This document is a literature review on changing children's attitudes and behaviors toward disabilities. It summarizes research showing that while inclusion of disabled students is promoted, simply placing disabled students in regular classrooms does not ensure positive social interactions or acceptance. Studies have found discrimination toward disabled elementary students by non-disabled peers in the forms of social isolation and lack of friendships for disabled students. Research also examines how education about disabilities may help make non-disabled students more comfortable interacting with disabled peers, though personal experience may be more effective. The review defines key terms and explores literature on attitudes toward different types of disabilities and how factors like gender and culture can influence views of disability.
The document summarizes the history of special education law and policy in the United States over the past 50 years. It describes key court cases and legislation that established and expanded the rights of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education, including the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which required schools to educate students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment possible. It also discusses ongoing issues like disproportionate representation of minority students in special education and cultural bias in assessment methods.
This document provides a summary of 8 major events in the history of special education in the United States:
1) Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional.
2) Mills v. Board of Education and Pennsylvania Assoc. for Retarded Children established that all children have a right to public education.
3) The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibited disability discrimination in federal programs and employment.
4) Public Law 94-142, passed in 1975, guaranteed free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities.
5) The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities.
6) Final federal regulations were issued governing special education.
History of special education april wells_wk1Aprilmoe82
This document provides an overview of the major events that have shaped special education in the United States. It discusses eight pivotal events beginning with Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954 and ending with No Child Left Behind in 2001. Each event led to changes in terminology, views of society, students' placement in the least restrictive environment, and significantly shaped the future of special education. The timeline highlights the progression of special education from segregation to inclusion and equal access to education for all students with disabilities.
This document traces the history of special education in the United States from its origins in the early 1800s to modern day. It discusses how attitudes have gradually shifted from seeing those with disabilities as in need of institutionalization or sterilization to a more inclusive perspective. Key events and laws that advanced rights and inclusion are highlighted, such as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. The document also notes how terminology has changed to reflect more humanizing views of those with disabilities. Overall, it summarizes how far society and education have come in properly supporting students with special needs.
This document summarizes 8 major events in the history of special education legislation and policy in the United States. It discusses key factors for each event such as terminology, restrictive environments, societal views, and significance. The events covered include Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped in 1965, PARC v. Pennsylvania in 1972, Mills v. D.C. Board of Education in 1972, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990, and No Child Left Behind in 2001.
This document outlines the history of special education in the United States from the 1950s to present day. It discusses several key events and laws that improved access and inclusion for students with special needs, including the Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990. The document also summarizes amendments to existing laws that further advanced rights for students with disabilities and their families. Overall, it shows that education has made significant progress in providing equal and fair education for all students through increased intervention services, inclusion practices, and anti-discrimination protections.
Dr. Joe Kincheloe advocated for a critical perspective in education that views schools and practices as inherently political. He believed teachers should act as social activists to understand power relations, empower students, and decrease exclusionary practices. This framework supports the path of adapted PE professionals as social activists advocating for disability rights and inclusion. However, inclusive and adaptive PE may be in jeopardy without strong legal protections for students with disabilities and improvements in teacher attitudes and preparation for inclusion.
This document provides a history of special education in the United States from the 1800s to present day. It discusses how students with disabilities were initially excluded from public schools but gained greater access due to compulsory attendance laws. Key court cases like PARC v. Pennsylvania and Mills v. DC Board of Education established rights to education for students with disabilities. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 mandated free appropriate public education for all students. Subsequent laws like IDEA and NCLB have further strengthened protections and inclusion of students with special needs in public schools.
The document summarizes the history of special education law and policy in the United States over the past 50 years. It describes key court cases and legislation that established and expanded the rights of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education, including the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which required schools to educate students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment possible. It also discusses ongoing issues like disproportionate representation of minority students in special education and cultural bias in assessment methods.
This document provides a summary of 8 major events in the history of special education in the United States:
1) Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional.
2) Mills v. Board of Education and Pennsylvania Assoc. for Retarded Children established that all children have a right to public education.
3) The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibited disability discrimination in federal programs and employment.
4) Public Law 94-142, passed in 1975, guaranteed free appropriate public education to all children with disabilities.
5) The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities.
6) Final federal regulations were issued governing special education.
History of special education april wells_wk1Aprilmoe82
This document provides an overview of the major events that have shaped special education in the United States. It discusses eight pivotal events beginning with Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954 and ending with No Child Left Behind in 2001. Each event led to changes in terminology, views of society, students' placement in the least restrictive environment, and significantly shaped the future of special education. The timeline highlights the progression of special education from segregation to inclusion and equal access to education for all students with disabilities.
This document traces the history of special education in the United States from its origins in the early 1800s to modern day. It discusses how attitudes have gradually shifted from seeing those with disabilities as in need of institutionalization or sterilization to a more inclusive perspective. Key events and laws that advanced rights and inclusion are highlighted, such as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. The document also notes how terminology has changed to reflect more humanizing views of those with disabilities. Overall, it summarizes how far society and education have come in properly supporting students with special needs.
This document summarizes 8 major events in the history of special education legislation and policy in the United States. It discusses key factors for each event such as terminology, restrictive environments, societal views, and significance. The events covered include Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, the Bureau of Education for the Handicapped in 1965, PARC v. Pennsylvania in 1972, Mills v. D.C. Board of Education in 1972, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990, and No Child Left Behind in 2001.
This document outlines the history of special education in the United States from the 1950s to present day. It discusses several key events and laws that improved access and inclusion for students with special needs, including the Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990. The document also summarizes amendments to existing laws that further advanced rights for students with disabilities and their families. Overall, it shows that education has made significant progress in providing equal and fair education for all students through increased intervention services, inclusion practices, and anti-discrimination protections.
Dr. Joe Kincheloe advocated for a critical perspective in education that views schools and practices as inherently political. He believed teachers should act as social activists to understand power relations, empower students, and decrease exclusionary practices. This framework supports the path of adapted PE professionals as social activists advocating for disability rights and inclusion. However, inclusive and adaptive PE may be in jeopardy without strong legal protections for students with disabilities and improvements in teacher attitudes and preparation for inclusion.
This document provides a history of special education in the United States from the 1800s to present day. It discusses how students with disabilities were initially excluded from public schools but gained greater access due to compulsory attendance laws. Key court cases like PARC v. Pennsylvania and Mills v. DC Board of Education established rights to education for students with disabilities. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 mandated free appropriate public education for all students. Subsequent laws like IDEA and NCLB have further strengthened protections and inclusion of students with special needs in public schools.
1) The document discusses research on the effects of inclusion classrooms on students without disabilities. Studies have found positive impacts on academics, social awareness, and exposure to diversity.
