International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
India has significant potential to boost agricultural productivity and reduce poverty. While India is the second largest producer of rice, its yields are only about half of those in China and other countries like Indonesia and Vietnam. Improving farming techniques and adopting practices from high-yielding countries could allow India to produce an additional 100 million tons of rice annually. However, Indian agriculture faces challenges like population pressure, small land holdings, inadequate irrigation, depleted soils, lack of storage, and poor farm implements. Steps like incentivizing states to reform agricultural markets, increasing private sector extension, and targeting foreign buyers of Indian foods could help realize India's agricultural potential.
Options for Sourcing Land for Sustainable Urban Development in the State of P...JIT KUMAR GUPTA
Paper looks at the existing scenario of urban planning in the state of Punjab, growth of urban population, quantum of land required, prevailing schemes for sourcing land, emerging roadblocks in sourcing land and options for sourcing land at an affordable cost including making landowners as co-parceners in sourcing land
The document discusses reforms in Indian agriculture since independence. It notes that at independence, India had a semi-feudal agrarian structure dominated by landlords and intermediaries. Key reforms included abolishing intermediaries, implementing tenancy reforms for security of tenure and fair rents, fixing ceilings on land holdings, and consolidating small holdings. Implementation of reforms varied across states and faced resistance from landowners. Overall, land reforms have had mixed success, with West Bengal and Kerala seen as the most successful cases.
Explains the concept of agrarian reforms and distinguishes it from two other related but distinct concepts of land reforms and land transfer reforms.Presents a comprehensive set of measures to bring the agrarian reforms in the developing countries
Concepts of Land Reform, Land Formalization, and Land Grabbing in PakistanShehzad Ali
Land reforms aim to change laws regarding land ownership to redistribute land in a more equitable manner. Historically, land reform transferred ownership from large landowners to those working the land. Objectives of land reform include political, social and economic goals like abolishing feudalism, increasing agricultural productivity, and promoting optimum farm sizes. In Pakistan, land ownership has been concentrated among rural elites, so land reforms were introduced in 1959, 1972, and 1976 to limit individual landholdings and redistribute excess land. Land formalization is the process of codifying informal land rights and bringing land under state regulation, while land grabbing refers to large-scale acquisition of land that negatively impacts local people and lacks their consent. Land grabbing is an issue in
Global capitalism is penetrating the agricultural sector in South Asia through international organizations and private corporations. This has led to a tripartite conflict between rural populations/domestic movements, international institutions, and nation-states in South Asia over control of the agricultural landscape. Small farmers make up most of the rural population but have very little land and resources. Both domestic movements and international NGOs are advocating for agrarian justice and fighting against practices that harm agriculture. Nation-states want to maintain autonomy and their role in rural areas, which is increasingly difficult in a globalized system dominated by large international actors. The future of nation-state control over agriculture in South Asia is unclear as globalization increases the power of these outside forces.
This document discusses two types of hunger disasters - sudden disasters like hurricanes, and slow-onset disasters caused by gradual environmental changes. It focuses on the latter and policies that exacerbate hunger. Suggested alternatives emphasize small family farms using techniques like SRI that improve soil health and resilience to climate change compared to industrial agriculture models pushed by corporations. Document advocates anthropologists documenting programs like SRI to influence policymakers and bridge gaps between farmers and consumers.
Options for Sourcing Land For Sustainable Urban Development in the SJIT KUMAR GUPTA
This document discusses land and land use issues in Punjab, India. It notes that land is a finite and scarce resource that is under increasing pressure due to population growth. It outlines various options for sourcing additional land for urban development in Punjab, including land pooling schemes, utilizing vacant government land, and rationalizing development controls. Land pooling schemes are presented as an equitable alternative to compulsory land acquisition that makes landowners partners in the development process. Examples of successful land pooling schemes in Amravati and Delhi are provided for reference. Overall, the document advocates taking a holistic, multi-pronged approach to optimize land use and source land efficiently to accommodate Punjab's growing urban population.
India has significant potential to boost agricultural productivity and reduce poverty. While India is the second largest producer of rice, its yields are only about half of those in China and other countries like Indonesia and Vietnam. Improving farming techniques and adopting practices from high-yielding countries could allow India to produce an additional 100 million tons of rice annually. However, Indian agriculture faces challenges like population pressure, small land holdings, inadequate irrigation, depleted soils, lack of storage, and poor farm implements. Steps like incentivizing states to reform agricultural markets, increasing private sector extension, and targeting foreign buyers of Indian foods could help realize India's agricultural potential.
Options for Sourcing Land for Sustainable Urban Development in the State of P...JIT KUMAR GUPTA
Paper looks at the existing scenario of urban planning in the state of Punjab, growth of urban population, quantum of land required, prevailing schemes for sourcing land, emerging roadblocks in sourcing land and options for sourcing land at an affordable cost including making landowners as co-parceners in sourcing land
The document discusses reforms in Indian agriculture since independence. It notes that at independence, India had a semi-feudal agrarian structure dominated by landlords and intermediaries. Key reforms included abolishing intermediaries, implementing tenancy reforms for security of tenure and fair rents, fixing ceilings on land holdings, and consolidating small holdings. Implementation of reforms varied across states and faced resistance from landowners. Overall, land reforms have had mixed success, with West Bengal and Kerala seen as the most successful cases.
Explains the concept of agrarian reforms and distinguishes it from two other related but distinct concepts of land reforms and land transfer reforms.Presents a comprehensive set of measures to bring the agrarian reforms in the developing countries
Concepts of Land Reform, Land Formalization, and Land Grabbing in PakistanShehzad Ali
Land reforms aim to change laws regarding land ownership to redistribute land in a more equitable manner. Historically, land reform transferred ownership from large landowners to those working the land. Objectives of land reform include political, social and economic goals like abolishing feudalism, increasing agricultural productivity, and promoting optimum farm sizes. In Pakistan, land ownership has been concentrated among rural elites, so land reforms were introduced in 1959, 1972, and 1976 to limit individual landholdings and redistribute excess land. Land formalization is the process of codifying informal land rights and bringing land under state regulation, while land grabbing refers to large-scale acquisition of land that negatively impacts local people and lacks their consent. Land grabbing is an issue in
Global capitalism is penetrating the agricultural sector in South Asia through international organizations and private corporations. This has led to a tripartite conflict between rural populations/domestic movements, international institutions, and nation-states in South Asia over control of the agricultural landscape. Small farmers make up most of the rural population but have very little land and resources. Both domestic movements and international NGOs are advocating for agrarian justice and fighting against practices that harm agriculture. Nation-states want to maintain autonomy and their role in rural areas, which is increasingly difficult in a globalized system dominated by large international actors. The future of nation-state control over agriculture in South Asia is unclear as globalization increases the power of these outside forces.
This document discusses two types of hunger disasters - sudden disasters like hurricanes, and slow-onset disasters caused by gradual environmental changes. It focuses on the latter and policies that exacerbate hunger. Suggested alternatives emphasize small family farms using techniques like SRI that improve soil health and resilience to climate change compared to industrial agriculture models pushed by corporations. Document advocates anthropologists documenting programs like SRI to influence policymakers and bridge gaps between farmers and consumers.
Options for Sourcing Land For Sustainable Urban Development in the SJIT KUMAR GUPTA
This document discusses land and land use issues in Punjab, India. It notes that land is a finite and scarce resource that is under increasing pressure due to population growth. It outlines various options for sourcing additional land for urban development in Punjab, including land pooling schemes, utilizing vacant government land, and rationalizing development controls. Land pooling schemes are presented as an equitable alternative to compulsory land acquisition that makes landowners partners in the development process. Examples of successful land pooling schemes in Amravati and Delhi are provided for reference. Overall, the document advocates taking a holistic, multi-pronged approach to optimize land use and source land efficiently to accommodate Punjab's growing urban population.
Land is the basis of all economic activity. It is the most important asset in an agrarian economy like India where majority
of the population in rural areas are dependent on agriculture, labour and animal husbandry. This paper deals with an
important form of discrimination in the countryside, the lack of access of Dalit (Scheduled Caste) and Adivasi
(Scheduled Tribe) households to ownership and operational holdings of land in rural India. It includes a study of the
impact of land reforms in India on land holding among Dalit and Adivasi households.
