. and development banks(IODBs). This may help to understand the common features in the design of EIA systems across regions and development gradients. In many developing countries, EIAs have become the main environmental management tool, often used to replace command and control or market-based instruments to regulate air, water, soil or noise pollution. In the case of Pakistan, where specific environmental standards for ambient air and water quality are considered too stringent for national circumstances, the EIA largely endorses the conditions under which large scale projects may be developed and operated. However, as this chapter illustrates, because the institutional capacities of the country’s environmental organisations still need significant strengthening, the completion of EIAs does not necessarily result in better environmental outcomes or improved decision-making. While EIA has made important contributions to enhance the sustainability of specific projects, available evidence, including the case studies reviewed during the preparation of this chapter, suggests that, in general, environmental assessments tend to be weak, lack serious public participation to inform project development, and tend to result in generic recommendations that are seldom monitored and enforced (Nadeem and Hameed, 2006 and 2008; Riffat and Khan, 2006; Nadeem and Fischer, 2011). At the same time, other environmental assessment tools have proved effective in addressing the country’s environmental challenges, while simultaneously strengthening the institutional capacity of national and sub-national authorities (Posas, and Sánchez- Triana, 2012; Sánchez-Triana et al. , 2013). In particular, Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs) that have been conducted at the policy level over the last decade have been effective in identifying environmental priorities and linking them to development and poverty reduction goals, engaging a broad range of stakeholders, and identifying the key governance and institutional capacity weaknesses that need to be addressed. To support these arguments, this chapter begins by providing an overview in Section 2 about the origin of EIA in Pakistan and the role of IODBs in it. Section 3 continues with a review of the implementation of EIA in Pakistan. Section 4 assesses the effectiveness of three EIAs reviewed during the preparation of this chapter. Section 5 discusses the positive contributions of EIAs in Pakistan, particularly in terms of building institutional capacity and enhancing positive impacts, while Section 6 presents the insights of Pakistan’s experiences with policy SEAs and the contributions of institution-centered SEAs relative to EIA-type SEAs. Section 7 presents the chapter’s conclusions. This chapter’s annex presents case studies of three EIAs that were conducted in Pakistan, with the support of IODBs, discussing how they met the main components of the EIA process required by national regulations, as well as by international organisations. 6.2 Role of International Organisations and Development Banks in the Design and Implementation of Pakistan’s EIA System The first EIA programme worldwide was established by the U.S. Congress in the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 (Park, 2008). Section 102 (2) (c) of NEPA established the basis to require US federal agencies to prepare an environmental 59EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1215. impact statement forany project that would “significantly affect” the quality of human environment, by assessing environmental consequences in development projects, analysing alternatives and ordering a public disclosure of the report to affected groups (Jones and Stokes, 2003). During the 1980s, international non-governmental organisations (NGOs), pressured International Financial Institutions (IFIs) and its shareholders, to make these organisations adopt environmental management policies (Nielson and Tierney, 2003; Wade, 1997; Keck and Sikkink, 1998). In 1989, the U.S. Congress passed the provision known as the “Pelosi Amendment,” which, according to Bowles and Kormos (1999), played “an important role in the development of the World Bank’s EIA policy.” The amendment required the U.S. Executive Director to abstain from voting on proposed multilateral development bank loans with potentially “significant” environmental impacts, unless an EIA, including any relevant supporting documents such as environmental management plans, resettlement action plans etc., had been made available at least 120 days in advance and disseminated to the public (Wirth, 1998: 66).6 Under the “Pelosi Amendment”, U.S. representatives in the IFI’s boards of directors had to promote the creation of “Environmental Departments” in all of the multilateral development banks (Hicks et al. , 2008). In October 1989, during the US Congressional debates over environmental impacts of projects funded by IFIs, the World Bank released its environmental assessment policy (Bowles and Kormos, 1999). More specifically, the World Bank introduced an Operational Directive (OD 4.00) requesting “an environmental assessment for all projects that may have a significant negative impact on the environment” (Hironaka, 2002: 70). In 1991, the OD was amended as OD 4.01, “two years after its initial adoption and two months before the Pelosi directive took effect” (Bowles and Kormos, 1999). Following the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,7 some Bank shareholders became increasingly concerned about the institution’s stance on environmental issues. In 1993 the World Bank’s Inspection Panel was established in response to civil society and member states’ demands to make the Bank more accountable for its actions (Park, 2010). After the World Bank, other multilateral banks, such as the Asia Development Bank (ADB), the Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), and the African Development Bank (AfDB) adopted environmental assessment policies (IADB, 2009; ADB, 2009; AfDB, 2004). In the ADB, as an accountability mechanism, the Compliance Review Panel (CRP) conducts inspections of projects in response to alleged violations of the safeguard policies (Asian Development Bank - ADB, 2005b). According to Rifat and Khan (2006), the Pakistan EIA system was adopted due to the efforts of donor agencies like the World Bank, ADB and different NGOs. The promulgation of the 1983 Environmental Protection Ordinance introduced the requirements of EIA in Pakistan (IUCN, 2005). However, EIA was not institutionalized until July, 1994 when the Government of Pakistan made it mandatory for infrastructure 60 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 6 This amendment applies exclusively to the action of the U.S. ED and does not preclude Board approval, but requires the U.S. ED to oppose or abstain. 7 The Earth Summit produced a document known as Rio Declaration, which stated that “the environmental impact assessment, as a national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and are subject to a decision of a competent national authority” (Principle 17).