2) Academically, students in inclusion classrooms showed improved standardized test scores in reading and math compared to students in traditional classrooms. Socially, students reported developing empathy, acceptance of individual differences, and stronger interpersonal relationships.
3) Exposure to inclusion helped students appreciate diversity more and made them less likely to stereotype others. Overall, the research suggests inclusion benefits students without disabilities.
This paper explores the impact of the ADA’s enactment. The ADA ensured equal treatment and access for those with disabilities to public facilities and employment, and growing numbers are now participating in the workforce and community. Although the ADA transformed the rights of individuals with disabilities in the civic environment and workplace, there are still matters these people and their families face due to their disability. An analysis of research brings to light the issues of unequal income, elusive disability classifications as a result of broad language, and biased views from others as unsolved problems. By spreading awareness and encouraging the elimination of physical and social barriers, the inclusion of all individuals, regardless of ability, will progress.
Bridges Instead of Boundaries: Pedagogy Meets DisabilitySpike Wilson
This is the visual component of my presentation at Ivy Tech's 2011 Adjunct Faculty Conference. I was encourage by one campus' Executive Director to research mental health resources in the six counties of Ivy Tech's Kokomo Region. This presentation was inspire by that initial exploration.
Introduction legislation and litigation.ppt with notesCarlos Sandoval
This document discusses key principles and legislation related to special education law, including the constitutional rights to due process and equal protection. It summarizes important court cases that established and expanded the rights of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education. The document also describes the key principles and requirements of major special education legislation, including the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
The document discusses several key legal bases and precedents related to the rights of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. It outlines the federal and state constitutional arguments and statutes that provide legal protections. It also summarizes several important court cases that established the right to education, appropriate evaluation and placement, free appropriate education, and appropriate educational settings for students with disabilities.
This document discusses the history of how disabilities have been viewed throughout time in a generally negative manner. It provides examples of how various ancient societies mistreated or saw the disabled as inhuman. It then discusses more modern views and laws from the 1960s onward that have promoted greater rights and protections for the disabled. The document advocates for acceptance and accommodation of people with disabilities in society.
This document discusses theories of disability, demographics of disability, and etiquette when working with people with disabilities. It outlines three main models for understanding disability - the moral model which views disability as punishment, the medical model which sees people as flawed needing to be fixed, and the social model which views disability as a socially constructed category. It provides statistics on the large population with disabilities worldwide and in the US, noting higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and segregation among those with disabilities. The document also discusses the Americans with Disabilities Act and the relevance of social work in addressing discrimination. Finally, it outlines five general rules of etiquette when interacting with people with disabilities.
The document provides a historical overview of perceptions and attitudes towards disabilities including mental retardation (MR) from antiquity to the present. It discusses key periods including: antiquity where attitudes varied; the Renaissance period which emphasized human potential; pioneering work by Itard and Seguin in the 1800s using educational techniques; the facilities-based orientation from 1890-1960 where institutions focused on protection and segregation; and the services-based and supports-based orientations from 1960 onward emphasizing community integration, civil rights, and supports.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), including its history and amendments. It defines important terms like free appropriate public education, individualized education program, least restrictive environment, and extended school year. It also outlines requirements regarding evaluation, placement, discipline, private schooling, related services, and protections under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Major court cases that have interpreted and shaped the implementation of IDEA are referenced throughout.
The document discusses the debate around inclusion, which refers to educating students with and without disabilities together in the same classroom setting. While some believe inclusion helps special needs students build social skills, others argue that these students need more support than can be provided in a general education environment. The debate around inclusion began in the 1970s as parents disagreed on whether their children's individual needs were best served in regular or special education classrooms. By 1997, 95% of students with disabilities were being educated in inclusive settings according to their individualized education programs. However, inclusion remains controversial as some argue it benefits students ready for integration, while others may feel isolated or not receive proper support in a general classroom.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Social Foundations & HistoryRajasaurus Brontozaurus
By Kimberly Krause, Paul Galgovich, Catherine Gentzke, Gretchen Tulloch, and Rajesh Barnabas
For Social Foundations of Education
Edts Hybrid Program
Nazareth College
School of Education
Instructor
Sandra Mancuso
November 25, 2008
This chapter reviews literature on intellectual disabilities, care ethics, and leisure. It identifies gaps and discusses how having a sibling with an intellectual disability may impact young women's leisure experiences. The review covers definitions of intellectual disability, needs of those affected, stresses on mothers of children with intellectual disabilities, and historical issues regarding institutionalization and advocacy that led to greater community inclusion and support services today.
By Kimberly Krause, Paul Galgovich, Catherine Gentzke, Gretchen Tulloch, and Rajesh Barnabas
For Social Foundations of Education
Edts Hybrid Program
Nazareth College
School of Education
Instructor
Sandra Mancuso
November 25, 2008
Hott, brittany it takes a village nfsej v26 n1 2015William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. LaVelle Henricks, Texas A&M University-Commerce and colleagues published in national refereed journal.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Individuals with disabilities have historically been treated as second class citizens in Canada. They were institutionalized and faced discrimination. Labels like "idiot" and "moron" were used to describe people with disabilities, influencing negative perceptions. While the Ontario Human Rights Code now prohibits disability discrimination, individuals with disabilities still face barriers to full inclusion and equality including higher rates of poverty, lack of support programs, and social stigma. Solutions include changing perceptions of disability, improving support systems, and promoting greater awareness and acceptance of individuals with disabilities.
“Inequality is the status quo. There is huge inequality between people in their access to resources, to decision-making, to securing human rights and safety, and in their freedom from discrimination. Reducing inequality if both morally right and pragmatically necessary for global economic and climate security in the future”
This document is a submission of coursework for a Masters in Early Childhood at Swansea University. It discusses inequality and diversity in early childhood as it relates to disability. The 4,100 word essay focuses on three key areas: eugenics and the shift to genetics, labeling of disabilities, and the medical and social models of disability. It provides analysis of each area and considers their implications for children with disabilities.
This document provides an overview of Geraldine Maurice, who is a teacher focused on serving students with special needs. It summarizes her commitment to teaching and creating an environment where all students can reach their potential. The document then shifts to discussing challenges facing minority students in special education, highlighting literature reviewing strategies to increase involvement of African American parents and examining approaches to address inequalities experienced by African American males in education.
The document discusses gender bias and fairness in multiple contexts. It begins by defining the differences between gender and sex, noting that gender refers to social and cultural differences while sex refers to biological ones. It then examines how gender is constructed beginning in infancy, with girls and boys receiving different social reinforcement. Gender bias can also occur in schools and testing. Teachers may unintentionally exhibit bias by interacting more with and calling on boys more than girls, or having different expectations of students based on gender. Test publishers work to prevent bias in testing materials and recommended uses. Reducing bias requires examination of teaching practices and interactions with different students.