The working paper titled “Social inequality and land holding for dalit in India” discusses the different
dimensions that have a bearing on the issue of inequality in land distribution in India . The SCs and STs who have been
historically out of the main stream development initiatives, partly due to the still continuing socio cultural barriers and
partly due to the inadequacy of the Government programmes in reaching this disadvantage group. However the paper
argues that An Overview of land holding for dalit: Past and Present, Status of land for dalit in India , Historical view of
Land Distribution Pattern and Economic Conditions of Dalits In this context, an attempt has been made in this paper to
examine Dalits‟ access to land in India during pre and post independence periods. And it also an attempt to assess the
impact of land reforms on land ownership by Dalits in India
Study on Impact of Land Fragmentation in Agriculture-A Case of Rajshahi Distr...paperpublications3
Abstract:The study was conducted in Rajshahi district to get clear picture on the status of land fragmentation. Total 30 respondents were interviewed to know about the status of land fragmentation in Rajshai, impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, environment, economics and sustainable development. This study was conducted with the view to assess the impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, land uses as well as on society, and in particular, challenges for the agricultural land. Several factors were recognized and it is happening due to alterations in physiographic and social-economic conditions and population growth. The land use pattern of Bangladesh is changing very rapidly due to unplanned human settlement and industrialization. Bangladesh is a small country but it supports a huge population, resulting in a very high density of population and very high intensity of land and resource use The following factors are driving country’s overall scenario of economic development and environment imbalance include: i) unexpected population growth; ii) human settlement; iii) increased number of nuclear family; and iv) scarcity of land for ever increasing demand of food. As a result, agricultural land is decreasing remarkably. Results showed that the land fragmentation of Rajshahi district is changing, especially the agricultural land is decreasing in an alarming rate and now it is becoming more and more vulnerable. The agricultural land of the study area is losing each and every year. The agricultural production also is decreasing due to lack of agricultural land, industrialization, decreasing soil fertility and making soils toxics by using chemicals. If this rate continues, the agricultural land will be totally exhausted within the next couple of years. Moreover the fragmentation of land is impacting sustainable development of the study area frequently. If the perceived problems could be solved by raising awareness among the people, go for vertical uses of land, motivate family to live in the extend family, adopting appropriate policy for human settlements and land use planning.
Keywords:Extend family; land fragmentation; nuclear family; vertical scope; sustainable development.
This document discusses the changing nature of rural livelihoods in India. It notes that while India's economy has grown, many rural areas still face poverty and food insecurity. Rural livelihoods increasingly rely on non-farm activities as agriculture alone often cannot support families. The document examines trends in agriculture, including a shift to cash crops over food crops, declining food intake, and threats to small farmers' livelihood security and food security. It argues for understanding rural livelihoods holistically rather than through any single lens.
Gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in i...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in Imo State, Nigeria. The study found that while females (78%) were more involved in agriculture than males (57%), land inheritance (75%) was the most common form of land ownership for males compared to females who primarily purchased land (67%). Males on average had larger farm sizes (4 hectares or more) than females (16% with farms that size). However, the study found that females had higher agricultural productivity than males across crops from 2008-2011. The document recommends that governments should revisit land tenure policies to be more equitable and encourage matrilineal land inheritance systems.
Presentation by Rukshana Nanayakkara, Global Policy and Advovacy Expert - International Land Coalition.
25 June 2021. Uneven Ground. Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems InfoPoint Virtual Conference
Agricultural Transformation and Rural Developmentguestf494e5
The document discusses agricultural development and rural transformation. It covers several topics:
1) More than half the world's population lives in rural areas facing poverty, inequality, unemployment and rapid population growth. Integrated rural development strategies are needed to address these issues.
2) Agriculture employs most of the labor force in developing countries but accounts for a small portion of GDP. Agricultural productivity has increased in some countries but declined in others like Africa.
3) Agrarian systems and agricultural development stages vary around the world. Recommended policies include improving small farmer productivity, rural non-farm employment, and equitable access to technology and credit.
Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systemsFrancois Stepman
By Ward Anseeuw, Researcher, Knowledge, Learning and Innovation, International Land Coalition and CIRAD - Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems
25 June 2021. Uneven Ground. Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems InfoPoint Virtual Conference
The document discusses agricultural labor in India. It notes that around 58% of India's population depends on agriculture and that the number of cultivators has declined from 50% in 1951 to 24% in 2011. It outlines the classification, characteristics, laws, and welfare measures regarding agricultural laborers. Some key challenges faced by agricultural laborers are excess supply, seasonal employment, small land holdings, limited other occupations, indebtedness, and regional variations in issues. Solutions proposed include cooperatives, irrigation development, improved marketing/distribution, and agricultural insurance.
Land tenure conflicts and its influence on Food security and Rural livelihood...AI Publications
Land is construed as a vital means of survival and hence the primary reason why people and communities compete (vie) to exert control over it. This study sets to contribute to conflicts resolution through an understanding of how conflicts over land influence food security and rural livelihoods in Mezam. Land conflicts often have extensive negative effects on economic, social, spatial and ecological development. This is especially true in Mezam division, where land market institutions are weak, opportunities for economic gain by illegal action are widespread and many poor people lack access to land. Data were collected using a semi structured questionnaire and focus group discussions were organized where possible. A total of 200 questionnaires were administered to both farmers and grazers in Mezam, Santa, Bali, Tubah and Bafut. These were done through face to face interviews, discussion with graziers and farmers representatives, focus groups as well as field observation so as to permit us carry out an ample information from the field and have an in-depth study of the conflict situation in Mezam. These data were introduced into SPSS version 24.0 and analyzed using descriptive statistics, frequencies, charts and graphs. Common conflicts recorded in the area in Mezam are farmer-grazer conflicts and land ownership. Regarding the effects of conflicts on food security, 60% of respondents attested disruption of livestock activities and food production cycle, 52.5% mentioned shortages in food supply resulting to high prices in the local markets. Conflicts also resulted to the flee of the local farm labour force. It was also found out that conflicts affected rural development projects in the study area such as micro credit institutions, bridges, roads, electrification projects, storage facilities, markets and portable water. This will facilitate communication between the villagers in the affected areas and improve on food production and accessibility. It was suggested that one of the ways to resolve tenure conflicts in the area was for the administrative authorities to demarcate boundaries or map out farm and grazing lands between the various villages and also facilitate the process of issuing land titles. Looking at the existing policies, legal and institutional framework discussed in this study, I can say that I have been able to identify some commissions and policies put in place by the Government of Cameroon governing land administration and management that is sufficient in strengthening the tenure security of the local population in Mezam if respected and put in practice. It was also recommended that the administrative authorities should facilitate the issuing of land titles to the local population and demarcate farming and grazing lands between villages that decision making should always consider the actors on the field and be transparent too.
This document discusses promising approaches to address the needs of poor women farmers in response to the food price crisis. It summarizes that women farmers often have less access and control over key resources like land, capital, and inputs. It also outlines several intervention strategies that have shown success, including increasing women's access to fertilizer through vouchers, credit programs, and smaller bag sizes. However, many of these approaches have not been rigorously evaluated at scale. The document calls for more evaluation of different designs to identify the most effective programs to scale up in a gender-responsive manner.
Rural poverty persists in India due to limited access to resources like land, water, credit, and technology as well as low levels of education. Government programs have taken different approaches to promoting rural livelihoods and reducing poverty, such as supporting local governments and integrated development agencies. They focus on increasing incomes and building assets by improving natural resource management, supporting self-help groups, and expanding access to services and markets. However, widespread poverty remains a challenge, with over 200 million rural people below the poverty line.
- Overconsumption by wealthy Western nations is a major cause of global poverty and resource scarcity. Nearly half of the world's population lives on less than $2.50 a day and does not have access to sufficient food, water, shelter or income.
- Unequal distribution of resources, particularly fertile land that is disproportionately occupied by wealthy farmers for export crops, exacerbates poverty. Reducing consumption in wealthy countries and redistributing resources more equitably could significantly diminish global destitution.
- Solutions proposed include land reform policies to make fertile land more affordable and accessible to local farmers, government policies to protect domestic food production, and limiting consumption and waste in wealthy nations to leave more resources available for poorer populations.
This document outlines concepts and strategies related to rural livelihoods and diversification. It discusses:
1) Key concepts like sustainable livelihoods, which allow people to cope with stresses and maintain assets, and rural livelihood diversification, which involves households constructing diverse income activities.
2) The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach framework for understanding poverty, which is people-centered, holistic, dynamic, builds on strengths, and promotes sustainability.
3) Rural livelihood strategies like savings, social networks, and diversifying income sources from both farm and non-farm activities in response to changing circumstances.
Presentation is first attempt to look at land as a basic resource, as an element of human growth, development and employment, its relevance to society and human beings and need for its conservation, preservation and promotion to make this world sustainable for both human beings, flora and fauna and as wild life habitat.
Ekta Parishad is a Gandhian organization dedicated to nonviolent action to help poor and marginalized people access natural resources like land, forests and water. It aims to mobilize 1 million people for a global march in 2020 to advocate for equitable and sustainable development, expand ethics in business and governance, and deepen justice for marginalized communities through nonviolent direct action and building grassroots leadership. Ekta Parishad has been conducting long-term campaigns of nonviolent mobilization in India since 1994 and works internationally to build alliances around promoting justice, ethics and inclusive development.
Today, food and prosperity are still intrinsically linked. Farm production provides the life-sustaining calories and nutrients that allow poor communities and, indeed, all people to sustain healthy, secure livelihoods. With increased agricultural yields, crop sales generate cash to allow families, communities, and nations to invest in infrastructure, education, and vital services.