- 1216. investment projects. InDecember 1997, the Ordinance was repealed by the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act (PEPA), in order to provide a stronger legal basis for environmental protection (Nadeem and Hameed, 2006). PEPA set forth the definition of EIA as “an environmental study comprising collection of data, prediction of qualitative and quantitative impacts, comparison of alternatives, evaluation of preventive, mitigatory and compensatory measures, formulation of environmental management and training plans and monitoring arrangements, and framing of recommendations and such other components as may be prescribed” (GoP, 1997). In October and November 1997, before PEPA was enacted, the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Pak-EPA) issued comprehensive guidelines known as the “EIA package,” which included general and sectoral non-mandatory guidelines covering most aspects of EIA preparation. While the official stance is that these have been formulated keeping in view the local circumstances, they are primarily based on the guidelines of ADB and World Bank, as can be inferred from similarities in their perspectives and approaches, which are discussed in the following section (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010). 6.3 Implementing EIA in Pakistan - International Organisations and Development Banks’ Perspectives and Practices IODBs adopted their environmental impact assessment policies and practices in the mid-1990s, within the context described in the previous section. The main goal of these policies and practices was to mitigate the negative environmental impacts with the aim of ring-fencing IODB’s financed projects. The environmental assessment policies adopted by IODBs are the basis of these organisations’ safeguards systems. The safeguards systems were developed to address the general absence of corresponding client safeguard systems (legal frameworks and implementing institutions), a condition that produced instances of severe adverse outcomes for the environment and project- affected peoples in IODB’s supported projects (Rich, 1995). At the time of their initial formulation, it could be said that the safeguards reflected primarily the values of the donor countries. Since that time, many governments, such as the Government of Pakistan, have adopted legally binding EIA regulations that are similar to IODB’s EIA regulations, often with technical support from these organisations. Several IODBs have labeled their safeguard policies as “do no harm” policies, as their aim was to protect people and the environment from all negative impacts (World Bank, 2009a). In addition, emphasis has been placed on managing reputational risk. According to the World Bank’s Independent Evaluation Group (IEG), “the safeguards (do no harm) approach is basically focused on protecting the reputation of the Bank.” (IEG, 2010: xxvi). Many of the objectives and principles of the IODB’s environmental assessment policies are also reflected in international conventions and legal instruments such as the Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, and the Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact 61EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1217. Assessment in aTrans-boundary Context, conventions which many governments have ratified. The “do no harm” approach to many aspects of the EIA has been incorporated into best practice guidance notes, such as the MFI-Environment Working Group Common Approaches to EIA, and the principles set forth by the International Association for Impact Assessment. The World Bank was the first IFI that developed an environmental and social safeguards system, using an approach that was emulated by other key IODBs. The Bank’s Operational Policy 4.01 explains that Environmental Assessment (EA) “evaluates a project’s potential environmental risks and impacts in its area of influence; examines project alternatives; identifies ways of improving project selection, siting, planning, design, and implementation by preventing, minimizing, mitigating, or compensating for adverse environmental impacts and enhancing positive impacts; and includes the process of mitigating and managing adverse environmental impacts throughout project implementation”.8 The World Bank begins with a screening process to determine the appropriate extent and type of EA. The Bank classifies the proposed project into one of four categories. Category A projects are those that are likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented. Category B projects are those whose potential adverse environmental impacts on human populations or environmentally important areas are less adverse than those of Category A projects. These impacts are site-specific; few if any of them are irreversible; and in most cases mitigatory measures can be readily designed. Category C projects are those that are likely to have minimal or no adverse environmental impacts. Finally, Category FI applies to projects involving investment of Bank funds through a financial intermediary, in subprojects that may result in adverse environmental impacts. The EA for Category A projects requires an analysis of alternatives and recommends any measures needed to prevent, minimise, mitigate, or compensate for adverse impacts and improve environmental performance. The borrower is responsible for carrying out the EA and must prepare a report, usually an EIA. Requirements of Category B projects are similar to those of Category A project, except that their scope tends to be narrower. For Category C projects, no action is required after screening. OP 4.01 includes provisions for public consultations for all Category A and B proposed projects. The borrower country is required to consult project-affected groups and local non-governmental organisations (NGOs) about the project’s environmental aspects and take their views into account. In the case of Category A projects, these groups must be consulted at least twice: (a) shortly after environmental screening and before the terms of reference for the EA are finalised; and (b) once a draft EA report is prepared. Further consultations are required throughout the implementation of the World Bank-supported project as needed to address EA-related issues that affect the mentioned groups. The ADB introduced in 2009 a new Safeguard Policy Statement that integrated under a single policy its previous safeguard policies on the environment, involuntary 62 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 8 World Bank OP 4.01, available at: http://go.worldbank.org/K7F3DCUDD0
- 1218. resettlement, and indigenouspeoples. The policy’s social dimensions include gender and labor aspects. The unification of this policy aimed to enhance the consistency and coherence of its procedures to address environmental and social impacts and risks.9 ADB uses the same environmental categorisation as the World Bank (e.g. categories A, B, C and FI). The assessment may comprise a full-scale environmental impact assessment for category A projects and an initial environmental examination (IEE) or equivalent process for category B projects. The borrower is required to prepare an environmental management plan (EMP) that addresses the potential impacts and risks identified by the environmental assessment. The EMP will include the proposed mitigation measures, environmental monitoring and reporting requirements, emergency response procedures, related institutional or organisational arrangements, capacity development and training measures, implementation schedule, cost estimates, and performance indicators. Also, where impacts and risks cannot be avoided or prevented, mitigation measures and actions will be identified so that the project is designed, constructed, and operated in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. ADB’s guidelines also discuss the requirements for meaningful participation with affected people and other stakeholders, requires that the borrower establish a grievance redress mechanism, and indicates the documents that will be disclosed in the Bank’s website, such as the EIA. In addition, the borrower will monitor and measure progress in implementation of the EMP. For projects likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts, the borrower is required to retain qualified and experienced external experts or qualified NGOs to verify its monitoring information. The borrower must also document monitoring results, identify the necessary corrective actions, and reflect them in a corrective action plan that must be implemented. The Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) is another key development partner that provides grants, technical cooperation and loans to Pakistan. In April 2010, JICA adopted its new guidelines, which integrate environmental and social considerations.10 The process established by the guidelines begins with a screening process, through which projects are classified into one of four categories based on the magnitude of their potential impacts. The categories are similar to the World Bank’s: A (likely to have significant adverse impacts), B (potential impacts are less adverse than A), C (minimal or little impact), and FI (JICA provides funds to a financial intermediary of which sub-projects could not be identified prior to JICA’s approval).11 In the next step, the Environmental Review, JICA confirms the possible environmental or social impacts along with the measures proposed by the project proponents. This is done through the examination of documents, including an environmental impact assessment (EIA) report and Environmental Checklist. After consulting stakeholders, JICA evaluates the adequacy of the proposed measures to avoid, minimise, mitigate, or compensate the adverse impacts, and to enhance the positive impacts of the proposed 63EIA Handbook for Pakistan 9 ADB (2009), “Safeguard Policy Statement”, available at: http://www.adb.org/documents/safeguard-policy- statement?ref=site/safeguards/publications 10 http://www.jica.go.jp/english/our_work/social_environmental/guideline/index.html 11 JICA (undated), “Guidelines for Environmental and Social Considerations”, available at http://www.jica.go.jp/english/publications/reports/annual/2012/c8h0vm00002qe6vj-att/46.pdf