Jeffrey W. LeDonne has over 15 years of experience in the transportation and logistics industry, specializing in hazardous materials handling and emergency response. He has held several roles managing operations, safety training, and emergency response for freight companies. His objective is to gain a career position utilizing his expertise in hazardous materials to contribute to his employer's success while continuing his education in safety and emergency response.
This document summarizes the personnel functions and processes at a company including hiring, separation, evaluations, contracts renewal, medical insurance, social insurance, payroll responsibilities, site administrator activities, and headcount comparisons between 2014 and 2015. The hiring process involves receiving documents, preparing contracts, and adding new employees to systems. The separation process reviews vacation balances and removes employee access. Evaluations are conducted periodically and can impact bonuses and contract renewals. Payroll responsibilities include processing timesheets, transfers, attendance, and delivering payroll information to finance.
1) The document discusses research on the effects of inclusion classrooms on students without disabilities. Studies have found positive impacts on academics, social awareness, and exposure to diversity.
2) Academically, students in inclusion classrooms showed improved standardized test scores in reading and math compared to students in traditional classrooms. Socially, students reported developing empathy, acceptance of individual differences, and stronger interpersonal relationships.
3) Exposure to inclusion helped students appreciate diversity more and made them less likely to stereotype others. Overall, the research suggests inclusion benefits students without disabilities.
This paper explores the impact of the ADA’s enactment. The ADA ensured equal treatment and access for those with disabilities to public facilities and employment, and growing numbers are now participating in the workforce and community. Although the ADA transformed the rights of individuals with disabilities in the civic environment and workplace, there are still matters these people and their families face due to their disability. An analysis of research brings to light the issues of unequal income, elusive disability classifications as a result of broad language, and biased views from others as unsolved problems. By spreading awareness and encouraging the elimination of physical and social barriers, the inclusion of all individuals, regardless of ability, will progress.
Bridges Instead of Boundaries: Pedagogy Meets DisabilitySpike Wilson
This is the visual component of my presentation at Ivy Tech's 2011 Adjunct Faculty Conference. I was encourage by one campus' Executive Director to research mental health resources in the six counties of Ivy Tech's Kokomo Region. This presentation was inspire by that initial exploration.
Introduction legislation and litigation.ppt with notesCarlos Sandoval
This document discusses key principles and legislation related to special education law, including the constitutional rights to due process and equal protection. It summarizes important court cases that established and expanded the rights of students with disabilities to receive a free and appropriate public education. The document also describes the key principles and requirements of major special education legislation, including the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.
The document discusses several key legal bases and precedents related to the rights of individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. It outlines the federal and state constitutional arguments and statutes that provide legal protections. It also summarizes several important court cases that established the right to education, appropriate evaluation and placement, free appropriate education, and appropriate educational settings for students with disabilities.
This document discusses the history of how disabilities have been viewed throughout time in a generally negative manner. It provides examples of how various ancient societies mistreated or saw the disabled as inhuman. It then discusses more modern views and laws from the 1960s onward that have promoted greater rights and protections for the disabled. The document advocates for acceptance and accommodation of people with disabilities in society.
This document discusses theories of disability, demographics of disability, and etiquette when working with people with disabilities. It outlines three main models for understanding disability - the moral model which views disability as punishment, the medical model which sees people as flawed needing to be fixed, and the social model which views disability as a socially constructed category. It provides statistics on the large population with disabilities worldwide and in the US, noting higher rates of poverty, unemployment, and segregation among those with disabilities. The document also discusses the Americans with Disabilities Act and the relevance of social work in addressing discrimination. Finally, it outlines five general rules of etiquette when interacting with people with disabilities.
The document provides a historical overview of perceptions and attitudes towards disabilities including mental retardation (MR) from antiquity to the present. It discusses key periods including: antiquity where attitudes varied; the Renaissance period which emphasized human potential; pioneering work by Itard and Seguin in the 1800s using educational techniques; the facilities-based orientation from 1890-1960 where institutions focused on protection and segregation; and the services-based and supports-based orientations from 1960 onward emphasizing community integration, civil rights, and supports.
The document summarizes key aspects of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), including its history and amendments. It defines important terms like free appropriate public education, individualized education program, least restrictive environment, and extended school year. It also outlines requirements regarding evaluation, placement, discipline, private schooling, related services, and protections under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Major court cases that have interpreted and shaped the implementation of IDEA are referenced throughout.
The document discusses the debate around inclusion, which refers to educating students with and without disabilities together in the same classroom setting. While some believe inclusion helps special needs students build social skills, others argue that these students need more support than can be provided in a general education environment. The debate around inclusion began in the 1970s as parents disagreed on whether their children's individual needs were best served in regular or special education classrooms. By 1997, 95% of students with disabilities were being educated in inclusive settings according to their individualized education programs. However, inclusion remains controversial as some argue it benefits students ready for integration, while others may feel isolated or not receive proper support in a general classroom.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Social Foundations & HistoryRajasaurus Brontozaurus
By Kimberly Krause, Paul Galgovich, Catherine Gentzke, Gretchen Tulloch, and Rajesh Barnabas
For Social Foundations of Education
Edts Hybrid Program
Nazareth College
School of Education
Instructor
Sandra Mancuso
November 25, 2008
This chapter reviews literature on intellectual disabilities, care ethics, and leisure. It identifies gaps and discusses how having a sibling with an intellectual disability may impact young women's leisure experiences. The review covers definitions of intellectual disability, needs of those affected, stresses on mothers of children with intellectual disabilities, and historical issues regarding institutionalization and advocacy that led to greater community inclusion and support services today.
By Kimberly Krause, Paul Galgovich, Catherine Gentzke, Gretchen Tulloch, and Rajesh Barnabas
For Social Foundations of Education
Edts Hybrid Program
Nazareth College
School of Education
Instructor
Sandra Mancuso
November 25, 2008
Hott, brittany it takes a village nfsej v26 n1 2015William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. LaVelle Henricks, Texas A&M University-Commerce and colleagues published in national refereed journal.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Individuals with disabilities have historically been treated as second class citizens in Canada. They were institutionalized and faced discrimination. Labels like "idiot" and "moron" were used to describe people with disabilities, influencing negative perceptions. While the Ontario Human Rights Code now prohibits disability discrimination, individuals with disabilities still face barriers to full inclusion and equality including higher rates of poverty, lack of support programs, and social stigma. Solutions include changing perceptions of disability, improving support systems, and promoting greater awareness and acceptance of individuals with disabilities.