Risk coping in swidden livelihoods and the potential of REDD+ in Laos CIFOR-ICRAF
The document summarizes research on risk coping strategies used by smallholder farmers practicing swidden agriculture in Laos and how these farmers may respond to incentives from REDD+ programs. Key findings include: 1) Farmers currently face risks from crop losses, livestock losses, and economic impacts and cope through forest product harvesting, savings, labor, and community support. 2) In games simulating REDD+ incentives, group payments led to greater reductions in forest clearing than individual payments or insurance. 3) Effects of incentives did not always last after the programs ended, suggesting need for longer-term support for livelihoods.
This document summarizes Garrett Hardin's 1968 essay about the conflict between individual and societal interests regarding the environment. It discusses the "tragedy of the commons" where individual actions like overgrazing deplete shared resources. It also covers the environmental impacts of developed vs developing countries and concepts like sustainability, supply and demand, risk assessment, and ecological footprints.
Comparison of extension system of different countriesJagriti Rohit
Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organised for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business studies.
The document discusses the Green Revolution in India, which involved the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, artificial fertilizers, and pesticides that significantly increased crop production. It notes that the Green Revolution was led by American biologist Norman Borlaug and describes some of the key aspects, including how fertilizers allowed for extra nutrient supply to crops, leading to higher yields. However, it also mentions that farmer suicides have increased after the Green Revolution. The document concludes by suggesting it is time to move toward an Organic Revolution that is chemical-free, organic, fair trade, and eco-friendly.
Agriculture is the largest and most prominent sector in India's economy, accounting for 16.6% of GDP and employing 60% of the population. India has a long history of agriculture dating back 6,000 years, and is now the largest producer in the world of milk, cashews, coconuts, tea, ginger, and turmeric. The Green Revolution in the 1970s saw a large increase in wheat production through improved irrigation, technology, and subsidies. The subsequent White Revolution made India the world's largest milk producer through the National Dairy Development Board's nationwide milk grid program. However, low productivity is still an issue due to factors like illiteracy, small land holdings, inadequate financing and marketing, and
Land is the basis of all economic activity. It is the most important asset in an agrarian economy like India where majority
of the population in rural areas are dependent on agriculture, labour and animal husbandry. This paper deals with an
important form of discrimination in the countryside, the lack of access of Dalit (Scheduled Caste) and Adivasi
(Scheduled Tribe) households to ownership and operational holdings of land in rural India. It includes a study of the
impact of land reforms in India on land holding among Dalit and Adivasi households.
The working paper titled “Social inequality and land holding for dalit in India” discusses the different
dimensions that have a bearing on the issue of inequality in land distribution in India . The SCs and STs who have been
historically out of the main stream development initiatives, partly due to the still continuing socio cultural barriers and
partly due to the inadequacy of the Government programmes in reaching this disadvantage group. However the paper
argues that An Overview of land holding for dalit: Past and Present, Status of land for dalit in India , Historical view of
Land Distribution Pattern and Economic Conditions of Dalits In this context, an attempt has been made in this paper to
examine Dalits‟ access to land in India during pre and post independence periods. And it also an attempt to assess the
impact of land reforms on land ownership by Dalits in India
Study on Impact of Land Fragmentation in Agriculture-A Case of Rajshahi Distr...paperpublications3
Abstract:The study was conducted in Rajshahi district to get clear picture on the status of land fragmentation. Total 30 respondents were interviewed to know about the status of land fragmentation in Rajshai, impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, environment, economics and sustainable development. This study was conducted with the view to assess the impacts of land fragmentation in agriculture, land uses as well as on society, and in particular, challenges for the agricultural land. Several factors were recognized and it is happening due to alterations in physiographic and social-economic conditions and population growth. The land use pattern of Bangladesh is changing very rapidly due to unplanned human settlement and industrialization. Bangladesh is a small country but it supports a huge population, resulting in a very high density of population and very high intensity of land and resource use The following factors are driving country’s overall scenario of economic development and environment imbalance include: i) unexpected population growth; ii) human settlement; iii) increased number of nuclear family; and iv) scarcity of land for ever increasing demand of food. As a result, agricultural land is decreasing remarkably. Results showed that the land fragmentation of Rajshahi district is changing, especially the agricultural land is decreasing in an alarming rate and now it is becoming more and more vulnerable. The agricultural land of the study area is losing each and every year. The agricultural production also is decreasing due to lack of agricultural land, industrialization, decreasing soil fertility and making soils toxics by using chemicals. If this rate continues, the agricultural land will be totally exhausted within the next couple of years. Moreover the fragmentation of land is impacting sustainable development of the study area frequently. If the perceived problems could be solved by raising awareness among the people, go for vertical uses of land, motivate family to live in the extend family, adopting appropriate policy for human settlements and land use planning.
Keywords:Extend family; land fragmentation; nuclear family; vertical scope; sustainable development.
This document discusses the changing nature of rural livelihoods in India. It notes that while India's economy has grown, many rural areas still face poverty and food insecurity. Rural livelihoods increasingly rely on non-farm activities as agriculture alone often cannot support families. The document examines trends in agriculture, including a shift to cash crops over food crops, declining food intake, and threats to small farmers' livelihood security and food security. It argues for understanding rural livelihoods holistically rather than through any single lens.
Gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in i...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in Imo State, Nigeria. The study found that while females (78%) were more involved in agriculture than males (57%), land inheritance (75%) was the most common form of land ownership for males compared to females who primarily purchased land (67%). Males on average had larger farm sizes (4 hectares or more) than females (16% with farms that size). However, the study found that females had higher agricultural productivity than males across crops from 2008-2011. The document recommends that governments should revisit land tenure policies to be more equitable and encourage matrilineal land inheritance systems.
Presentation by Rukshana Nanayakkara, Global Policy and Advovacy Expert - International Land Coalition.
25 June 2021. Uneven Ground. Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems InfoPoint Virtual Conference
Agricultural Transformation and Rural Developmentguestf494e5
The document discusses agricultural development and rural transformation. It covers several topics:
1) More than half the world's population lives in rural areas facing poverty, inequality, unemployment and rapid population growth. Integrated rural development strategies are needed to address these issues.
2) Agriculture employs most of the labor force in developing countries but accounts for a small portion of GDP. Agricultural productivity has increased in some countries but declined in others like Africa.
3) Agrarian systems and agricultural development stages vary around the world. Recommended policies include improving small farmer productivity, rural non-farm employment, and equitable access to technology and credit.
Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systemsFrancois Stepman
By Ward Anseeuw, Researcher, Knowledge, Learning and Innovation, International Land Coalition and CIRAD - Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems
25 June 2021. Uneven Ground. Land inequality at the heart of polarised food systems InfoPoint Virtual Conference
The document discusses agricultural labor in India. It notes that around 58% of India's population depends on agriculture and that the number of cultivators has declined from 50% in 1951 to 24% in 2011. It outlines the classification, characteristics, laws, and welfare measures regarding agricultural laborers. Some key challenges faced by agricultural laborers are excess supply, seasonal employment, small land holdings, limited other occupations, indebtedness, and regional variations in issues. Solutions proposed include cooperatives, irrigation development, improved marketing/distribution, and agricultural insurance.
Land tenure conflicts and its influence on Food security and Rural livelihood...AI Publications
Land is construed as a vital means of survival and hence the primary reason why people and communities compete (vie) to exert control over it. This study sets to contribute to conflicts resolution through an understanding of how conflicts over land influence food security and rural livelihoods in Mezam. Land conflicts often have extensive negative effects on economic, social, spatial and ecological development. This is especially true in Mezam division, where land market institutions are weak, opportunities for economic gain by illegal action are widespread and many poor people lack access to land. Data were collected using a semi structured questionnaire and focus group discussions were organized where possible. A total of 200 questionnaires were administered to both farmers and grazers in Mezam, Santa, Bali, Tubah and Bafut. These were done through face to face interviews, discussion with graziers and farmers representatives, focus groups as well as field observation so as to permit us carry out an ample information from the field and have an in-depth study of the conflict situation in Mezam. These data were introduced into SPSS version 24.0 and analyzed using descriptive statistics, frequencies, charts and graphs. Common conflicts recorded in the area in Mezam are farmer-grazer conflicts and land ownership. Regarding the effects of conflicts on food security, 60% of respondents attested disruption of livestock activities and food production cycle, 52.5% mentioned shortages in food supply resulting to high prices in the local markets. Conflicts also resulted to the flee of the local farm labour force. It was also found out that conflicts affected rural development projects in the study area such as micro credit institutions, bridges, roads, electrification projects, storage facilities, markets and portable water. This will facilitate communication between the villagers in the affected areas and improve on food production and accessibility. It was suggested that one of the ways to resolve tenure conflicts in the area was for the administrative authorities to demarcate boundaries or map out farm and grazing lands between the various villages and also facilitate the process of issuing land titles. Looking at the existing policies, legal and institutional framework discussed in this study, I can say that I have been able to identify some commissions and policies put in place by the Government of Cameroon governing land administration and management that is sufficient in strengthening the tenure security of the local population in Mezam if respected and put in practice. It was also recommended that the administrative authorities should facilitate the issuing of land titles to the local population and demarcate farming and grazing lands between villages that decision making should always consider the actors on the field and be transparent too.