- 1219. project on theenvironment and society. JICA promotes the transparency of the Environmental Review by disclosing relevant documents, including the EIA report on its website prior to the process. Project proponents are responsible for monitoring the approved measures, but JICA oversees the results of this monitoring for a certain period of time that covers the implementation and post-completion stages. If JICA identifies or anticipates any issues as a result of these efforts, it will urge project proponents to devise appropriate counter- measures and or provide the necessary support. These guidelines state that JICA’s projects must not deviate significantly from the World Bank’s Safeguard Policies, and that JICA should refer to the internationally recognised standards and good practices, including that of the international financial organisations, when appropriate.n To this end, JICA actively seeks harmonisation of its environmental and social procedures with procedures of developing partners, such as the World Bank and the ADB. As the previous paragraphs indicate, environmental assessment practices are not uniform across IODBs. However, their approach to EIA is similar in many ways, particularly in its approach to ring-fencing internationally-funded projects by using a method that mainly aims to “do no harm”. This is also PEPA’s approach, as discussed in the following section, which focuses on the effectiveness of EIA in Pakistan, based on three case studies supported by IODBs that illustrate such similarities. 6.4 Examining EIA Effectiveness Three case studies were completed during the preparation of this chapter, based on the EIAs prepared for the Pakistani railway development investment programme; the revival of Karachi Circular Railway; and the reconstruction of Berth 15-17A, including SRB’s 1and2 on East Wharves at Karachi Port. These case studies, summarized in the annex, exemplify current EIA practice in Pakistan. While they cannot be offered as a representative sample of EIA in Pakistan, they do spotlight some of the key features of current practices in the country. All three projects underwent a screening process; however, in all cases the requirement for a full-fledged EIA was dictated by a fixed list of projects determined by regulations, rather than by a tailored analysis of the characteristics of each project and the specific site in which they would be developed. Similarly, scoping of the EIAs was based on a need to comply with legal requirements, not necessarily on a participatory process through which potentially affected groups could voice their concerns and influence the reach of the environmental impacts study. The three cases included an analysis of alternatives; yet, these seem to be a justification of a previously selected option. In terms of the identification of project impacts and mitigation measures, the three EIAs recommend broad management practices or guidelines, e.g. “proper storage of waste” or “use of advanced construction techniques”, and do not provide any specific or quantitative indicators of the environmental management practices that will be implemented. In none of these cases were impacts quantified or mitigation measures 64 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1220. developed to alevel of detail that would support actual decisions related to the project design or operation. Similar lack of detail about impacts and mitigation measures was found in previous studies on EIA in Pakistan (Saeed et al. , 2012; Nadeem and Hameed, 2006). While all case studies seemingly engaged the public, there is no information that indicates that their concerns were systematically incorporated into the analysis of impacts or development of mitigation options.12 Thus, while the three EIAs met legal requirements and were approved by the competent authority, there is room to question their effectiveness in terms of the degree to which they influenced planning decisions. The findings of the case studies are consistent with several academic papers that have discussed ways in which EIAs in Pakistan comply with procedures set forth in PEPA and other regulations (Nadeem and Hameed, 2006; 2008; 2010 Riffat and Khan, 2006; Saeed et al. , 2012). However, there is much less certainty about the influence of EIA on Pakistan’s environmental quality and the effectiveness and efficiency of EIA tools. There has been little comparative review of EIA practices across all sectors, relative to existing and proposed legislation and international EIA standards13 . There has also been little comparative analysis of EIA effectiveness, particularly in regard to monitoring, follow-up and compliance with EIA commitments14 . The case studies suggest that EIA in practice may focus on meeting pro forma legal requirements, without necessarily adding value or modifying a proposed project in a way that fundamentally addresses its environmental impacts. In order to address these gaps, this section discusses the strengths and limitations of EIAs of projects funded by IODBs. IODB’s approach to EIA is similar in many ways, particularly in its approach to ring- fencing internationally-funded projects by using a method that mainly aims to “do no harm”, as discussed in Section 3 above. However, environmental assessment practices are not uniform across IODBs. A variety of policies among IODBs specify different types of EIA documents, terms of reference for EIA scope and content, timing for review and approval, and means of public consultation. In addition, EIA practices also differ among provinces and sectors, for example between water resources and defense. Similarly, EIA practice varies across sectors in Pakistan, where water resources and transport have developed some more advance practices. Notwithstanding these variations, the prevalent view by IODBs look at EIA as a tool aimed at designing environmental management plans based on detailed mitigation measures. According to this view, EIA is characterised by most IODBs as a compliance tool, to avoid harm to third parties, and as a risk management (safeguarding) framework. This definition incorporates the different objectives of EIA, including: l To anticipate and avoid, minimise or offset the adverse significant biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development proposals; and l To protect the capacity of natural systems and the ecological processes to maintain their functions. 65EIA Handbook for Pakistan 12 Nadeem and Fischer (2011) also find weak influence of public participation on substantive quality of EIA and decision- making. 13 See Saeed et al (2012), Nizami et al., (2011), and Riffat and Khan (2006) for a comparison of EIA procedures and practice in Pakistan compared with international best practices. 14 See Nadeem and Hameed (2010) for a review of monitoring, follow up and compliance with EIA commitments.
- 1221. According to theprevalent view, EIA goals associated with avoiding, minimising or mitigating environmental impacts to third parties are attained with the design and implementation of environmental and social management plans (ESMPs) that embody mitigation measures on: pollution control; conservation of biodiversity; management of forest, water and other natural resources; technical environmental specifications for sectoral environmental management; and in some cases, involuntary resettlement. The analysis of the case studies discussed above suggests that the focus of environmental assessment is geared towards approval of the project EIA rather than toward ensuring long-term environmental management and sustainability (Table 6.1). Scoping of EIAs without thorough and comprehensive public participation correlates with the low quality of EIAs (Saeed et al., 2011). Scoping (from terms of reference that are not tailored to the conditions of Pakistan) sometimes leads to largely descriptive exercises with a focus on baseline data collection (Saeed et al., 2011; Nadeem and Hameed, 2006). There is lesser emphasis given to the determination, prediction and analysis of project impacts. In many cases, the EIA practice does not include assessments of the cumulative effects of single projects (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010). 66 EIA Handbook for Pakistan EIA Component Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Was EIA Scoping conducted? Partial No No Was public participation involved in EIA Scoping? Partially No No Was EIA screening conducted? Yes Yes Yes Was an analysis of alternatives conducted? Partial Partial No Was baseline data sufficient for prediction of environmental impacts? Partial Partial Partial Were data gaps identified? No No No Was a quantitative evaluation of project impacts conducted? No No No Was consideration given to the assessment of cumulative effects or indirect project impacts? Yes No No Was an environmental management plan developed based on assessed project impacts? Yes Yes Yes Was there implementation of the environmental management plan and development of an environmental management system? Yes Yes Yes Was public consultation started at the earliest stage of the project and continued throughout the life of the project? Partially No Partially Was there a feedback in the consultation process to involve project-affected stakeholders in the EIA process? Partial No No Were broad public hearings held? Partial No No Was an EIA monitoring and follow-up programme developed by the company to assess the effectiveness of environmental and social management activities? Yes Yes Yes Table 6.1 Analysis of Case Studies compared to best international EIA procedural compliance Source: Authors. Note. Case studies are included in Annex 1 of this chapter.
- 1222. According to theADB (2008:ii) in Pakistan “The environment impact assessment (EIA) guidelines are not adequate to ensure effective appraisal of large infrastructure projects such as dams and mega water projects. A major challenge associated with the large infrastructure projects would be to address resettlement and compensation issues in the absence of a resettlement policy.” Public participation in the EIA process has been initiated in Pakistan and both formal and informal processes are in operation. By August of 2013, there was no standardised public consultation process among EIA practices of IODBs. Public participation, while initiated early in some cases, is only usually conducted at the time of the public hearing to discuss the draft EA report (Saeed et al. , 2011). Public participation in the EIA process in Pakistan is largely informative in nature: to apprise the public about coming projects and their legal rights, and to inform them about the project and its potential impacts and management. Formal public hearings are geared more towards dissemination of project information rather than providing a mechanism whereby public comment and input can enter the decision-making process and affect the outcome of approval decisions. The lack of consistency in the approach to and scope of public participation in Pakistan have made it difficult or impossible for the opinions of the most vulnerable groups of society. As in most countries with EIA systems, in Pakistan, the EIA follow-up and monitoring process is poorly developed (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010; Morrison-Saunders et al., 2007). The responsible authority at the provincial level grants the approval of the environmental impact assessment study. However, the responsible authority does not necessarily have budgetary resources or staff for the supervision and compliance of the project’s environmental and social management plans. Financial constraints often impede the ability for effective compliance monitoring in the field. Finally, monitoring reports are not available to the public for review and the public has no role in the EIA follow-up process. Several IODBs have allocated staff and resources to strengthen ESMP enforcement and follow-up. However, progress reports and ex-post evaluations of these activities are not available, publicly. Furthermore, at the time of EIA preparation, only preliminary engineering details are usually available. As underscored by the case studies reviewed in Annex 1 of this chapter, environmental management plans presented in EIA therefore are largely conceptual in nature and are intended to be a guideline as to how they will be implemented once detailed engineering design is finalised. The compliance monitoring entity is also directed by legal requirements that are more concerned with formal compliance than actual commitments made in the EIA. The overall result is a suboptimal EIA follow-up process (Nadeem and Hameed, 2010). Despite this situation, EIAs have made important contributions to Pakistan’s sustainable development, as discussed in the following section.15 67EIA Handbook for Pakistan 15 Nadeem and Hameed (2010) find that there are “some encouraging examples of public sector proponents who implemented many commitments made in the EMP of a Project”. However, they also note that such examples are rare.