“Inequality is the status quo. There is huge inequality between people in their access to resources, to decision-making, to securing human rights and safety, and in their freedom from discrimination. Reducing inequality if both morally right and pragmatically necessary for global economic and climate security in the future”
This document is a submission of coursework for a Masters in Early Childhood at Swansea University. It discusses inequality and diversity in early childhood as it relates to disability. The 4,100 word essay focuses on three key areas: eugenics and the shift to genetics, labeling of disabilities, and the medical and social models of disability. It provides analysis of each area and considers their implications for children with disabilities.
This document provides an overview of Geraldine Maurice, who is a teacher focused on serving students with special needs. It summarizes her commitment to teaching and creating an environment where all students can reach their potential. The document then shifts to discussing challenges facing minority students in special education, highlighting literature reviewing strategies to increase involvement of African American parents and examining approaches to address inequalities experienced by African American males in education.
The document discusses gender bias and fairness in multiple contexts. It begins by defining the differences between gender and sex, noting that gender refers to social and cultural differences while sex refers to biological ones. It then examines how gender is constructed beginning in infancy, with girls and boys receiving different social reinforcement. Gender bias can also occur in schools and testing. Teachers may unintentionally exhibit bias by interacting more with and calling on boys more than girls, or having different expectations of students based on gender. Test publishers work to prevent bias in testing materials and recommended uses. Reducing bias requires examination of teaching practices and interactions with different students.
Jeffrey W. LeDonne has over 15 years of experience in the transportation and logistics industry, specializing in hazardous materials handling and emergency response. He has held several roles managing operations, safety training, and emergency response for freight companies. His objective is to gain a career position utilizing his expertise in hazardous materials to contribute to his employer's success while continuing his education in safety and emergency response.
This document summarizes the personnel functions and processes at a company including hiring, separation, evaluations, contracts renewal, medical insurance, social insurance, payroll responsibilities, site administrator activities, and headcount comparisons between 2014 and 2015. The hiring process involves receiving documents, preparing contracts, and adding new employees to systems. The separation process reviews vacation balances and removes employee access. Evaluations are conducted periodically and can impact bonuses and contract renewals. Payroll responsibilities include processing timesheets, transfers, attendance, and delivering payroll information to finance.
презентація до семінару-практикуму "Сучасні підходи до ознайомлення дітей з предметним довкіллям" висвітлює план та хід проведення семінару для педагогів дошкільного навчального закладу
Vanessa Louw successfully completed several training courses related to front office customer service. Certificates were awarded for Facilitator training in March 2009 and for being named Front of House Employee of the Month in December 2007. Louw also received a certificate recognizing completion of training in fraud prevention from the Training Academy in August 2009. The documents demonstrate Louw's commitment to ongoing learning and professional development in her role serving customers.
This document provides specifications and documentation for UI/IA/UX design. It includes sections on responsive design, browser compatibility, SASS/CSS tips and code, responsive mixins, variables, sprites, and more. The document gives overviews and descriptions of topics from SXSW presentations on responsive design. It also provides instructions for setting up and using SASS for CSS preprocessing and includes code examples for mixins, partials, and other SASS features.
Assignment on red herring prospectus of v guard industries limitedGurjot singh
V Guard Industries Limited is issuing 80,00,000 equity shares through an initial public offering, with 4,00,000 shares reserved for employees. The net issue to the public will be 76,00,000 shares. Key details about the company include its registered office in Cochin, Kerala, India. Technical terms covered in the document include ASBA (Applications Supported by Blocked Amount), which is a process for applying to IPOs where the applicant's account is not debited until shares are allotted, and lead managers, who are independent financial institutions appointed to manage the IPO.
This short document promotes creating presentations using Haiku Deck on SlideShare. It encourages the reader to get started making their own Haiku Deck presentation by providing a button to click to begin the process. The document is advertising the ability to easily create presentations on SlideShare using Haiku Deck.
This document discusses what intelligence is and how it is measured. It defines intelligence as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Psychologists measure intelligence using tests that assess general intelligence as well as specific abilities. Intelligence involves both fluid abilities that peak in youth and crystallized abilities that increase with age and experience. While intelligence was once thought to be a single entity, some researchers propose there are multiple types of intelligence. The document also examines how intelligence is assessed using standardized tests, the concept of the IQ score, reliability and validity of testing, factors that influence intelligence such as genetics and environment, and the ongoing debate around nature versus nurture.
The presentation discusses the angel shark, an unusual shark with a flattened body and broad pectoral fins. It notes that angel sharks can reach up to 6.5 feet in length, have 5 pairs of gills on their underside, and wide mouths with needle-like teeth. While they can live over 30 years, angel shark populations have been decimated by trawling nets, which is a major threat to the species. The presentation highlights conservation efforts including full protection in the Balearic Islands and a captive breeding program in Britain.
Roald Kristoffersen is a Norwegian national born in 1973. He has over 20 years of experience in the oil and gas industry, working on projects for companies like Statoil, Norsk Hydro, and BP. His roles have included engineer, supervisor, and project manager focusing on tasks like leak testing, nitrogen pumping, and subsea compression. Currently he works as the RFO technical lead engineer for Statoil on the Åsgard Subsea Compression Project.
This document provides a summary of the education and professional experience of Dr. Osayimwense Osa. It lists his educational background, including a Ed.D. from University of Houston and M.A. from University of New Brunswick. It then outlines his extensive professional experience in academia, including serving as a professor and chair at several universities in the U.S. and abroad. It also lists publications, honors received, and areas of research focusing on African and African diaspora children's and young adult literature.
Saravanan S is a software QA engineer with over 2 years of experience in testing insurance software. He has extensive experience with test automation tools like Selenium WebDriver, TestNG, and SQL. He is proficient in Java and has worked on projects for clients like Zurich Insurance and BCV testing web applications. His roles have included writing test scripts, performing regression testing, identifying defects, and ensuring tests pass after fixes. He is looking for a challenging position where he can continue upgrading his skills in software testing and emerging technologies.
Horizons Children's Center in Wheeling, Illinois is a leading childcare facility that has exceeded state minimum requirements and earned accreditation. It has partnered successfully with an adult daycare program, finding health benefits for both children and elderly adults in intergenerational interaction. The executive director, Susan Tash, plans to build a new facility to further foster this partnership and hopes to create more quality intergenerational centers as pilots across the US.