This document discusses promising approaches to address the needs of poor women farmers in response to the food price crisis. It summarizes that women farmers often have less access and control over key resources like land, capital, and inputs. It also outlines several intervention strategies that have shown success, including increasing women's access to fertilizer through vouchers, credit programs, and smaller bag sizes. However, many of these approaches have not been rigorously evaluated at scale. The document calls for more evaluation of different designs to identify the most effective programs to scale up in a gender-responsive manner.
Rural poverty persists in India due to limited access to resources like land, water, credit, and technology as well as low levels of education. Government programs have taken different approaches to promoting rural livelihoods and reducing poverty, such as supporting local governments and integrated development agencies. They focus on increasing incomes and building assets by improving natural resource management, supporting self-help groups, and expanding access to services and markets. However, widespread poverty remains a challenge, with over 200 million rural people below the poverty line.
- Overconsumption by wealthy Western nations is a major cause of global poverty and resource scarcity. Nearly half of the world's population lives on less than $2.50 a day and does not have access to sufficient food, water, shelter or income.
- Unequal distribution of resources, particularly fertile land that is disproportionately occupied by wealthy farmers for export crops, exacerbates poverty. Reducing consumption in wealthy countries and redistributing resources more equitably could significantly diminish global destitution.
- Solutions proposed include land reform policies to make fertile land more affordable and accessible to local farmers, government policies to protect domestic food production, and limiting consumption and waste in wealthy nations to leave more resources available for poorer populations.
This document outlines concepts and strategies related to rural livelihoods and diversification. It discusses:
1) Key concepts like sustainable livelihoods, which allow people to cope with stresses and maintain assets, and rural livelihood diversification, which involves households constructing diverse income activities.
2) The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach framework for understanding poverty, which is people-centered, holistic, dynamic, builds on strengths, and promotes sustainability.
3) Rural livelihood strategies like savings, social networks, and diversifying income sources from both farm and non-farm activities in response to changing circumstances.
Presentation is first attempt to look at land as a basic resource, as an element of human growth, development and employment, its relevance to society and human beings and need for its conservation, preservation and promotion to make this world sustainable for both human beings, flora and fauna and as wild life habitat.
Ekta Parishad is a Gandhian organization dedicated to nonviolent action to help poor and marginalized people access natural resources like land, forests and water. It aims to mobilize 1 million people for a global march in 2020 to advocate for equitable and sustainable development, expand ethics in business and governance, and deepen justice for marginalized communities through nonviolent direct action and building grassroots leadership. Ekta Parishad has been conducting long-term campaigns of nonviolent mobilization in India since 1994 and works internationally to build alliances around promoting justice, ethics and inclusive development.
Today, food and prosperity are still intrinsically linked. Farm production provides the life-sustaining calories and nutrients that allow poor communities and, indeed, all people to sustain healthy, secure livelihoods. With increased agricultural yields, crop sales generate cash to allow families, communities, and nations to invest in infrastructure, education, and vital services.
Risk coping in swidden livelihoods and the potential of REDD+ in Laos CIFOR-ICRAF
The document summarizes research on risk coping strategies used by smallholder farmers practicing swidden agriculture in Laos and how these farmers may respond to incentives from REDD+ programs. Key findings include: 1) Farmers currently face risks from crop losses, livestock losses, and economic impacts and cope through forest product harvesting, savings, labor, and community support. 2) In games simulating REDD+ incentives, group payments led to greater reductions in forest clearing than individual payments or insurance. 3) Effects of incentives did not always last after the programs ended, suggesting need for longer-term support for livelihoods.
This document summarizes Garrett Hardin's 1968 essay about the conflict between individual and societal interests regarding the environment. It discusses the "tragedy of the commons" where individual actions like overgrazing deplete shared resources. It also covers the environmental impacts of developed vs developing countries and concepts like sustainability, supply and demand, risk assessment, and ecological footprints.
Comparison of extension system of different countriesJagriti Rohit
Agricultural extension was once known as the application of scientific research and new knowledge to agricultural practices through farmer education. The field of extension now encompasses a wider range of communication and learning activities organised for rural people by professionals from different disciplines, including agriculture, agricultural marketing, health, and business studies.
The document discusses the Green Revolution in India, which involved the introduction of high-yielding crop varieties, artificial fertilizers, and pesticides that significantly increased crop production. It notes that the Green Revolution was led by American biologist Norman Borlaug and describes some of the key aspects, including how fertilizers allowed for extra nutrient supply to crops, leading to higher yields. However, it also mentions that farmer suicides have increased after the Green Revolution. The document concludes by suggesting it is time to move toward an Organic Revolution that is chemical-free, organic, fair trade, and eco-friendly.
Agriculture is the largest and most prominent sector in India's economy, accounting for 16.6% of GDP and employing 60% of the population. India has a long history of agriculture dating back 6,000 years, and is now the largest producer in the world of milk, cashews, coconuts, tea, ginger, and turmeric. The Green Revolution in the 1970s saw a large increase in wheat production through improved irrigation, technology, and subsidies. The subsequent White Revolution made India the world's largest milk producer through the National Dairy Development Board's nationwide milk grid program. However, low productivity is still an issue due to factors like illiteracy, small land holdings, inadequate financing and marketing, and
development experiences of india and neighbour countriesguestf4d2be
The document compares the developmental experiences of India, China, and Pakistan over time. It discusses their early developmental strategies and economic policies, including five-year plans. China focused on collectivization and heavy industry while India and Pakistan emphasized public sectors and social development. More recently, all three have shifted employment and output away from agriculture, though this shift has occurred more slowly in India. China's growth is now driven by manufacturing, while services drive growth in India and Pakistan. China leads in selected human development indicators like life expectancy and literacy.
Land reforms were introduced in India after independence to abolish exploitative landlord systems and reduce inequality. Key reforms included abolishing intermediaries like jagirdars and jamindars, implementing land ceilings, and legitimizing tenancy. However, land reforms faced issues like states prioritizing large farmers, surplus land distribution problems, and lack of political will.
Land reforms By KB Shah upload by Aamir Ali MugheriAamir Ali Mugheri
The document discusses land reforms in Pakistan, which aim to redistribute land from large landowners to the landless. Previous reform efforts in 1959 and 1972 failed to meaningfully redistribute land, as large landowners found ways to circumvent the reforms and retain control over most of the land. The 1972 reforms under Bhutto had stricter criteria like a 100-acre ceiling and free land distribution to tenants, but still only a small percentage of landless tenants ultimately benefited.
The document discusses public-private partnerships (PPPs) in agriculture in India. It defines PPPs as contractual agreements between public and private entities to deliver a service, where both parties share risks and rewards. Common PPP models in India include Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) models for infrastructure projects. PPPs in agriculture are needed due to India's growing population and food demands, slow agricultural growth rate, and need for private sector investment in seeds, mechanization, and irrigation to boost the sector.
The pre-1990 Indian economy was characterized by a strong emphasis on protectionism, import substitution, and central planning. India's share of world income declined from 22.3% in 1700 to 3.8% by 1952 due to British colonial rule. After independence, the government prioritized heavy industry and public sector growth through five-year plans but saw limited success. Reforms began in the 1990s with liberalization of trade and investment policies to address fiscal and balance of payments crises, opening India's economy to globalization. Major reforms included trade liberalization, privatization, tax changes, and incentives for foreign investment and exports.
Land reform aims to remedy defects in land ownership and use. It involves redistributing private lands through expropriation or purchase and distributing public lands. It regulates tenancy, agricultural labor, and absentee landlordism. Production structure reform consolidates small holdings and imposes ceilings and floors on land holdings. Agrarian reform comprehensively reforms land tenure, production structures, and support services to lift farmers' economic status.
Contents:
Introduction
Definition of Green Revolution
History of Green Revolution
Methods used in Green Revolution
Basic Elements in Method of Green Revolution
Causes of Green Revolution
Effects of Green Revolution
Result/ Evaluation of Green Revolution
Advantages of Green Revolution
Limitations of Green Revolution
The document discusses the Green Revolution, which was a period in the 20th century when agricultural productivity dramatically increased through new technologies like chemical fertilizers and pesticides. It began in the 1940s and was spearheaded by Norman Borlaug. In India, the Green Revolution was applied from 1967-1978, focusing on wheat and rice production led by Dr. MS Swaminathan. The Green Revolution led to increased crop yields but also caused issues like soil pollution, water pollution, and health problems from overuse of chemicals. While it prevented famines, more sustainable practices are now needed.
The document discusses the role of agriculture in the Indian economy. It notes that agriculture provides food for over 1 billion people and contributes to 1/6 of export earnings. The Green Revolution significantly increased food production through improved seeds, irrigation, and mechanization. India is a major global producer of crops like milk, rice, wheat and spices. However, agriculture also faces challenges like fragmented land ownership, lack of infrastructure and technology adoption among farmers. The summary calls for increasing farmer literacy, sustainable resource use, and greater government facilitation to boost agricultural production.