- 1223. 6.5. Enhancing PositiveImpacts and Building Capacity through EIA As discussed in the previous sections, IODBs have significantly helped in the development of EIA approaches and practice in Pakistan, which have often prioritised procedural over substantive compliance. However, selected IODB-funded-projects in Pakistan have used environmental assessments to design activities meant to improve positive environmental impacts, and build environmental management capacity. The intent in this regard is to seek cost-effective synergies for increasing sustainability by promoting the systematic integration of environmental considerations into projects. The “beyond safeguard compliance” examples in this chapter demonstrate that the IODBs’ environmental assessment safeguards policies provide an entry point to promote the inclusion of components that go beyond the strict compliance of the safeguard policies and lead to positive environmental outcomes in projects and to strengthen client capacity. Enhancing Positive Impacts Some projects funded by IODBs have enhanced their positive environmental impacts and have developed environmental and social components instrumental in achieving project development objectives. Projects such as the World Bank-supported Sindh Education Sector Reform Programme, which addresses environmental impacts for a programme but on a school-by-school basis, provide evidence that the IODBs’ environmental assessments have taken advantage of safeguards policies to incorporate positive environmental outcomes as goals into projects. The objective of this project is to increase school participation, reduce gender and rural-urban disparities, increase progression from primary to secondary school, and improve the measurement of student learning in Pakistan’s Sindh Province. During the course of project preparation, a number of environmentally-related inadequacies in Sindh schools came to light, including health concerns associated with lack of adequate clean drinking water facilities; inadequate sanitation facilities; poor sunlight exposure in classrooms; groundwater contamination; and the risk of natural disasters as a result of the school’s location and structural design. The results of the environmental assessment led the project to incorporate environmental goals such as: seismic resistant structural designs for schools, design typologies for schools that reduce vulnerability to floods and other natural disasters, toilets designed to meet girls’ needs, energy-efficient architectural designs, and cost-effective interventions to remove arsenic and pathogens from water storage facilities (World Bank 2009). Strengthening Client Capacity Client capacity-building consists of supporting agencies that implement projects and policies, as well as NGOs, to strengthen their capacity for environmental management, including identifying key environmental issues, setting environmental priorities, designing and implementing environmental interventions, conducting environmental monitoring, evaluating studies, and enforcing environmental requirements (Margulis and Vetleseter, 1999). Many IODBs projects necessarily include some client capacity strengthening, since even conducting an environmental assessment is initially beyond the capacity of many 68 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1224. implementing agencies. However,the IODB’s emphasis on client capacity-building has room for improvement, as client capacity-building has been carried out on an ad-hoc basis. For example, the IFC’s “Performance Standards on Environmental and Social Sustainability”, which include environmental assessment and environmental management systems as instrumental tools, incorporate client capacity-building as part of their essential design. Most IFC projects entail environmental assessment and, if necessary, strengthening of the environmental management systems of their development partners (IFC, 2012). Two case studies illustrate the use of EIAs to build environmental management capacity at the provincial level in the irrigation and education sectors. With support of the ADB and the World Bank, the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) implemented one of the most successful programmes in institutional strengthening in the water resources sector at the end of the 2000s. The agency also established a strategy to strengthen its environmental management together with an organisational restructuring centered on an Environmental Section with staff highly qualified in engineering and environmental sciences. A multidisciplinary team was created with highly qualified specialists, including civil engineers, agronomists, biologists and geographers, whose principal duties relate to the mitigation of negative environmental impacts and enhancement of the positive effects of water resources projects. A key role of the Environmental Section is to support the national and provincial environmental protection agencies in the sustainable environmental management of water resources projects. The strategy identified two objectives: (a) to obtain and maintain leadership in the rational use and protection of national natural resources, such as conservation of the natural environment; and (b) to minimise negative impacts and maximise positive impacts of road projects on the environment and natural resources (Afzal and Hussain, 1996; World Bank, 1997). In another case, the environmental assessment for the Punjab Irrigation Development Policy Loan led to include reforms aimed at strengthening the capacity of the Punjab’s Irrigation Department for assessing and mitigating social and environmental risks associated with asset management activities. As a result, a Social and Environmental Management Unit was set up within that Department, which is fully staffed and functional even after Bank funding to this Department ended. Some of the landmarks achieved by the capacity-building programme include the development and implementation of guidelines for the identification of social and environmental risks associated with the maintenance and rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure. These guidelines include a comprehensive capacity development programme for the technical staff in the Irrigation Department to increase its awareness on social and environmental issues. Implementation of guidelines is fully institutionalised and includes regular dissemination of environmental activities through a newsletter. In Pakistan, an ex-post evaluation found that, as an instrument, the DPL is a more powerful tool in introducing long-lasting and sustainable reforms than a standard investment loan, which has a more project-based approach (World Bank, 2010b). While EIAs at the project level can produce significant achievements in terms of enhancing positive impacts and building institutional capacity, environmental 69EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1225. assessments at thepolicy level offer further opportunities, as discussed in the following section. 6.6 Insights from SEA Experience in Pakistan This chapter has focused, up to this point, on the EIA of specific infrastructure projects. In this section, the discussion centers on strategic environmental assessments (SEA), an analytical and participatory decision-making process for integrating environmental and sustainability considerations into policies, plans, and programmes. Although SEA came into use primarily over the last two decades and was first popularized in developed countries, SEA’s value and potential for Pakistan has been acknowledged since the early 1990s (World Bank, 1995; Afzal and Hussain, 1996; World Bank, 1997). The section characterises the evolution of SEA application and distinguishes between two main types of SEA, as applied by IODBs in Pakistan. The section also evaluates the relative degree of influence of policy SEAs from 2004 to 2014 and summarises their conclusions. Even before the year 2001, when the European Union’s SEA Directive16 entered into force and when SEAs received a new impetus and validation through the World Bank’s first Environment Strategy, there were important stirrings of SEA activity in Pakistan. Sectoral and regional environmental assessments had already been undertaken and completed in sectors such as irrigation and drainage (National Engineering Services Pakistan (PVT) Limited; Mott MacDonald International Limited. 1993, World Bank, 1995; Afzal and Hussain, 1996; World Bank, 1997). In this regard, Naim (2002) acknowledges “SEA look-alike” activities that had already occurred in relation to Pakistan’s water and drainage programmes and the 1995 IUCN National Conservation Strategy. This review identified seven World Bank-supported SEAs undertaken in Pakistan between 1993 and early 2012. A trend was seen in the use of different types of SEA instruments over time. In Pakistan, there has been a definite shift in the use of certain types of SEA instruments after 2004. Prior to 2004, only SEAs for programmes and large projects were done, with a few differences from EIAs. The post-2004 shift in SEA titling and greater use of policy SEA instruments may be explained by the World Bank’s Environment Strategy, which acknowledged the need for upstream analysis of social and environmental conditions and risks and mentioned policy SEA and Country Environmental Analysis as tools to mainstream environmental considerations into public policies (World Bank, 2001; Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 2005). Then, in 2005, the World Bank established a SEA Pilot Programme to test and promote institution-centered SEA approaches in policy and sector reform, providing grants and specialised assistance. Several of these pilots were carried out in Pakistan and are profiled in Table 6.2. 70 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 16 Formally titled Directive 2001/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment.