This document summarizes a study that used a microsimulation model to estimate the potential impact of three federal policies on childhood obesity rates in the United States by 2032: 1) expanding federally funded afterschool physical activity programs, 2) implementing a $0.01/ounce excise tax on sugar-sweetened beverages, and 3) banning television advertising of fast food targeted at children under 12 years old. The microsimulation predicted that afterschool physical activity programs would reduce childhood obesity the most among 6-12 year olds, while the advertising ban would reduce it the least. A sugar-sweetened beverage excise tax was estimated to reduce adolescent obesity the most. All three policies were found to help reduce obesity dispar
This document provides an overview of outdoor media options from ANSH Infomedia Pvt. Ltd. in Greater Noida and Faridabad. It details various advertising structures like bus shelters, unipoles, view cutters, public toilets and their pricing. It also summarizes the key infrastructure and growth developments in both Greater Noida and Faridabad making them promising markets. Contact details are provided at the end for further information.
The document provides UI/UX recommendations for optimizing an example website. Key recommendations include:
1. Optimizing and minifying CSS code to improve page load times.
2. Implementing a responsive design to make the site usable on different screen sizes.
3. Guiding users through workflows and common tasks using wizards and tunnels to simplify processes.
4. Providing helpful on-page feedback like inline validation, tooltips and messages to assist users.
This document summarizes key topics related to exceptional students and special education. It defines exceptional students as those with disabilities or who are gifted/talented who may require special education services. It outlines major legislation that has established and expanded the rights of students with disabilities to a public education, including the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Section 504, and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The document also discusses views of disability in society, inclusion of exceptional students, and concerns about disproportionate representation of certain groups in special education.
The Stigma Must Be Broken For Disabled Students to Succeed.docxajakil1
An essay about the college experience with a disabillity. How we live with limited resources and schools are uneducated on this topic. It is intended to raise awareness to teachers and other college students.
Understand the history of IDEA and the reasons f.docxmarilucorr
Understand the history of IDEA and the reasons for the federal government’s call for national intervention into special educationIdentify and describe the six principles of IDEA.
Review objectives with participants
Understand the effects of personal cultural biases.Discuss confidentiality, privacy and current issues.Identify resources for teachers, parents and students.
Review objectives with participants
So who exactly is served in special education?
Exceptional Children
Physical or learning abilities of these children are either above or below the norm and require a specialized program to meet their needsDisability/Impairment
Reduced function or loss of a particular body part or organ
A child with a physical disability is not handicapped unless it impairs educational, personal, social, vocational issues
Handicap
A problem a person with a disability or impairment encounters interacting with the environmentAt-Risk
A child that is not currently identified as having a disability, are considered to have a greater than usual chance of developing a disability.
Also, refers to students who are experiencing learning problems in the regular classroom
People First Language simply means that we should ALWAYS put the person first in our descriptions.IDEA supports People First Language. The term handicapped is replaced with disability.Examples:
Children with disabilities
Students in special education
Students with learning differences, and
Students with autism.
This is an important concept because there is an expectation that we do not categorize students by their disability.
MustUseStudentInstead ofCategory
A child evaluated as having. . .
A specific learning disability (LD)
An emotional disturbance (ED)
Intellectual Disability(ID)
A speech or language impairment (SI)
A visual impairment including blindness (VI)
A hearing impairment including deafness (AI)
An orthopedic impairment (OI)
These are the official labeling categories used for a student with a disability and included next to the category is the acronym used for each of the disability categories.
traumatic brain injury (TBI)
Autism (AI)
other health impairment (OHI)
multiple disability (MI)
deaf-blindness (DB)
non-categorical early childhood (NCEC)
may used for children ages 3 through 5
These are the official labeling categories used for a student with a disability and included next to the category is the acronym used for each of the disability categories. In Texas Students are labeled by the time they have completed their fifth year; however in other states in the country they are labeled developmentally delayed but not given a specific disability category until nine years of age.
NCEC: suspected of meeting eligibility criteria for:
autism
emotional disturbance
learning disability
Intellectual Disability
Use of the NCEC code is a local district decision
NCEC students must be suspected of meeting the following criteria in order to be considered ...
Literature Review On Women With DisabilitiesMary Stevenson
Parents of children with learning disabilities face a dilemma in deciding whether to promote their child's autonomy and self-advocacy or have someone else represent their child's interests. A discourse analysis of interviews with parents found that most choose the latter, trusting others over their child, in order to protect them from perceived risks. However, this overprotective approach removes opportunities for the child to gain independence. The concept of autonomy for those with learning disabilities is an issue that parents carefully consider, weighing protection versus fostering self-determination.
The document discusses learning disabilities and the diversity among students who have them. It notes that no two students experience learning disabilities in the same way, as disabilities can affect different academic areas and be combined with other issues like memory, information processing, mathematics, reading, language, or social and emotional challenges. While students with learning disabilities often have average or above average intelligence, their academic achievement may be lower depending on their specific difficulties. The more support students receive, the less likely they are to have social and emotional issues and the more they can develop their academic skills.
Peer Acceptance and the Emotional Well-Being of DisabledAbigail Burmeister
This document summarizes a study about how knowing someone with a disability affects acceptance of others with disabilities and how acceptance impacts emotional well-being. The study found that people who know someone with a disability are more accepting of others. Previous research also found peer acceptance is important for emotional well-being of those with disabilities. The study measured acceptance by asking if respondents would be friends with someone who has a disability and found those who know someone with a disability were more likely to say yes.
The document discusses several laws that protect and provide for the rights of students with disabilities:
- The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires schools to provide free and appropriate education for students with disabilities and create Individualized Education Plans.
- Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act prohibits disability discrimination in schools and requires accommodating students' needs.
- The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a civil rights law prohibiting disability discrimination in all public settings including schools.
- The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) replaced No Child Left Behind and modified standardized testing requirements while maintaining accountability and support for disadvantaged students.
The document summarizes key events and legislation in the history of special education in the United States. It discusses influential court cases like Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 and PARC v. Pennsylvania in 1972 that paved the way for students with disabilities to receive public education. Major legislation like the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 guaranteed students with disabilities the right to free, appropriate public education. The document also discusses how societal views and the learning environment for students with disabilities have evolved over time.
Dr. Kritsonis has traveled and lectured extensively throughout the United States and world-wide. Some international travels include Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, Turkey, Italy, Greece, Monte Carlo, England, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Russia, Estonia, Poland, Germany, Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Switzerland, Grand Cayman, Haiti, St. Maarten, St. John, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Lucia, Puerto Rico, Nassau, Freeport, Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Canada, Curacao, Costa Rico, Aruba, Venezuela, Panama, Bora Bora, Tahiti, Latvia, Spain, Honduras, and many more. He has been invited to lecture and serve as a guest professor at many universities across the nation and abroad.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis - Special Education: Least Restrictive Environmen...William Kritsonis
This document discusses key aspects of special education law regarding placement of students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment (LRE). It explains that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires placement in the LRE that allows students to be educated with nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate. The document outlines factors considered in determining the LRE and a continuum of placement options, including supplementary aids and services. It also summarizes goals of the PJ Settlement Agreement related to inclusion of students with intellectual disabilities.
