The document summarizes key points from Chapter 4 of Elusive Villages regarding economic adaptations in the villages of Hajipur and Tinpara. It discusses how population increase has led to land fragmentation and scarcity. Agriculture is the main economic activity, with rice as the primary crop grown, though production is impacted by reliance on monsoon rains and traditional practices. Land ownership determines social class, with landless laborers at the bottom and rich creditors at the top. Money lending systems like mortgaging land and sharecropping are important due to many villagers borrowing more than half the value of their farms.

1. ECONOMIC
ADAPTATIONS TO
THE DELTAIC
ENVIRONMENT
Presented By: Sabuj Hossen
Student ID :191633, 4th Year
Sociology Discipline,
Khulna University, Khulna
Elusive Villages
Chapter: IV
Course: Sociology of Bangladesh

2. Economic Adaptations to the
Deltaic Environment
It means how population, environment and technology
have contributed to an economy of scarcity and how
fluence on the adaptation and quality of social life in
Hajipur and Tinpara villages people.
01
(Bertocci, 1970,Page: 56)

3. Economic Adaptations to the Deltaic Environment
❑ In Elusive Villages, Chapter four, the writer showed-
✓ The impact of population increase and density on economy
✓ The pattern of Agricultural System in Villages Hajipur and Tinpara
✓ Problems in Agriculture
✓ Land Ownership & Subsistence
✓ Money Lending and Land Rent System
✓ Cultivators Classed By Land Ownership
✓ The pattern and quality of social life in these villages.
02
(Bertocci, 1970,Page: 56-72)

4. ❑ Population pressure and its influence on land tenure are major factors
in a total economy of scarcity.
❑ The basis of that economy was rice Agri-culture. Ninety percent of the
cropped area of the thana was devoted to the cultivation of rice, with
sugar cane, local vegetables, pulses, and spices comprising subsidiary
crops.
❑ The soils was in mixtures of sand and clay. It was very fertile because
of Brahmaputra alluvium. Yet, the crops were not produced enough
because off low water supply.
Agricultural System
03
(Bertocci, 1970,Page: 56-57)

5. Agricultural System
The Bengali peasants were mainly depend on monsoon. Basically, there were
three types of crops in these villages. Such as-
1. Aus: It begins with the first rainfall in early Spring, aiming at a mid-July
harvest.
2. Amon: It was cutting in late December and early January
3. Boro: The third crop (boro) in the intervening dry season is possible only
on plots of land located near sources of water - rivers, streams, or man-
made ponds.
Mainly there were two major crops a year in that time.
04
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:57)

6. Problems in Monsoon Agriculture
Mainly there were three Problems in Monsoon Agriculture. Such as-
❑ If the rains do not fall early enough: The chances for 2 full crops are
diminished for lack of time.
❑ If the rains fall too heavily: The crops are not cultivate enough because
of flood & natural disasters.
❑ If the monsoon ends too early in the year: There is possibility that the
standing crop will not receive sufficient moisture. Besides, the growth
will be greatly reduced.
05
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:57)

7. Other Problems in Agriculture
❑ Fragmentation and scattered location of land plots.
❑ Use of traditional equipment: Such as- iron-tipped wooden plow, bullock-
traction and household compost.
❑ Traditional irrigation system: Such as- Bamboo-woven “water shovels”
(heyat), which was controlled by two person. The another one was a scoop-
shaped type (hat heyat), which can be used by a single man. But these
techniques cannot bring large amounts of water over long distances to sun-
parched plots of rice.
06
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:58-59)

8. Land Ownership & Subsistence
The writer suggested that in Comilla thana,
❑ The cultivator who has the average of 1.5 acres of land or less finds
great difficulty in maintaining adequate levels of subsistence.
❑ On the other hand. The man with 2 acres of land or better can meet his
family's needs more adequately.
But many with these amounts or less are obliged at some time or other to
borrow either food or cash or otherwise to work for wages and rent land.
07
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:60)