- 1226. EIA-like SEAs, centeredmainly on the impacts of programmes, made up the bulk of SEA experience prior to 2004 and were undertaken to comply with “safeguard” policies of international development organisations. After 2004, policy SEAs have increasingly been used in Pakistan to mainstream environmental sustainability, social issues, and poverty alleviation into public policy design and implementation. Given that EIA-like SEAs use the same procedures and methods of EIAs, except for addressing cumulative and large- scale impacts of megaprojects, there are no significant differences between a comprehensive EIA and an EIA-like SEA in terms of methodols and arguably, also in terms of influencing decision-making (Tetlow and Hanusch, 2012). Policy SEA is defined as: “an analytical and participatory approach for incorporating environmental, social, and climate change considerations in sector reforms” (World Bank et al., 2011). Institution- centered SEAs, formally piloted in the World Bank since 2005, focus on identifying environmental priorities, assessing institutions and governance systems and assessing alternative policy actions. Policy SEAs are acknowledged to require “a particular focus on the political, institutional, and governance context underlying decision-making processes” (World Bank et al., 2011, p. 2).17 The objective of policy SEAs is different from that of EIA-like-SEAs, particularly as it includes: l Identifying environmental priorities for poverty alleviation and analysis of the capacity of natural resources and environmental services to support sector-wide economic activities and sector growth; l Highlighting institutional and governance gaps or constraints affecting environmental and social sustainability; l Promoting capacity-building and institutional, legal, and regulatory adjustments critical for environmental and social sustainability of sector reforms; l Strengthening accountability on the management of environmental and social risks through increasing transparency and empowering weaker stakeholders; and l Institutionalising social learning processes around the design and implementation of public policies (World Bank et al., 2011). 71EIA Handbook for Pakistan 17 A succinct presentation of insights and guidance on Policy SEA can be found in World Bank et al., 2011, et al. (2011). Table 6.2. Selected SEAs Undertaken in Pakistan SEA Title Year* Sector Type National Drainage Programme Project 1993 Agriculture Sectoral EA Highway Rehabilitation Project Sectoral Social and Environmental Assessment 2003 Transport Sectoral SEA Balochistan Small Scale Irrigation Project 2005 Agriculture Cumulative EA Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Assessment 2006 Country CEA Pakistan Strategic Environmental, Poverty and Social Assessment of Freight Transport Sector Reforms 2011 Transport Policy SEA Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability into Pakistan’s Industrial Development 2012 Industry Policy SEA Strategic Sectoral Environmental and Social In Assessment of Indus Basin (in progress) progress Water Policy SEA Source: Authors. *Year of publication or disclosure. Acronyms: CEA-Country Environmental Analysis; EA- Environmental Assessment; SEA-Strategic Environmental Assessment.
- 1227. Several policy SEAsdeveloped in Pakistan after 2004 raised public awareness, promoted debate nationwide, and led to design environmentally sustainable public policies. Being among the most influential policy SEAs, the Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Analysis; the Sindh Environmental and Climate Change Priorities SEA, the Strategic Environmental, Poverty and Social Assessment of Freight Transport Reforms (SEPSA), and the Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability into Pakistan’s Industrial Development SEA are highlighted here. Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability into Pakistan’s Industrial Development SEA was initiated at the end of 2009 to mainstream sustainability into Pakistan’s Industrial Competitiveness. The SEA was steered by a High Level Committee set up by the Ministry of Industries, representing the federal government, four provincial governments, academia, NGOs, the private sector and the World Bank. The SEA promoted a consensus building process that resulted in the formulation of a coherent and sustainable industrialisation strategy. The SEA stresses that industrial structural change, spatial transformation and improvements in infrastructure in industrial clusters are needed if Pakistan is to realise gains in economic efficiency and competitiveness, especially in export markets. This in turn requires a cross-sectoral approach that has been endorsed by the Planning Commission and the Ministry of Industries, which has requested programmematic lending support for the implementation of Pakistan’s green industrial growth strategy (Sánchez-Triana, Ortolano and Afzal, 2012; Sánchez-Triana et al., 2014). Sindh Environmental and Climate Change Priorities SEA. At the request of the Government of Sindh (GoS) in 2010, the World Bank initiated a non-lending technical assistance (NLTA) on the Sindh Province with the objectives of: (i) creating a mechanism for ranking the province’s environmental problems; (ii) assessing the efficiency and cost- effectiveness of alternative interventions to address priority environmental problems; and (iii) identifying the policy reforms, technical assistance, and investments that are needed to strengthen environmental sustainability in Sindh. As in the previous case, this SEA was steered by a high level committee integrated by representatives from the provincial government, business associations, environmental NGOs and other stakeholders. The SEA stressed that, currently, there is no priority setting mechanism in Sindh and the scarce available resources are not used to address the categories of environmental degradation that are causing the most significant effects. This SEA constituted the first formal assessment of the severity of environmental degradation in the province. It also provided a roadmap for carrying out investments, policy reforms and institutional strengthening activities that would result in better environmental conditions. The methods and approach adopted by the NLTA can be replicated in the future to evaluate progress in improving environmental conditions; identifying policy and intervention improvements; and determining the most efficient use of scarce resources (Sánchez- Triana et al., forthcoming). Strategic Environmental, Poverty and Social Assessment of Freight Transport Reforms (SEPSA). In order to ensure meaningful discussion among key stakeholders in the identification of specific sustainability criteria that would be incorporated into freight transport reforms, the GoP and the Bank held a series of workshops during 2009 to 72 EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1228. scope out thestudies that would be completed using methods developed for policy SEA and poverty and social impact analysis (PSIA). This gave rise to the Pakistan Strategic Environmental, Poverty and Social Assessment of Freight Transport Reforms (SEPSA). The environmental management component of SEPSA focused on the environmental aspects of investments and reforms in the trade and transport sector, particularly freight. The potential environmental effects of three strategic alternatives were analysed: (i) the “no reforms” alternative; (ii) policy reform and investment in the road freight sector; and, (iii) policy reform and investment in the rail freight sector. Each alternative was evaluated based on the set of priority issues identified jointly with stakeholders (climate change, air quality, transport of hazardous materials, road and railway safety, urban sprawl and accessibility, and environmental management systems) to assess their potential environmental and social implications. The PSIA was prepared to identify potential social and distributional impacts of transport sector reforms on stakeholder groups, employing a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model that uses actual economic data to simulate how an economy might react to changes in policy or other external factors. The PSIA identified the main effects of proposed policy reforms and developed a menu of options to: mitigate negative impacts; incorporate poverty alleviation measures into the design of transport reforms