The document discusses social justice issues in special education. It notes that students with disabilities are often placed in special education due to low expectations from teachers and subjective criteria. As a result, these students do not receive equal treatment or opportunities to succeed. The document calls for educators and communities to work together to ensure all students, including those with disabilities, are made to feel welcome and are given support to achieve their full potential. Barriers like lack of funding must be addressed with solutions such as fundraising to create a more just system for special education students.
Perceptions of students with disabilities on support services provided in hig...Ambati Nageswara Rao
This document discusses a study on the perceptions of students with disabilities regarding support services at higher education institutions in Andhra Pradesh, India. It begins with an introduction describing the importance of education for persons with disabilities and the lack of access to higher education. It then describes the methodology which used a mixed methods approach, interviewing 100 students from 3 universities using purposive and snowball sampling. The findings section describes the demographic characteristics of respondents and their perceptions of support services. Overall, the study examines the experiences of students with disabilities and the need for universities to improve support services to promote inclusion.
Perceptions of students with disabilities on support services provided in hig...Ambati Nageswara Rao
This document discusses a study on the perceptions of students with disabilities regarding support services at higher education institutions in Andhra Pradesh, India. It begins with an introduction describing the importance of education for persons with disabilities and the lack of access to higher education. It then describes the methodology which used a mixed methods approach, interviewing 100 students from 3 universities using purposive and snowball sampling. The findings section describes the demographic characteristics of respondents and their perceptions of support services. Overall, the study examines the experiences of students with disabilities and the need for universities to improve support services to promote inclusion.
Effectiveness of Role Play and Bibliotherapy in Attitude Change of Primary Sc...iosrjce
The research addressed two major problems, namely, the persistent negative attitude towards
learners with special needs and the effectiveness of role play and bibliotherapy in attitude change of primary
school pupils. The main purpose of the research was to examine the effectiveness of role play and bibliotherapy
on attitude change of primary school pupils towards learners with special needs in Aba Abia State. The purpose
of the study was achieved through a research question and five null hypotheses which guided the conduct of the
study. The theory of Albert Bandura (social learning) provided the theoretical framework that guided the study.
Relevant literature was reviewed on the concepts of attitude, learners with special needs, bibliotherapy and role
play. Relevant literature were also reviewed on the concept of inclusive education and studies on attitudes and
the effectiveness of role play and bibliotherapy as attitude change techniques brought out the gaps in the field
which the study proceeded to fill. Two research designs, namely, survey and the Solomon four group designs
were adopted to respond to the problems of this study. All the primary six school pupils in Aba primary schools
in Abia State constituted the population while a sample of 104 was selected for the survey and 40 from two
schools were selected for the experiment from primary six pupils in Aba. One instrument and two programmes
were used for the successful implementation of the study which were validated by experts. The research question
was analyzed using mean and standard deviation methods, while the five hypotheses were tested using t-test for
correlated and independent samples, and two and one way analysis of variance at 0.05 level of significance. The
findings of the research indicated that the pupil’s attitude towards learners with special needs in Aba Abia State
is negative but improved significantly after they were exposed to the NRPEP and NBP respectively. This implied
the effectiveness of NRPEP and NBP in attitude change of primary school pupils.
Guided ResponseRespond to at least one classmate that has been .docxJeanmarieColbert3
Guided Response:
Respond to at least one classmate that has been assigned a different position from you and offer a rebuttal. Be sure to provide evidence from the literature to support your opposition. Also, respond to your original post and provide your own opinion of inclusion based on the evidence from the research and the responses of your classmates. Did your thinking change after reading your classmates’ viewpoints? Share your concerns about working with students with special needs in the regular classroom.
BY:
Mallory Johnson
What is inclusion?
Inclusion is an educational environment in which all students are grouped together in the same classroom regardless of their intelligence level hence the phrase used, “Least Restrictive Environment”. This practice means that an increasing number of regular classroom teachers are called upon to teach exceptional children in regular classrooms, sometimes also termed inclusive classrooms (LeFrançois, G. 2011).
IDEA was established for children with learning disabilities and has been mandated as a part of every educational facility.
As defined by the American Psychological Association, “The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) ensures that all children with disabilities are entitled to a free appropriate public education to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living.”
Not every student learns equally; however, every student should be given the equal opportunity to do so regardless of their learning abilities. With that, inclusion provides an environment where not only students will learn together, but regular students will respect and build friendships with students with learning disabilities. While I never had the change to experience this firsthand, this type of environment will enhance friendships and students helping one another. I think that when a child is included in something, their self confidence improves and they will strive to work harder.
Second, inclusion allows students to understand one another and learn from each other as far as customs and courtesies and attitudes. Students are vulnerable to imitate what they see whether it be good or bad. According to the text, one of the benefits of inclusion is the learning of socially appropriate behaviors by students with disabilities as a result of modeling the behavior of other students.
Lastly, inclusive classrooms provide students with learning disabilities access to general learning like the rest of their peers. They will learn the same information instead of the curriculum being adjusted which may omit valuable information. In this case, these students may be learning information that could be too easy depending on where they stand knowledge wise. For others, the adjustment may hinder learning more challenging information some could be ready for.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2016, from http://www.apa.org/about/.
Special Education Least Restrictive Environment PPT. - William Allan Kritsoni...William Kritsonis
This document discusses key aspects of special education law regarding the least restrictive environment (LRE) for students with disabilities. It explains that the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) requires students be placed in the LRE and defines LRE as the regular classroom setting to the maximum extent appropriate. The document outlines factors considered in LRE decisions and a continuum of placement options. It also summarizes goals of the PJ Settlement Agreement related to inclusion of students with intellectual disabilities.
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs ...William Kritsonis
Supporting Students With Emotional Disabilities: What Evrery Counselor Needs to Know by Drs. Hott, Thomas, Abbassi, Hendricks, Aslina - NATIONAL FORUM JOURNAL OF COUNSELING AND ADDICTION, 3(1) 2014 - NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982) Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief
Literature review. David Seckington. Can the empirical success of Cognitive B...David Seckington
The document discusses applying cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to people with learning disabilities. It provides background on the definition and prevalence of learning disabilities in the UK. It then discusses the history and principles of CBT. While CBT has been shown to be effective for many populations, applying it to those with learning disabilities faces challenges due to cognitive and information processing impairments. Adaptations may be needed to simplify concepts and link thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Motivation and the therapist's ability to adapt are also important factors for successful outcomes.
This document provides an overview of the history and evolution of special education in the United States. It discusses how special education has progressed from institutions that segregated individuals with disabilities, to the establishment of laws like IDEA that require public schools to provide free and appropriate education to all children in the least restrictive environment. Key events discussed include important court cases that established and clarified rights for students with disabilities, as well as legislation like the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 that codified individualized education plans and other protections.