The document discusses the history and implementation of agrarian reform in the Philippines. It describes how [1] the implementation of agrarian reform proceeded slowly due to lack of political will, [2] the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988 established the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program to more successfully implement land reform, and [3] the law focused on redistributing land and improving social justice and economic opportunities for farmers.
Land reforms were introduced in India after independence to reduce inequality in land ownership and empower small farmers. Major land reform acts abolished intermediaries like jagirdars and jamindars, implemented land ceilings, and legitimized tenancy. However, land reforms faced challenges including failure to properly redistribute surplus land, big farmers cornering land meant for marginalized groups, and lack of political will to fully implement reforms.
Admos Chimhowu highlights the need for land redistribution in Zimbabwe
Presented at 'Moving Forward with Pro-poor Reconstruction in Zimbabwe' International Conference, Harare, Zimbabwe, (25 and 26 August 2009)
Landlessness is the main cause of rural poverty in India, where over 70% of the population lives in rural areas. Those with land tend to have greater economic stability and bargaining power. Landlessness brings obstacles like inability to get loans or insurance, and an inability to profit from labor. Effective land reform legislation that redistributes land equitably among the rural masses is needed to remedy this issue. However, existing land reform laws in India have gaps and inconsistencies and need reform. Additionally, a more comprehensive legal framework is required to support vulnerable groups and ensure their land rights. The National Council for Land Reforms was formed to address unfinished land reforms, but it has yet to hold its first meeting to discuss critical land reform issues.
Draft National Land Reforms Policy for Discussion Purposes Only by the Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India
The document discusses challenges facing Indian agriculture such as population growth, small land holdings, inadequate irrigation, and depleted soils. It proposes solutions like modern technology, better storage facilities, and regenerating soil biology to address these issues. The role of Indian youth is also examined, suggesting integrating agriculture into education, arousing youth interest, and creating opportunities in agricultural enterprises and policy to engage more young people in the sector.
This document is a draft national land reforms policy for India. Some key points:
- It recognizes the need to address landlessness and inequitable land distribution to provide livelihoods and fulfill rights.
- It proposes creating a comprehensive land use plan and land pool at village/cluster level to maximize land use and minimize displacement.
- Priority will be given to assigning land from the pool to landless SCs, STs and other marginalized groups for agriculture and housing. Ceiling surplus, bhoodan, wasteland and unutilized acquired land will be included.
- Timebound assignment of land titles to eligible families will be done, with women as title holders. Ceiling limits will be revised downward
This document is a draft national land reforms policy for India. Some key points:
- It recognizes the need to address landlessness and inequitable land distribution to provide livelihoods and fulfill rights.
- It proposes creating a comprehensive land use plan and land pool at village/cluster level to maximize land use and minimize displacement.
- Priority will be given to assigning land from the pool to landless SCs, STs and other marginalized groups for agriculture and housing. Ceiling surplus, bhoodan, wasteland and unutilized acquired land will be included.
- Timebound assignment of land titles to eligible families will be done, with women as title holders. Ceiling limits will be revised downward
The document discusses using geographic information systems (GIS) to facilitate effective community-based adaptation to climate change in India. It outlines several advantages of GIS for this purpose, such as efficiently creating maps to identify vulnerable areas and populations, understand community assets and weaknesses, and help guide policy. The document also describes different types of participatory GIS that can be used, including public participation GIS, participatory GIS, and community resource mapping, which empower local communities and facilitate collaboration between communities and officials.
Role of Corporate Social Responsibility in Rural IndiaRHIMRJ Journal
More than 60% of India's population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for employment and livelihood. Rural development faces issues related to infrastructure, healthcare, education, and socioeconomic conditions. Corporate social responsibility can play an important role in rural development by investing in infrastructure, public services, communication networks, agriculture, healthcare, education, and skill development. This will help generate employment opportunities and improve living standards in rural India.
Innovative technologies in agriculture and rural developmentlivolinkfoundation
This document summarizes an innovative tree-based farming system developed for arid regions by the Bhartiya Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF). The system aims to improve livelihoods and address environmental degradation in India's arid zones, which cover over 35 million hectares across 7 states. It promotes agroforestry and silvopasture practices to increase vegetation cover, biomass production, and drought resilience through the introduction of hardy tree species that provide fodder, fuelwood and improve soil and water conservation. The system seeks to develop more sustainable livelihood options for communities in desert regions that currently face challenges of poverty, malnutrition, lack of health services and dependence on migration due to scarce natural resources and recurrent
This document discusses various topics related to agricultural transformation and rural development, including: the role of agriculture in economic development; issues of land tenure, reform, and increasing agricultural productivity; mobilizing agricultural inputs through initiatives like rural banking; and the impact of government policies like agricultural price controls. It provides an overview of traditional agricultural techniques, challenges in food supply, and strategies for modernizing agriculture through packages of machinery, fertilizer, and improved crop varieties.
This document discusses animal welfare in modern agriculture. It notes that society's views of animals and expectations around their treatment have changed in recent decades. Where farm animals were once seen primarily as commodities, there is now greater concern for their welfare. However, addressing animal welfare poses complex challenges given agriculture's importance to the economy and the significant changes the industry has undergone in the last 50 years. Striking a balance between various stakeholder interests will be crucial to progress on this issue.
Impact of Land Right Arrangements on the use of Irrigation Resources in the L...ijtsrd
The study examined the two tenancy conditions in the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority of Nigeria LNRBDA and the differences in the pattern that the farmers under both conditions use resources in the area. Hypotheses were put forward to test whether or not significant differences existed among the three types of efficiency indices obtained for each of the two tenure settings and whether the differences in the physical quantities of the resources used by farmers in both were significant. Data was drawn on 414 small scale irrigation farms under the two existing tenure Systems in 7 irrigation schemes located in 7 different Local Government Areas under the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority in both Kwara and Kogi States of North –Central Nigeria. The result showed that there were lots of discrepancies in the t tests results of the two settings. Consequently, government did not intentionally establish one setting to be superior to the other in terms of production performance. Ajiboye Abiodun | A. O Adekunmi | O. A Adeleke | A. O Awoyemi ""Impact of Land Right Arrangements on the use of Irrigation Resources in the Lower Niger River Basin Development Authority of Nigeria"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd22927.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/22927/impact-of-land-right-arrangements-on-the-use-of-irrigation-resources-in-the-lower-niger-river-basin-development-authority-of-nigeria/ajiboye-abiodun
Agricultural problems in India are diverse and complex with historical and emerging challenges. A document discusses several key issues: low agricultural productivity due to small landholdings and lack of information; impediments to domestic/export sales from food safety/infrastructure issues; exploitation from the minimum support price system and market intermediaries; and lack of access to insurance/finances exacerbating risks from unpredictable weather. Potential solutions proposed include sustainable "green revolutions" in organic farming; expanding agricultural research/technology; building farmer capacity and rural infrastructure; developing food processing; modifying pricing policies; and increasing access to insurance/finances through programs and mobile technologies. Comprehensive investments in research, rural development and farmer skills are emphasized to address India
LAND OWNERSHIP RIGHTS AND ACCESS TO FARMLANDS BY FARMERS AND HERDERS IN THE K...John1Lorcan
Land is seen in societies as a vital natural asset, and the worth of this resource to human through time and
space cannot be underestimated. The purpose of this research was to examine land ownership rights and
access to farmlands by farmers and herders in the Kwahu East District (KED) in the Eastern Region of
Ghana. Qualitatively, the study adopted a descriptive case study research design. This research was based
on two objectives: to examine land ownership rights in the Kwahu East District, and determine how
farmers and herders get access to farmlands. The study population involved residents of three communities
in the Kwahu East District, namely, Yaw Tenkorang, Kwaku Sarfo and Bebua. The purposive sampling
technique was used to select 4 traditional leaders, 10 farmers, 10 herdsmen and cattle owners, 3 Assembly
members, the District Chief Executive, the District Commander of Police, and the District Land Officer.
The study concluded that, land ownership rights in KED were based on the allodia and usufruct systems,
which vest land ownership rights in the hands of traditional authorities and family heads. Again, the study
showed that, indigenous farmers lay claim to greater rights over the lands compared to herders who are
considered as aliens, without any land ownerswhip rights. The study revealed measures initiated to find
lasting solution to this conflict. It is recommended that; the Municipal Assembly must concentrate more
effort in establishiing adequate fodder banks for cattle. Again, the practice of ranching must be
encouraged amongst cattle owners and herders to prevent unwanted competition over land use.
LAND OWNERSHIP RIGHTS AND ACCESS TO FARMLANDS BY FARMERS AND HERDERS IN THE K...John1Lorcan
Land is seen in societies as a vital natural asset, and the worth of this resource to human through time and
space cannot be underestimated. The purpose of this research was to examine land ownership rights and
access to farmlands by farmers and herders in the Kwahu East District (KED) in the Eastern Region of
Ghana. Qualitatively, the study adopted a descriptive case study research design. This research was based
on two objectives: to examine land ownership rights in the Kwahu East District, and determine how
farmers and herders get access to farmlands. The study population involved residents of three communities
in the Kwahu East District, namely, Yaw Tenkorang, Kwaku Sarfo and Bebua. The purposive sampling
technique was used to select 4 traditional leaders, 10 farmers, 10 herdsmen and cattle owners, 3 Assembly
members, the District Chief Executive, the District Commander of Police, and the District Land Officer.