and projects; enhance positive effects on poverty alleviation; and address environmental and social priorities. Strong governance and institutional capacity in sectoral and environmental agencies were highlighted as indispensable for the adoption of the options identified. Findings from the Pakistan SEPSA include that a modal shift from road freight to rail freight transport for long hauls would have significant environmental and social benefits; that environmental issues should not be considered in isolation from social ones, particularly in situations in which policy reforms could increase the risk of social conflict; and, that understanding social patterns and conflicts illuminates the feasibility and weaknesses of potential solutions and needed mitigation measures. To stimulate economic growth, employment, and poverty reduction, reforms to promote industrial competitiveness need to be made along with significant investments in increasing road density to improve the connectivity of industrial clusters to domestic and international markets. Strengthening the infrastructure of urban centers to receive rural and inter- provincial migrants is also required (Sánchez-Triana, Afzal, Biller and Malik, 2013). Pakistan Strategic Country Environmental Analysis (SCEA). Completed by the World Bank in 2007, the SCEA involved the identification of environment-poverty priorities, assessment of relevant environmental policies and institutions, and institutional analysis linked with identified themes and sectors (World Bank, 2007). The objective of the SCEA process centered on four principal tasks: identification of priority environmental concerns for sustainable, poverty-reducing development; analysis of the policies affecting the priority environmental concerns; assessment of environmental management capacity and performance in relation to the identified priorities; and development of a set of proposals to support improvements in the management of key environmental concerns. It involved an analysis of cost of environmental degradation analysis (COED). Identified priority problems included outdoor and indoor air pollution, 73EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1229. inadequate water supply,sanitation and hygiene, soil quality, and strengthening institutions for environmental management. As a result of the COED’s quantification of economic losses from environmental degradation, other priorities for additional action and Bank support emerged, such as reducing the threat of air pollution to human health and the need to better control urban and industrial effluent in urban centers. The SCEA influenced the environmental content of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and was meant to serve the donor community more widely as well as to guide World Bank environmental support to Pakistan (World Bank, 2007). Pakistan Country Environmental Analysis (CEA). Prepared by the ADB in 2008, the CEA identified the following priority areas of investment: (i) access to basic sanitation and safe water for all; (ii) achieving energy efficiency; (iii) checking urban air pollution; (iv) improving agricultural productivity; and (v) establishing public-private partnerships for cleaner production and the treatment of industrial effluents. The CEA also proposed a series of reforms, technical assistance and investments to build the country’s capacity to address identified priorities. An analysis of the profiled policy SEAs identifies similar features: robust stakeholder participation, client ownership, and temporal coordination with the county’s development priorities and processes. They also tend to be done in ways that are collaborative, evolving, and ongoing rather than as a safeguard clearance requirement which may receive heavier attention during project preparation than during project implementation (Slunge and Loayza, 2012). A noteworthy strength of recent policy SEAs in Pakistan is an often explicit attention to social and poverty issues, particularly when linked to sectoral or environment-related reforms. This encompassing approach is consistent with the guidance of the OECD- DAC (2006, p. 42), which lists the first benefit of SEA as “safeguard[ing] the environmental assets and opportunities upon which all people depend, particularly the poor, and so promot[ing] sustainable poverty reduction and development.” Through public consultations and outreach, policy SEAs were able to ensure that some of the follow-up actions focused on poverty alleviation and addressing citizen and stakeholder concerns. The importance of these actions cannot be overemphasised, particularly considering that EIAs were initially conceived as a tool to engage stakeholders and open up decision-making to public scrutiny, but as this chapter’s previous sections indicate, have become environmental management tools in which the value of public participation and robust analysis of environmental impacts to inform decision-making has been sidelined in the interest of procedural compliance. 6.7 Conclusions Results with EIAs conducted for projects financed by IODBs in Pakistan overall have been mixed in terms of procedural and substantive compliance. The EIAs for projects financed by IODBs tend to be done primarily to meet these organisations’ clearance requirements and to minimise their “reputational risk18 ”. The main indicator of procedural 74 EIA Handbook for Pakistan 18 Policies issued by IODBs do not define the concept of reputational risk. Furthermore, these organisations have not operationalized or measured reputational risk in terms of the IODBs’ assets value.
- 1230. compliance is givenby the percentage of projects subject to investigations by CAO or Inspection Panel type of organisations. Overall, the number of cases subject to these investigations in agencies like the ADB, the International Financial Corporation or the World Bank, has been less than 1% of the projects supported. Procedural compliance with internal policies of international development agencies has been achieved to a large extent. In terms of substantive compliance, there is little evidence to demonstrate the influence of EIA on decision-making. Most EIAs for IODB-supported projects are often initiated too late in project or programme preparation to be truly strategic and tend to be weak in their analysis of alternatives and cumulative effects. Most of these EIAs seldom enhance environmental planning or significantly open up decision-making to public scrutiny. On the positive side, there is evidence that environmental management plans provide value- added particularly in areas with lack of precise regulations such as biodiversity conservation or re-vegetation. The strengths and weaknesses of EIAs can be found in EIA-like-SEAs Different from EIA-like-SEAs, the profiled policy SEAs generally led to significant influence by identifying environmental priorities associated with poverty alleviation, highlighting governance gaps or constraints, promoting capacity-building, strengthening accountability and transparency, and empowering weaker stakeholders. Policy SEAs are a versatile instrument, proving their use in a range of contexts and sectors in Pakistan, including water resources, energy, transport, and regional development. Policy SEA and CEA benefits include: providing data, highlighting governance gaps or constraints, promoting capacity-building, strengthening accountability and transparency, and empowering weaker stakeholders. In Pakistan, because of the extent of stakeholder participation to validate the process, ownership by Pakistani decision-makers, and strategic timing of analytical work and social learning process with respect to country actions and priorities, policy SEAs, in the last several years, have tended to be more widely influential than traditional EIAs. Recent policy and institution SEAs in Pakistan prioritise identifying and addressing environment-linked social and poverty issues, and this added understanding has proved valuable for: formulating mitigation measures to address vulnerabilities of various groups; reducing the cost of environmental degradation on human health; and greening growth. Awareness among Pakistan’s decision makers of SEA’s benefits is still limited and should be strengthened, particularly with respect to SEA’s potential. Given SEA’s proven value in Pakistan, greater attention needs to be paid to the ongoing financing for undertaking SEAs, since these have largely relied on trust funds and grants whose availability is rapidly diminishing in the current economic climate. To conclude, SEA can play an active role in helping address pressing environmental and social issues so that Pakistan’s growth becomes increasingly green, more competitive in regional and international markets, and conducive to improvement of living standards for urban and rural populations along the income spectrum. SEAs, particularly those that also unravel and illumine social issues and institutional bottlenecks, offer crucial insights 75EIA Handbook for Pakistan