Former newspaper editor Joan White discusses common writing mistakes made by PR professionals. These include weak leads, lack of specificity, improper pronoun use, poor organization, grammatical errors, run-on sentences, and misplaced modifiers. White recommends the book "Elements of Style" by Strunk and White to improve writing. She also emphasizes the importance of editing, rewriting, and having others review written work before publishing due to increased reliance on digital communication and potential damage to credibility from errors.
Red Rocks Park and Amphitheatre is a 640-acre park located 15 miles west of Denver featuring two 300-foot sandstone pillars and an open-air amphitheatre with perfect acoustics. Simms Landing is a seafood restaurant located one mile above sea level with a romantic atmosphere and views of the city. Sunnie's Ice Cream and Laundromat allows customers to do laundry and enjoy ice cream with flavors like vanilla, rocky road, and black cherry.
Students are studying abroad in greater numbers as the global economy demands international expertise. Parents face overwhelming decisions around where and what their children should study overseas. William Hoffa, an international educator and author, offers 10 tips for parents on issues like safety, healthcare, financial aid, and travel to help with these complex decisions. These tips are summarized from Hoffa's book, which is the only resource written specifically to help parents navigate sending their children abroad to study. As deadlines for overseas study programs are approaching, these tips could be timely for parents.
The Humphrey Fellowship Program provides 10-month professional development opportunities at US universities for mid-career professionals from other countries. It was established in 1978 to honor Senator Hubert Humphrey and his support for democracy, social justice, and assisting developing nations. Over 2,500 fellows from over 120 countries have participated, studying fields like banking, communications, law, and human rights. Fellows are chosen for their potential as future leaders and many have gone on to prominent roles in their home countries.
At Texas Tech University, regular marketing meetings are held to redirect internal staff focus back to external customers and the market. Questions are asked to analyze programs from multiple perspectives, including origins, target audiences, and enrollment trends. The latest market research on demographics, economic trends, and competition is also presented. This helps transform data into actionable information to better understand markets and customer needs. The goal is to continuously develop and adjust programs for new markets so that success is defined both internally and by what the marketplace demands.
1. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 1
Running head: CHANGING CHILDREN’S ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS
Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors Toward Disabilities:
A Literature Review
Kimberly Wengrovius
22 March 2004
2. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 2
Introduction
According to Census 2000, there are 49.7 million people, or 19.3 percent of the
population, with “some type of long lasting condition or disability” in the United States (U.S.
Census Bureau, 2003). This means that nearly one person in five is dealing with a disability in
this country. Moreover, non-disabled elementary school students may be in contact with disabled
elementary school students and other disabled members of society with considerable frequency
throughout their lives.
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (1975) states that “to the maximum
extent appropriate, children with disabilities…are educated with children who are nondisabled;
and that special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of children from the regular
educational environment occurs only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that
education in regular classes with the use of supplemental aids and services cannot be achieved
satisfactorily” (34 C.F.R. Section 300.550, cited in Bateman & Bateman, 2002, para. 2).
Probably a result of this mandate, Wolery, Holcombe, Brookfield, Huffman, Schroeder, Martin,
Venn, Weits and Fleming (1993) report that programs including at least one disabled child
increased 37.2 percent from 1986 to 1990 (as cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999). Head Start has
been including disabled children in its program to meet the demands of the law since 1974 (as
cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999).
There is a large amount of research that promotes inclusion in the classroom. Bateman
and Bateman (2002) suggest that inclusion has benefits for both disabled and non-disabled
students. Peck, Carlson and Helmstetter (1992) report that the benefits for non-disabled students
include increased awareness of others’ needs, greater responsiveness to others’ needs and an
acceptance of diversity in others (as cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999). It also is suggested that
3. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 3
this educational model is preferred because the regular education classroom is where disabled
students’ peers are located, and it is assumed that the presence of disabled students in the regular
education classroom will increase the extent to which they are understood and accepted by their
peers.
However, studies and subsequent theories of intergroup behavior suggest that just placing
a disabled student in the regular education classroom is not likely to have the effect of favorable
reception (Hastings & Graham, 1995). Umerlik (1992) supports this idea, stating that placing
disabled students in “close proximity” with non-disabled students does not insure positive
acknowledgment (as cited in Andrews, 1998, p. 420). In fact, Guinagh (1980) found that when
disabled students were included into the regular education classroom, they did not make friends
as easily as those without disabilities, and in fact, experienced social isolation as a result (as cited
in Scherr, 2000).
There seems to be a disparity between the assumptions underlying the laws surrounding
the inclusion of disabled students and the reality of what happens socially when disabled students
are included in regular education classrooms. Nowicki and Sandieson (2002) state that there is
evidence that non-disabled children hold negative attitudes toward disabled children. Since
contemporary educational policies promote inclusion and diversity, the researchers warn that
educators need to be aware of children’s attitudes toward disabilities and plan programs to effect
positive changes and experiences for both disabled and non-disabled children (Nowicki &
Sandieson, 2002).
Problem Statement
Interacting with disabled elementary school students can be awkward for non-disabled
students, and interactions can take the form of discrimination against disabled students.
4. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 4
Research questions
This literature review will be guided by the following questions.
1. Is there discrimination shown toward disabled elementary school students by non-
disabled elementary school students? If so, what forms does this discrimination take?
2. Are elementary schools teaching about disabilities to foster awareness and sensitivity?
If so, what and how are they teaching about disabilities?
3. How effective is education about disabilities (as opposed to personal experience with
disabled people) at making non-disabled elementary school students feel more
comfortable interacting with disabled elementary school students?
Prior to uncovering these answers and their implications for future research and practice,
there are several terms that appear often in disability and attitude literature that should be defined
for the reader.
Key terms
The following terms are defined in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary OnLine (2004).
Attitude. A mental position with regard to a fact or state; a feeling or emotion toward a
fact or state.
Awareness. Having or showing realization, perception or knowledge; having special or
certain knowledge.
Discriminate. To make a difference in treatment or favor on a basis other than individual
merit.
Discrimination. The act, practice or instance of discriminating categorically rather than
individually; prejudicial outlook, action or treatment.
Diverse. Composed of distinct or unlike elements or qualities.
5. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 5
Diversity. The condition of being diverse.
Sensitivity. Having awareness of the needs and emotions of others; delicately aware of the
attitudes and feelings of others.
The following terms are defined in the Glossary of Legal and Special Education Terms
and Acronyms compiled by Timothy E. Williams of the Washington School Law Academy
(Williams, 1994).
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA). This law provides for the protection
from discrimination of persons with disabilities and allows claims for compensatory and punitive
damages.