9. Money Lending and Land Rent System
In the 18th century in Bengal, during the Mughal era, the revenue collection
system was complex and involved various tiers of intermediaries. According
to Calkin, the role and dependence of Mustajirs are-
❑ Mustajirs: Mustajirs were individuals who operated at the lower levels
of the revenue collection system over one or several areas known as
"mausas." These individuals were responsible for collecting taxes from
the local population on behalf of the Mughal authorities.
08
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:61)

10. Money Lending and Land Rent System
❑ Dependence on Local Mahajans: The mustajirs were dependent on the
local mahajans (moneylenders or financiers) to finance their revenue
collection activities.
❑ Dependence of Large Landlords: Not only the mustajirs but even large
landlords, such as the Rajas of Tippera, found themselves dependent on
banks to pay their rent quotas in some years.
❑ Ijara System: The ijara system was a form of tax collection where the
revenue collection rights were leased out or auctioned to the highest bidder.
This system allowed the state to generate revenue .
09
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:61)

11. Money Lending and Land Rent System
Four Basic Ways of Lending and Borrowing:
1. Lending without Collateral: In this method, individuals provide loans to
others without securing any assets as collateral. Many villagers, especially
the poorest among them, were heavily indebted. They had borrowed money,
particularly in the form of rice loans.
2. Mortgaging Land (Bandak): In rural areas, individuals often use their land
as collateral (Bandak) when borrowing money. This practice provides
lenders with the option of foreclosing on the land if the borrower struggles
to repay the loan.
10
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:62-63)

12. Money Lending and Land Rent System
3. Leasing: Leasing typically involves a landlord (owner of the land) renting
out their land to another individual or entity for a specified period. The tenant
pays rent to the landlord for the use of the land.
4. Share-cropping: Share-cropping is an arrangement where the landowner
and the tenant (sharecropper) share the produced crops from the land. The
sharecropper usually provides labor and a portion of the harvest to the
landowner in exchange for the use of the land.
11
(Bertocci,1970,Page:64)

13. Own 0.00 acres.
Sell skilled or
unskilled labor.
Land-less
Own less than 1.15 acres.
Supplement income by wage
labor. May also rent land or
borrow money to extent of more
than 50% total farm value.
Land Poor
Own 1.15-3.99 acres. May
sell labor. May rent land
or borrow money to more
than 20% of total farm
value.
Debtor Middle
Cultivators Classed By Land Ownership
1.15
1.15-
3.99
0.00
12
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:71)

14. Own 1.15-3.99. Occasionally
hire or sell labor. Do not rent
land out or lend money to
more than 10% of total farm
value.
Non-debtor Middle
Own 1.15-3.99 acres.
Rent out land or lend
money to extent of
more than 20% of total
farm value.
Creditor Middle
Own more than 4 acres; do not rent
out land or loan money to more
than 10% of total farm value. May
hire labor, but usually work own
farm.
Rich Non-creditor
Cultivators Classed By Land Ownership
1.15-
3.99
>4
1.15-
3.99
13
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:71)

15. Own more than 4 acres. Rent out
land and loan money to more than
20% of farm value. Rely on hired
labor.
Rich Creditor
Cultivators Classed By Land Ownership
>4
14
(Bertocci, 1970,Page:71)

16. Class N % Grouped %
Land-less 10 9.8 44.1
Poor
Land Poor 35 34.3
Debtor Middle 6 5.9
47.1
Middle
Non-debtor Middle 30 29.4
Creditor Middle 12 11.8
Rich Non-creditor 5 4.9 8.8
Rich
Rich Creditor 4 3.9
Totals 102 100.0 100.0
Cultivators Classed By Land Ownership
Source: (Bertocci, 1970), Page: 71
15

17. Reference
Bertocci, P. J. (1970). Elusive villages : social structure
and community organization in rural East
Pakistan, 56-72.
16

18. Thanks!