- 1231. and information foraddressing key priorities and challenges in the region. Most notably, Pakistan has strong partners in the analytical work and takes forward the findings and recommendations of its own initiative, oftentimes with new requests for development partner support or follow up. This is occurring not only with respect to environment ministries, but ministries of industry and other productive sectors. Policy SEA is proving itself as a tool to green sectors, regional development, and national development. Annex: EIA process – Case Studies from International Organisations and Development Banks In order to support the findings of this chapter, three EIAs from the transport sector were reviewed as case studies to assess the EIA preparation, review and approval process against established best international EIA practice (Tables A.1 - A.3 on the EIAs of the Pakistani railway development investment programme; the revival of Karachi Circular Railway and the reconstruction of Berth 15-17A including SRB’s 1and2 on East Wharves at Karachi Port). The tables below summarize the information provided in each EIA report.19 76 EIA Handbook for Pakistan EIA Report Project Description Screening Scoping EIA Preparation Analysis of Alternatives Summary Proponent: Pakistan Railways (PR). Project objective: complete track renewal and rehabilitation of 132.34 km from Lahore to Lalamusa (in the Punjab province), including the rehabilitation of the Lahore, Shahdara and Wazirabad railway yards. Financed by the ADB. The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Review of IEE and EIA) Regulation 2000 requires an EIA for all railways projects. The report indicated that the overall results of the screening process identified that possible impacts are expected to be temporary and could be mitigated or reduced by implementing proper environmental management plans throughout the project cycle. A detailed site visit was carried out for collecting primary and secondary data to identify and establish the Corridor of Impact and mitigation measures required to minimise the adverse impacts. According to the report, three different alternatives were evaluated: “No Project”. This alternative was estimated to result in further worsening of the present safety and environmental conditions and increased disturbance to residents of the area and the surrounding road users. “Rehabilitation and Doubling of the Existing Alignment”. This option was rejected because the traffic projections did not justify doubling the line. Table A.1: Case 1. Environmental Impact Assessment - Pakistan: Railway Development Investment Programme (Project 1) (March, 2011). 19 This annex is based on a 2011 World Bank consulting report prepared by A. M. Salamanca
- 1232. 77EIA Handbook forPakistan Major Impacts Authority responsible for EIA Evaluation and Decision Mitigation Measures EIA Follow-up Public Participation EIA Conclusions “Rehabilitation of the Existing Alignment”. This option was selected. While it helps to improve the operational conditions of the railway along the study corridor, it also helps accommodate future traffic growth through improvements that only entail impacts that can be mitigated and minimal environmental impacts. During construction: temporary effects caused by construction machinery, equipment and vehicles, as well as from workers’ daily activities. These included impacts on air quality, water quality, noise and vibrations, soil, and generation of hazardous and solid wastes. Operational phase: impacts from the operation of trains and stations’ daily activities. These included impacts on air quality, water quality, noise and vibrations, soil, generation of hazardous and solid wastes, and safety due to pedestrian and livestock crossing the tracks. Punjab Environmental Protection Agency. During rehabilitation: adoption of good management practices, such as the use of appropriate equipment, adequate scheduling of operations, location of worker camps in areas away from water bodies and agricultural lands, and adoption of waste management plans. Operational phase: adequate management practices, such as maintenance of equipment and locomotives, instructions to locomotive operators, and proper handling of hazardous wastes. Erecting walls to serve as noise barriers and impede pedestrians and livestock from crossing in inadequate spots. Use of environmentally-friendly equipment like solar water heaters and water saving devices for stations. PR will be responsible for the development and implementation of the monitoring plan for the operational phase, in cooperation with the Environmental Protection Agency (National and Punjab). Provincial and local authorities would need to provide authorisations for water use, cutting trees, and ensuring that workers camps and plants met legal requirements. Four public consultative meetings were held in Shahdara, Gujranwala, Wazirabad, and Lalamusa. The report concludes that “the EIA shows that no major negative environmental impacts are expected as a result of the rehabilitation. This has been mainly attributed to the nature of the works, which include rehabilitation works only as opposed to new construction”. 20 Available at http://pakrail.com/tender_files/460_EIA%2004012011.pdf Source: Authors based on Pakistan Railways (2011)20
- 1233. 78 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan EIA Report Project Description Screening Scoping EIA Preparation Analysis of Alternatives Major impacts Authority responsible for EIA Evaluation and Decision Summary and Observations Project proponent: Karachi Urban Transport Corporation (KUTC). Project objective: doubling of KCR Loop (29 km) with 9.320 km elevated track and provision of two dedicated tracks along the main line from Karachi Cantt to Drigh Road (14 km) and connection of Jinnah International Airport (6.0 km extension) with either underground or elevated track. Financed by JICA. The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Review of IEE and EIA) Regulation 2000 requires an EIA for all railways projects. Based on meetings with KUTC officials; preliminary meetings with stakeholders on the KCR track; and a collection of maps and existing information. The EIA was designed to address the regulatory requirements as well as to make it acceptable to KUTC, JICA, and EPA Sindh. Four alternatives were considered: “No project”. Rejected because traffic problems and associated environmental health problems would persist; “Revival of KCR”. The report finds this would be the preferred alternative to alleviate the transportation problems of Karachi provided the deficiencies in its past performance were removed and reforms in the management system were effectively introduced to strengthen the existing KCR infrastructure; “Horizontal alignment of KCR”. Alignment cannot be changed because the RoW of KCR land is fixed along the existing KCR and Main Railway track; and “An alternative power supply traction system”. This could be pursued through three options including DC 1, 500V, AC 25kV and AC2x 25kV for power supply to the traction system, each of which would need further elaboration. During construction: temporary effects on air quality, noise and vibrations, water quality, soil contamination, generation of hazardous and solid wastes, and traffic congestion, caused by construction activities. During the operational phase: impacts from the operation of trains and daily activities of depots and stations, including both positive effects, such as air quality improvement due to electric train operation and improved traffic conditions on the road, negative impacts such as noise and waste generation. Government of Sindh’s Environmental Protection Agency Table A.2: Case 2. Environmental Impact Assessment- Revival of Karachi Circular Railway (KCR)- January, 2009.