The study concluded that, land ownership rights in KED were based on the allodia and usufruct systems,
which vest land ownership rights in the hands of traditional authorities and family heads. Again, the study
showed that, indigenous farmers lay claim to greater rights over the lands compared to herders who are
considered as aliens, without any land ownerswhip rights. The study revealed measures initiated to find
lasting solution to this conflict. It is recommended that; the Municipal Assembly must concentrate more
effort in establishiing adequate fodder banks for cattle. Again, the practice of ranching must be
encouraged amongst cattle owners and herders to prevent unwanted competition over land use.
INNOVATION THE WAY TO SOLVE AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS PRESENTED AT SANKARA INSTIT...Gowhar Ahangar
The document discusses several problems facing Indian agriculture including low productivity, impediments to domestic sales and exports, issues with the minimum support price system, unpredictable weather and lack of access to insurance and financing. Potential solutions identified include investing in agricultural research and technology, expanding rural infrastructure and farmer capacity building, developing food processing facilities, modifying government price supports and improving farmers' access to insurance and financing. Overall the document argues for a multifaceted, long term approach addressing infrastructure, education, research and policy to support Indian farmers and ensure national food security.
This document discusses agricultural labor in India. It notes that around 58% of India's population depends on agriculture and defines an agricultural laborer as someone engaged in raising crops for payment of wages. Agricultural laborers tend to be landless, unskilled, and have little bargaining power. The government has implemented various laws and welfare programs to improve conditions for agricultural laborers. However, they still face issues like excess supply, seasonal employment, small land holdings, and indebtedness. Cooperative programs, irrigation development, improved marketing and distribution, and agricultural insurance are suggested to help address problems faced by agricultural laborers.
Sourcing Land for Housing the Urban Poor in IndiaJitKumarGupta1
Sourcing land for housing remains the most challenging task for all agencies involved in providing shelter for marginalized sections of society. Challenge remains most formidable in the case of India, housing more than 17.3% global population and occupying merely a physical space of only 2.4%. India ranks high among the land stressed country, globally among nations. Housing is known to be largest consumer of land in the domain of both urban and rural settlements. Considering the high prevailing cost of land and large speculation to which urban land is subjected to, creating cost-effective and affordable housing remains most challenging task. Housing remains one of the most critical and dynamic entities related to human living, always evolving and devolving, never static, never definitive, ever dynamic, always changing and never decreasing .Housing strategies for the urban poor need a holistic and multi-pronged approach involving; ensuring adequate supply of serviced land at most affordable price; making land market operationally efficient and socially just; rationalizing the urban planning and development process; making informal sector integral part of urban planning / development; rationalizing land related legal framework governing land ; actively involving private and co-operative sectors ; creating an effective/efficient urban land information and management system; rationalizing the process/ cost of land transactions; minimizing the charges/ fees levied in the land transactions; minimizing time scale for sourcing land; making optimum use of available land; identifying right beneficiaries etc
Ongoing crisis of pandemic,Covid19, has clearly demonstrated the vulnerability of cities and migrants in the face of lockdown, when majority of urban migrant workforce, left cities to go back to their native places, despite all odds and hardships; clearly establishing the context, role/ importance of shelter in not only rationalizing growth/development of cities but also creating ownership among its citizens. It has also clearly demonstrated the necessity of providing adequate housing to all the urban residents, if the cities are to be made safe, resilient, sustainable and livable.
Similar to Land Reforms: Need for Institutional Innovations to tackle growing problem of landlessness in India (20)
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A Brief Introduction About Hanying Chen_Hanying Chen
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Land Reforms: Need for Institutional Innovations to tackle growing problem of landlessness in India
1. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention
ISSN (Online): 2319 – 7722, ISSN (Print): 2319 – 7714
www.ijhssi.org Volume 4 Issue 4 || April. 2015 || PP.14-21
www.ijhssi.org 14 | Page
Land Reforms: Need for Institutional Innovations to tackle growing
problem of landlessness in India
S.Vijayachandra Reddy, Raj Kumar Pammi and shivaswamy.G.P
1
Research Associate, Agribusiness Division, NAARM, Hyd-30
2
Assistant Professor, CGARD, National Institute of Rural Development and
Panchayati Raj (NIRDPR), Rajendranagar, HYD-30.
3
Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Agricultural Economics, IARI, New Delhi-12
ABSTRACT: Land property rights are the building blocks for agricultural productivity and the socio-economic
empowerment of rural households (Hanstad, 2009). High incidence of landlessness and marginalization of land
holdings pretense a threat to livelihood security of rural poor households. Therefore, redistribution of land to
landless and marginal farmers ensures equity, growth, and reduction of poverty (Srivastava et al. 2007).
Institutional reforms to ensure equality of land access are undertaken through abolition of intermediaries,
imposition of ceilings, redistribution of surplus land regulation of tenancy, and consolidation of land holdings.
But the record of implementation has not been satisfactory due to various reasons such as illegal inadequate
land records, prevalence of oral leases and legislative shortcomings. Accurate and updated land records are the
bases for successful implementation of institutional land reforms (Planning commission 2012). Restrictive
tenancy laws have driven tenancy concealed or made it even more informal. Tenancy legalization would allow
all sections to appropriately participate in the lease market depending upon their resource endowments. It also
helps in consolidation of holdings. Long term tenancy contacts would help raise productivity. Thus, Collective
farming approach is needed to overcome the multiple constraints faced by Small and Marginal farmers in
access to land, and to enable them to take advantage of new market opportunities. Creation of the Public Land
Banks at Panchayat level would help in efficient utilization of available agricultural land to meet demand and
supply among land holders and landless labours (Planning commission 2012).
Keywords: Land reforms, Land holdings, poverty and land tenancy
I. INTRODUCTION
India contains both the largest number of rural poor and the largest number of landless households in
the world. The two statistics are intrinsically related: landlessness – more than either caste or illiteracy – is the
best indicator of rural poverty in India. Food insecurity, hunger and rural poverty often result from the
imbalances in the present process of development which hinders access to land, water and other natural
resources and livelihood assets in a sustainable manner. Land Property Rights are the building blocks for
agricultural productivity and the socio- economic empowerment of rural households.
India has had a long history of social discrimination, closely linked with denial of access to land.
Specific land tenure systems prevailing at the time of independence also created their own set of problems. The
deteriorating quality of land records administration over the last four decades has compounded the hardships of
the poor. The constraint posed by land is emerging as a key challenge in ensuring both inclusiveness and
sustainability of the growth process. There is a constraint faced by the landless, small and marginal farmers
within agriculture, as also the constraint faced by the growing need for land for the processes of urbanization
and industrialization. Ever since independence, land reforms have been a major instrument of state policy to
promote both equity and agricultural investment. The seminar reviews issues of land reforms and property rights
in India and India’s efforts to provide the poor with access to rural land through the enactment of laws and
policies to extinguish intermediary interests, regulate tenancy relationships, set ceilings on land holdings,
allocate government wasteland and allocate house sites to the poor. For each, the seminar examines the extent to
which those laws have been successful in increasing land access, and makes an initial effort to distill the lessons
learned for moving ahead.
II. LAND RIGHTS
Secure land rights refer to rights that are evidently distinct, enforceable, long-term, socially and legally
legitimate and appropriately transferrable. Land rights contribute to livelihoods of poor households and to the
alleviation of poverty in the short and long terms. The land rights are as follows:
2. Land Reforms: Need for Institutional Innovations…
www.ijhssi.org 15 | Page
The family income increase due to improved land access which enhances the surplus income above and
beyond the pure rental value of land.
Due to the augmented land access it denigrates the shadow price of food for households which indirectly
affects the food security issues.
The superior land access also permits better welfare and reserves for households to withstand economic
shocks more effectively, and thereby pursue and defend more effective wealth-building strategies by
sending children to school and keeping them there.
Self-motivated income allocation aspects are observed if a more egalitarian land distribution in the
present lays the foundation for a broadly-based income growth in the future.
In India with a highly unequal distribution of land, the case for redistributing land rights from the rich
to the poor or from large-scale farmers to small-scale farmers is strapping, both tentatively and empirically
which relays on equity, economic growth, jobs, conflict prevention, and poverty reduction.