- 1234. 79EIA Handbook forPakistan Mitigation Measures EIA Follow-up Public Participation EIA Conclusions During construction: use of advanced railway construction techniques, development of a waste management programme and proper routing around site areas. During the operational phase: erect a sound barrier wall, which would also act as safety wall. A solid waste collection system would be provided and hazardous waste treatment would be required. Other mitigation measures consisted of treatment of waste-water and maintenance of infrastructure and equipment. The report stated that a “resettlement action will be prepared that includes monetary compensation, relocation, resettlement and rehabilitation.” Pakistan Railways would be responsible for the overall management of KUTC. Preliminary meetings were held with stakeholders on the KCR track to obtain their views on the construction of the road and on information to support the study. The report concluded “[t]he Revival of Karachi Circular Railway Project would vitalise Karachi, solve its traffic problems extensively and make a major contribution towards improving the living standard of the people of the city.” Source: Authors based on EMC (2009).21 21 Available at: http://www.kutckcr.com/files/KCR-EIA-Final-Report-_opt.pdf
- 1235. 80 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan EIA Report Project Description Screening Scoping EIA Preparation Analysis of Alternatives Major impacts Authority responsible for EIA Evaluation and Decision Observations Project proponent: Karachi Port Trust (KPT). Project objective: undertake the reconstruction of berths 15-17 A and Ship Repair Berths (SRB) 1and 2 on East Wharves at the Karachi Port to eliminate waiting time for ships and yield savings in marine transport costs. Funded by IBRD and IFC. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency (Review of IEE and EIA) Regulation 2000 states that ports and harbour development for ships of 500 gross tons and above require an EIA. Scoping Each impact identified was evaluated against its significance in terms of its severity and the likelihood of its occurrence, considering its effects on the natural ecosystem. Impacts were classified based on project phases (pre- construction, construction and operation) and type (physical, biological and socio-economic). The method included meeting with the KPT; collection of primary and secondary data; analysis of alternatives; public consultation; review of the legislative requirements; impact assessments; identification of mitigation measures; development of environmental management plan; and documentation of EIA report. Four alternatives were considered: (1) no project option, (2) relocation of berths to idle part of the harbor, (3) increase in cargo handling capacity of other operational berth to compensate for the loss due to unavailability of these berths and (4) deepening of harbour channel to accommodate more ships at the existing berths. The report did not include the analysis of these alternatives. During construction: waste generation; air quality; soil contamination; water quality; dredging and reclamation; benthic flora and fauna; noise and vibration; public health and safety; and impacts on employment, as well as on historical, archeological and cultural property. During operation: air quality, noise, vibrations, accidental oil spills, waste generation and contamination of sea-water. Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, because the Karachi Port is located on Federal land. Table A.3: Case 3: Environmental Impact Assessment of Reconstruction of Berth 15-17A including SRB’s-1 and 2 on East Wharves at Karachi Port (May 2010)
- 1236. 81EIA Handbook forPakistan Mitigation Measures EIA Follow-up Public Participation EIA Conclusions Design and pre-construction phase: adequate design and construction, cautionary signage, identification of noise sources, and safe transport of the demolition material through use of well-maintained vehicles and proper training of the drivers, among others. Construction phase: elaboration of a waste management plan, worker use of protective devices, provision of adequate facilities for workers, proper storage of hazardous materials, and adequate maintenance of equipment and vehicles, among others. Operational phase: adequate management practices and compliance with existing norms and regulations. These include ensuring compliance with noise emission standards, appropriate procedures for handling and storage of hazardous cargoes, and cleaning of spills of oil, toxic chemicals etc. as early as possible, among others. The report recommends engaging an Independent Monitoring Consultant to oversee the adoption of the mitigation measures. KPT would be responsible for implementing the EMP. Meetings were held with the communities living in Baba, Bhit and Shams Pir Island, IUCN, WWF, an international contractor working in the harbour, shipping agents and Port Traffic and Safety Departments of the KPT to discuss the project, its components and its expected environmental and socio- economic impacts and proposed mitigation measures. The EIA established baseline data for air quality, sub-sea soil, noise and sea- water quality and recommends strengthening it by conducting monitoring during the pre-construction phase until the Pak EPA approves the project. It also recommends strengthening KPT’s Pollution Control Department’s capacity for environmental monitoring. Source: Authors based on KTP (2010)22 22 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2010/05/12315319/pakistan-karachi-port-improvement-project- environmental-assessment-environmental-impact-assessment-reconstruction-berth-15-17a-including-srbs-1-2-east- wharves-karachi-port
- 1237. 82 EIA Handbookfor Pakistan Public participation is a mandatory requirement in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in Pakistan and many other countries. Although public hearings are held for every development project which undergoes an EIA process, their efficacy with regard to achieving the objective of adequately considering stakeholders’ genuine concerns in the final outcome of EIA is questionable. Public hearing as a mechanism of involving people does not facilitate stakeholders to influence decisions. The Pakistani practice demonstrates that it begins after procuring the project site and even the start of construction and that the proponents take it largely as a formality. The effectiveness of public participation in EIA can possibly be enhanced by; involving the public as early as possible in the project planning and development cycle through a participation mechanism which facilitates more interactive communication; shared analysis; negotiations and trade-offs; as well as involving independent experts/environmentalists in the EIA review, public participation and decision making processes. 7.1 Introduction It is said that “EIA is not EIA without consultation and participation” (Wood, 2003, p.275). Consultation refers to a process in which the affected and interested people i.e.stakeholders are invited to comment on documentation/ the EIA report. Participation is an engagement process in which the public is invited to exchange information, views and predictions and thus contribute to decision making (Fischer, 2007). Consulting the public to provide EIA related information and considering their concerns pertaining to probable environmental and socio-economic impacts of development projects in decision-making are some of its core objectives. Enhancing its effectiveness in terms of influencing the final decisions through various mechanisms has been the central theme in the relevant literature (O’Faircheallaigh, 2010; Glucker, 2013). The degree to which the interested and potentially affected public or stakeholders of a project are involved in EIA process varies across the globe. It has been increasingly suggested that the public should be involved during the various stages of EIA process, including: screening, scoping, impact assessment, identification of mitigation measures, review of EIA report, 7 Public Participation Practice in EIA in Pakistan By Obaidullah Nadeem and Rizwan Hameed
- 1238. implementation and monitoring(Fischer and Nadeem, 2013; Heiland, 2005; Canter, 1996). A wide range of mechanisms or techniques are used for this purpose. Most common methods include: public hearings, public meetings, community advisory groups and focus groups (Chess and Purcell, 1999). International experience suggests that public hearings are a relatively weak mechanism of public participation. It may result in a complicated situation as more voiced groups with vested interest in the project tend to influence or hijack the consultation process (Naim, 2004). Other techniques, by their very nature, provide a more interactive environment, particularly for mediation and trade- offs (Beierle and Cayford, 2002). Notwithstanding the practice of more interactive procedures, the public participation/stakeholders’ concerns tend to have a weak influence on the final decision/EIA outcomes in most countries (Nadeem et al., 2014). This chapter portrays the practice of public participation in EIA in Pakistan. The first section establishes its legal and institutional context. The second section discusses the ways in which the public is consulted during EIA studies. The third section explores the methods of inviting the public for written comments and public hearings. The next two sections describe the public hearing proceedings. Substantive quality in terms of considering stakeholders’ concerns in EIA reports is then examined. The extent to which stakeholders’ concerns influence the final outcome is determined. This is followed by a critical analysis of the degree of transparency of the decision-making process and the way decisions are disseminated. The penultimate section discusses the significance and practice of post-EIA public participation. The final section presents some concluding remarks. 7.2 Legal and Institutional Context Pakistan’s Federal Environmental Protection Act 1997 §12(3), the Provincial Acts (the Punjab Environmental Protection Act 1997 §12(3) and the Balochistan Environment Protection Act 2012 §15(1)), require the concerned environmental protection agencies (EPAs) to carry out EIA review with public participation. EPAs have been established in the Federal Capital as well as in all the provinces, including Gilgit-B