III. EQUITY, GROWTH, AND POVERTY REDUCTION
In the recent past Land reforms are undergone huge transformation with reference to the relationship
between land redistribution, welfare and growth. Land reforms have been focal point in framing the strategies to
improve the asset base of resource poor population among developing countries in due course of time their
effectiveness has been slow downed by intervention of political constraints during implementation (Besley and
Burgess, 1998). Equity in land distribution is associated with overall higher economic growth. For instance, the
initial phase of China’s high and sustained growth and poverty reduction spurt clearly was linked to its 1979
change from collective large-scale farms to small family farms. Large-scale farms usually have become
technically elegant, which reduces the labour use, and their computerization leads to speed movement of labor
from the agricultural sector into urban slums which ultimately leads to creating more rural and also urban
poverty. Conversely marginal farmers, usually use more labor (their own plus hired) per hectare (or per unit of
output) when compared others. Hence, they increase per unit of output for the economy in general, this adds to
an advantage for countries which are characterized by widespread unemployment. Increased access to land by
family farmers also can lead to more vibrant local wealth. Admittance to land provides an excellence societal
wellbeing, which encourages many farmers to move into off-farm businesses, which yields to greater degree of
risks coupled with free enterprise. There is significant and growing empirical evidence that well-targeted land
redistribution programs have a direct and meaningful impact on prosperity. The past act of land reorganization
programs demonstrates that when poor people are given good farmland and adequate post settlement support,
they can lift themselves out of poverty permanently.
IV. EFFICIENCY OF LAND
The efficiency of land, labor, and capital are in case of small-scale farmers than the large-scale farmers
who depend primarily on engaged labor. It reveals existence of inverse relationship between farm size and
productivity; this implies that agriculture generally is characterized by diminishing costs per unit of output,
which means that reallocation of land from large farmers to family farmers can bring efficiency gains to the
economy. The main reason why family-scale farms are more efficient is that their owners operate them
primarily using family labor. These small scale famers-owners stay on farm, concern and supervise very
carefully for their own property. These owners have strong-minded will to spend their savings back to their
fields/farms. However, although there are facing difficulties to contact for input and output markets, technical
and financial support and also information especially information about new markets and technologies.
However, such inconvenience can be answered if small farmers coordinate their efforts through marketing and
credit cooperatives. The land rights redeployment has two universal approaches they are rights based approach
and broader entitlement approach. In the first approach access to land is permitted to beneficiaries where as in
the other approach they have no land or not enough land to access and intervening often leads to transferring the
land from rich to redistribution of land to people who need it. However, in case of right based approach
Intervening through land redistribution is a way to reinstate individual’s rights.
V. OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION OF LAND HOLDINGS
5.1 Distribution of land holdings
According to 59th Round of National Sample Survey (NSSO, 2006), In India about 6.6 percent of the
rural households do not own any land, while about 3.4 percent households own on average 0.002 hectare only.
These two categories of rural households are generally categorized as landless. Considering the landless and
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marginal households for the year 2003, having less than 1 hectare land, about 79.6 percent households at the
bottom own only 23.0 percent of the total area, while 3.6 percent households having land above 4 hectares, and
own 34.7 percent of the total area. Nearly 10.8 percent are small farm households in the size group of 1 to 2
hectare which own 20.4 percent of the total area and 6.0 percent are semi- medium farm households in the size
group of 2 to 4 hectares that own 22.0 percent of the total area (Table 1).
It would be seen from Table 1 that the distribution of ownership of land continues to be quite skewed. Even
though the percentage shares of medium and large holdings in the total number of holdings as well as in total
area owned declined significantly overtime, the pattern of distribution of land ownership remained unequal.
Table 1: Distribution of rural households and area owned by different size groups
Size Group % of Households % of Area Owned
2003 1992 1982 1971-72 2003 1992 1982 1971-72
Marginal (<1 ha)
(less than 1 hect)
79.6 71.9 66.6 62.6 23.0 16.9 12.2 9.8
Small (1 – 2 ha)
(1 – 2 hect)
10.8 13.4 14.7 15.5 20.4 18.6 16.5 14.7
Semi-Medium
(2-4 ha)
(2-4 hect)
6.0 9.3 10.8 12.0 22.0 24.6 23.6 21.9
Medium
(4-10 ha)
(4-10 hect)
3.0 4.5 6.5 7.8 23.0 26.1 29.8 30.7
Large
(Above 10 ha)
(Above 10 hect)
0.6 0.9 1.4 2.1 11.6 13.8 18.0 22.9
All 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: NSSO(2006a)
The Figure.1 reveals the percentage of area owned by different categories of farmers. It is evident from
that table that the land large farmers are gradually decreasing from 70 per cent to 85 per cent in case of
large farmers. However, in case of marginal and small farmers the area has been increase approximately
from 0 per cent to 18 per cent and 21 per cent to 38 per cent respectively.
Figure 1. Percentage of area owned by different categories of farmers
Source: Agricultural census 2010-11.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
large
medium
semi medium
small
marginal
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5.2 Inequality in the distribution of land holdings
In India Land holdings are unevenly distributed it has always been used as a tool to measure social
power. The key behind the land reforms since independence is to ensure secure access to land ranging from
resource poor to landless labourers (Deininger, Jin and Yadav, 2008). The structure of land ownership is core
part for wellbeing of people in this direction government has struggled to change the ownership pattern of
cultivable land but it has ended with limited success. The Table 2 shows the inequality in the distribution of
operational and ownership land holdings. The Gini-co-efficient, showing the inequality in the distribution of
operational holdings in 2003 was 0.62 as against that of ownership holdings estimated at 0.74. Gini- coefficient
of operational holding which showed a rising trend from 0.59 in 1972 to 0.64 in 1992 declined marginally to
0.62 in 2003. The Gini co-efficient of ownership holdings which remained constant at 0.71 during 1971 to 1992
increased to 0.74 in 2003. Inequality as such may or may not be a problem, but high incidence of landlessness
and marginalization of landholdings pose a threat to livelihood security of millions of rural poor households and
consequently, social stability and peace in the villages. Inequality as such may or may not be a problem, but
high incidence of landlessness and marginalization of landholdings pose a threat to livelihood security of
millions of rural poor households and consequently, social stability and peace in the villages.
Table 2: Gini coefficient of ownership holdings and operational holdings
Year Operational holdings Ownership holdings
1962 0.58 0.73
1972 0.59 0.71
1982 0.63 0.71
1992 0.64 0.71
2003 0.62 0.74
Source: NSSO (2006a)
The Table 3 shows the Proportions of Landless Households and Marginal Ownership Holdings during 2003.
Incidence of landlessness is relatively higher than the national average of 10.0 percent in the states of Andhra
Pradesh (14.3 percent), Gujarat (13.6 percent), Himachal Pradesh (15.0 percent), Karnataka (14.1 percent),
Madhya Pradesh (12.1 percent), Maharashtra (17.7 percent) and Tamil Nadu (16.6 percent). The proportions of
marginal holdings and the percentage of area under marginal holdings (ownership) were relatively higher in the
states of Assam, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and west Bengal.
However in the states of Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Rajasthan, the
percentage shares of marginal holdings in the total area owned are found to be relatively lower.
Table 3: Proportions of Landless Households and Marginal Ownership Holdings (as of 2003)
State Percentage of
landless
households
Percentage of
Marginal Holdings
Percentage of total
area under marginal
holdings
Andhra Pradesh 14.3 68.4 21.9
Assam 8.1 73.7 44.4
Bihar 7.6 81.8 42.1
Gujarat 13.6 59.7 13.6
Haryana 9.2 68 13.1
Himachal Pradesh 15 68.7 43.8
Jammu &
Kashmir
3.3 74.2 36.3
Karnataka 14.1 56.9 16.6
Kerala 4.8 90.5 60.7
Madhya Pradesh 12.1 49.6 11.6
Maharashtra 17.7 51.3 12.4
Orissa 9.6 75.9 41.5
Punjab 4.6 71.7 9.2
Rajasthan 5.7 49.5 9.3
Tamil Nadu 16.6 73.5 33.2
Uttar Pradesh 3.8 77.2 34.9
West Bengal 6.2 85.9 58.2
All India 10 69.6 23
Source: NSSO (2006a)
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An unequal situation of the rural poor in accessing land through ownership may be partly improved if
they are able to lease in land from large and medium farmers.
VI. LAND TENURE SYSTEMS AT INDEPENDENCE
During the independence period in 1947, Indian agricultural land was governed by three broad types of
land tenure systems they are namely the zamindari system, Ryotwari system, and mahalwari system. The most
widespread was zamindari system, covering 57 percent of cultivated land during the British ruling period.
During this stage, the British regime had declared feudal lords and other persons previously designated as land
tax collectors to be proprietors of the land. The empowerment of zamindars transformed the tillers of the land
into tenants whose fortunes were dependent upon the wishes and whims of the zamindars. This system prevailed
in Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Orissa, Bengal, and fractions of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Assam. The second broad type of land tenure system was the ryotwari system, which covered about
38 percent of the cultivated land in British India. The Ryotwari system prevailed in much of southern India
including Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra, in addition to most of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and parts of Assam, Bihar, and Rajasthan. The ryotwari system recognized individual cultivators (ryots or
raiyats) as proprietors of their land with generally recognized rights to sell, lease, mortgage or else reassign their
land. During this system, it didn’t legally distinguish any kind of intermediary interest between the cultivator
and the state; the proprietors paid land revenue directly to the colonial administration. Only approximately 5
percent of British India’s cultivated land was administered under the third type of land tenure scheme, the
mahalwari system. In this system, land revenue was assigned to and paid by entire village units called as
mahals. Peasant farmers contributed shares of the total amount of land revenue owned by the village in
proportion to their property. In states like Punjab and Haryana, as well as parts of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and
Uttar Pradesh mahalwari system is still practiced.
VII. INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS TO LAND POLICY
Land reforms aims to land endowment of poor which has appreciable impact on reducing rural poverty,
it also indicates that decrease in land concentration has greater impact on reducing rural poverty. Hence it is
inevitable to have a balanced policy which will not isolate land re-allocation measures and economic progress
(Pal and Khandker, 2010). Ever since independence, various institutional land reforms were undertaken to
increase equality of land access, to eliminate the exploitation of farmers, and to improve agricultural
productivity.
Important approaches of institutional reforms are
1. Elimination of intermediate interests in land
2. Regulation of tenancy
3. Imposition of land ceilings
4. Consolidation of holdings and land distribution programs
The laws to abolish intermediary interests brought an estimated 20 to 25 million erstwhile tenants into
a direct with state relationships, majority of the beneficiaries belong to the states of Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal. The economic benefits realized by beneficiaries were somewhat limited for at least three reasons. First,
many of the tenants who were brought in direct relationship with the state had already received some tenure
security and rent regulation from tenancy laws enacted prior to Independence. Second, most of the state laws
required the former tenants to make payments to the government for acquiring ownership rights. Third, most of
the states obliged the beneficiaries to pay annual rent at an amount equal to what they are paying to
intermediaries.
The national policy on tenancy reform evolved gradually over decades and is embodied in various
policy documents issued by the National Planning Commission. The First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956),
contained the first authoritative exposition of national tenancy reform policy and included four important
guidelines. First, rent should not exceed one-fifth to one-fourth of the gross produce. Second, landowners
should be allowed to evict tenants-at-will and bring under “personal cultivation” land up to a ceiling amount
determined by respective state limits. Third, tenants on large landowners should be given permanent and
heritable rights to such land. Finally, tenants on “small and medium landowners” should be given 5-10 year
rights. The Second and Third Five-Year Plans essentially reiterated and tried to fine-tune the policy guidelines
established in the year 1951. During the last stage of third Plan, practically all states had espoused to tenancy
reform legislation that broadly followed the policy guidelines.
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The Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969-1974) noted that even after years of tenancy reforms, the objectives
of the tenancy reform policies and laws had not been achieved. Since these efforts to mend tenancy had
unsuccessful, it was known as ending tenancy. This plan suggested that the states adjust tenancy reform
legislation to make all existing tenants owners of the land they had been cultivating upon payment of
compensation and future tenancies should be prohibited except for special cases such as disabled persons,
widows, and energetic members of the armed forces. Numerous states did amend their legislation. The problem
of proving prevailing contract, however, continued. The crucial outcome of the new policy and corresponding
legislation was to push tenancies further concealed. However, though few plans have just restated the earlier
policies through shortcoming communication in laws and their need to adequate implementation, only in case of
10th
and 11 FYPs recommended for the legalization of tenancies was brought under practice. Twelfth Five Year
Plan largely recommends for the innovative institutional and legal changes to land policies such as collective
farming as an integrated approach to solve multiple land related problems, and creation of Public Land Banks at
the Panchayat level to make full use of available agricultural land.
All Indian states adopted land ceiling legislation that limited the amount of agricultural land a person or
family can own. The laws equalize landholdings by authorizing the states to take possession of land in excess of
the ceiling, and to redistribute the excess land to poor, landless, and marginal farmers. Ceiling laws vary by
state. In Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the law permits a family of five to hold between 10 and 54 acres of
land, depending on the quality of the land held. In both states, the laws permit the state to buy land that exceeds
the ceiling, but the required payment to the landowner is set at only a fraction of the land value (Behuria 1997).
The third and final aspect of Indian land reform has been the distribution of government wastelands
and the move to consolidate fragmented holdings. Consolidation of holdings in a village could be done after
two-third of the landowners had consented. Land of variable quality was then pooled and redistributed among
the landowners in consolidated plots, thereby reducing fragmentation and increasing the possibility of adoption
of land-augmenting technologies. By 2002, consolidation had taken place on 66.1 m ha out of the 142 m ha of
cultivable area, but many states had stopped the process earlier (Planning Commission, 2003). Maximum land
has been consolidated in the northwestern states of Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh and in the western state
of Maharashtra.
VIII. RESTRICTIVE TENANCIES
Since land and tenancy policies are state subjects, largely four types of tenancy laws are prevailing in the
country.
• Complete prohibition of tenancy. The laws in Kerala and Jammu & Kashmir place a virtual or
absolute prohibition on the creation of agricultural tenancies.
• General prohibition/limited leasing. The laws was practiced in eight states namely Telangana in
Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Karnataka, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
and Orissa which are characterized by a general prohibition on future tenancies combined with an
allowance of leasing by certain defined categories of landowners and/or under certain other conditions.
Permissible leasing with ownership potential. Five states permit leasing, but with a stipulation that
the tenant acquires a right of ownership or a right to purchase ownership subsequent to some particular
period. The states like Haryana, Maharashtra, Assam, Punjab and Gujarat. However, there was also
change with respect to length of time period from 1 to 6 years, in this type of leasing state like Gujarat
and Maharashtra was one year where as in Haryana and Punjab it was 6 years.
• No prohibitions on leasing. Three states place virtually no prohibitions on leasing. in the states like
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Andhra area of Andhra Pradesh constantly however, provisions on upper
limit rent, least length of term, and rights for tenants to purchase land be capable of having the effect
of preventing landowners from renting out their land or making tenancies concealed.
The Table 4 shows the distribution of rural households reporting leasing in of land and average area leased
in per household. There is a land lease market in most parts of the country and that majority of the tenants
comprise pure landless labourers (35.8 percent), marginal farmers (55.7 percent) and small farmers (4.7
percent). The large farmers having land above 10 hectares account for only 0.3 percent of the total number
of tenants, while medium farmers in the size group of 4 to 10 hectares constitute 0.4 percent of the total
number of tenants. Among marginal farmers around 30.3 percent land is shared from the total leased in
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area, while small and semi-medium farmers in the size groups of 1 to 2 hectares and 2 to 4 hectares share
22.1 percent and 21.8 percent respectively. Thus, 74.2 percent of the total leased in area is operated by
marginal, small and semi-medium farmers respectively. The large farmers above 10 hectares share only
11.2 percent of the total leased in area. It may be seen from Table 4 that on an average, the landless
agricultural labourers leased in 0.055 hectare of land and marginal farmers in the size group of 0.02 to 1.0
hectare leased in land in the range of 0.461 hectare to 0.709 hectare.
Table 4: Percentage Distribution of Households Reported leasing in and Average Area
leased in (as of 2003) in India by size Group of ownership Holdings
Size Group (ha) % households reporting
leasing in land
Average area leased
in (ha)
0.0 35.8 0.055
<0.002 1.4 0.544
0.002 – 0.005 4.0 0.709
0.005-0.040 17.0 0.545
0.040-0.50 25.1 0.461
0.50 – 1.00 8.2 0.656
1.00 - 2.00 4.7 0.937
2.00 – 3.00 1.8 1.285
3.00 – 4.00 0.7 1.80
4.00 – 5.00 0.5 2.00
5.00 – 7.50 0.4 2.757
7.50-10.00 0.2 6.02
10.00 – 20.00 0.3 3.633
20.00 and above 0.0 0.0
All sizes 100.0 0.444
Source: NSSO, (2006).
Therefore landless laborers, marginal and small farmers could able to improve their land access through leasing
which causes distribution of operational holdings to be relatively less skewed. Further, the study suggests that,
nearly 70 % of the rural population is dependent on land (CLRA, 2011) to fulfil their basic need as farm
labourers or farmers; this clearly evident it is essential to deal with the issue of land in such approach that it
provides prosperity, employment and food security to millions of rural poor. Apart from this, though our
country is known to be leading number of rural poor population as well as households with landless in the
world. Landlessness can be strong indicator to measure the rural poverty which most precious and non-
perishable ownership for the people who extract their socio-economic needs and livelihood status in the society.
IX. CONCLUSION
The study indicates that high incidence of landlessness and marginalization of land holdings creates a
threat to livelihood security of rural population. The process of fragmentation of marginal and small farm
holdings further widens poverty gap. In addition, the role of institutional land reforms should ensure equity,
growth, and reduction of poverty by ensuring resource poor people’s access to land and entitlement to
institutional finance and technical support in long run. Further, it also need to be effective in implementing
institutional reforms which are deep embedded to the management of land records and the correctness,
transparency and accuracy of the record-of-rights. Finally, the study suggests that, Institutional land reforms
need appropriate legal changes and also institutional innovations like collective farming as an integrated
approach to resolve the several constraints, It has greatly increased food security to contributing households, this
might not be possible on an individual basis. In addition, creation of Public Land Banks a law to recognize
tenancies could freeze the informal land lease market in the short run, this banks can help better in regulating
and rationalizing the land.
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