Disabled. Having a disability.
Disability. In Section 504 and the American with Disabilities Act (ADA), defined as
impairment that substantially affects one or more major life activities; an individual who has a
record of having such impairment, or is regarded as having such an impairment; 2) In IDEA, a
physical, sensory, cognitive or affective impairment that causes the student to need special
education.
Education for All Handicapped Children (EHA). More commonly identified as
P.L. 94-142. It became effective in 1975 and has been significantly modified by
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1977.
Handicapped. Any person with any physical and/or mental disability who has difficulty
in doing certain tasks such as walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, learning, or
working. Federal law defines disabled children as those who are mentally retarded,
hard of hearing, deaf, speech impaired, visually disabled, seriously emotionally disturbed,
orthopedically impaired, other health impaired, blind, multidisabled, or as having specific
6. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 6
learning disabilities and who require special educational services because of these disabilities.
Often seen as pejorative.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). Law that modifies and extends the
Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA).
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 - The Civil Rights Act for the Handicapped. The act prohibits
discrimination on the basis of physical or mental handicap in all federally-assisted programs.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. This law protects individuals with
disabilities from discrimination due to disability by recipients of federal financial
assistance. It stipulates that disabled people are entitled to: the same rights and benefits as non-
disabled applicants and employees, all medical services and medically-related instruction
available to the public, participate in vocational rehabilitation, senior citizen activities, day care
(for disabled children), or any other social service program receiving federal assistance on an
equal basis with non-disabled persons, and an appropriate elementary and secondary education
for physically or mentally disabled children.
Literature Review
Attitudes about Disabilities
Is there discrimination shown toward disabled people by non-disabled people? More
specifically, is there discrimination shown toward disabled elementary school students by non-
disabled elementary school students? For the purpose of this literature review, discrimination is
seen as a behavior and not just an attitude or point of view. Yet, Yuker (1994) states that most
research dealing with disability deals with attitudes, not behavior. Therefore, the author is
beginning by looking at the literature surrounding attitudes toward disabilities in the hopes of
finding a road map that leads to answers to the above questions.
7. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 7
Although society no longer sequesters disabled people in institutions located far from
population centers, negative attitudes remain strong (Farina, 1982; Fichten & Amsel, 1986;
Yuker, 1988; cited in Esses & Beaufoy, 1994). Many researchers suggest that these negative
attitudes are associated with the experience of threat to security, fear of the unknown and fear of
becoming the unknown (in this case, disabled) (Cohen, 1977; Evans, 1976; Livneh 1988; Wright,
1980, 1983; cited in Gething, 1994). In 1991, a national study conducted by Harris found that
when people encounter a seriously disabled person, 92 percent report that they feel admiration,
74 percent feel pity, 58 percent feel awkward or embarrassed and 25 percent feel anger or
resentment (as cited in Yuker, 1991). Though some of these responses seem more positive than
others (i.e., admiration versus anger), all are seen as negative to most disabled people, who want
to be viewed as having the same enjoyment of and plans for their lives as non-disabled people.
Though negative attitudes abound, recent research suggests that non-disabled people have
more favorable attitudes toward people with physical disabilities than those with mental
disabilities (Chan, Hedl, Parker, Lam, Chan & Yu, 1988; Furnham & Pendred, 1983; cited in
Esses & Beaufoy, 1994). This finding is in line with that of Bogdan and Taylor (1989). Their
study suggests that a mentally disabled person may be viewed less favorably because their mind
is seen to be damaged.
Additionally, studies have shown that physically disabled people with more severe effects
are viewed less favorably than those with fewer effects of their disabilities. According to Yuker
(1991), superficial characteristics of disabled people are important in initial contacts. A
psychological model that seems to fit this phenomenon is the notion of aesthetics (Hahn, 1993;
Livneh, 1982; Tringo, 1970; cited in Olkin & Howson, 1994). In this model, “the more a
physical disability causes a body to deviate from a total gestalt of the whole and beautiful body,
8. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 8
the lower it is ranked. It goes beyond visual pleasingness. It also includes the notion of a total
body in how it looks, moves, functions and communicates” (Olkin & Howson, 1994, p. 93).
Much of the research conducted with children support the findings of research conducted
on adults’ attitudes toward disabled people. In fact, Yuker and Block (1986) suggest that
demographics, such as age, have little to do with attitudes (as cited in Yuker, 1991). They report
that although attitudes seem to be related to development, they often have more to do with
education and personal experience, and the effects of age cease to exist when controlled
statistically (as cited in Yuker, 1991).
An early study of children’s attitudes toward mentally disabled children was conducted
by Johnson (1950, cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994). He used a sociometric
questionnaire and revealed that mentally disabled children were less accepted than their “typical”
classmates. These findings have been supported by studies with fourth- to sixth-grade children
(Baldwin, 1958; Miller & Gibbs, 1984; Reese-Dukes & Stokes, 1978; Siperstein & Gottlieb,
1977; cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994). Additionally, Townsend, Wilton and
Vakilirad (1993) also report that students with mental disabilities are less accepted than those
with physical disabilities (as cited in Nowicki & Sandieson, 2002).
Some studies, however, do not support the findings that mentally disabled children are
less favored than non-disabled children or even that they are less favored than physically
disabled children (Renz & Semensen, 1969; Wisely & Morgan, 1981; cited in Karnilowicz,
Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994). Gottlieb and Switsky (1982) used an adjective checklist with third-
to sixth-grade children and found that they were positive toward or rated evenly mentally
disabled children, not citing them as “unhappy” (as cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield,
1994, p. 67). In fact, Karnilowicz, Sparrow and Shinkfield (1994) state that there is not enough
9. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 9
evidence in the literature to suggest whether any groups of disabled children are stigmatized by
non-disabled children. They suggest that this is due to different methodologies and inadequate
theoretical bases for studying attitudes in children.
It is not surprising then that many researchers agree that findings concerning attitudes
toward physically disabled children are also uncertain (Billings, 1963; Titley & Viney, 1969;
Voeltz, 1980; Weinberg, 1978; Wisely & Morgan, 1981; cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow &
Shinkfield, 1994). Perhaps one reason is that attitudes toward physically disabled people may be
developmental. Though older children tend to be more positive toward physically disabled target
children in studies, younger children often prefer non-disabled target children (Jones & Sisk,
1966; Weinberg, 1978; cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994).
Roberts and Smith (1999) studied 188 non-disabled children between the ages of eight
and 12 in their attitudes toward disabled children. The results of their study suggest that non-
disabled children’s attitudes toward disabled children is directly connected to the amount of
control the non-disabled child perceives that he or she has in socially interacting with a disabled
child. The researchers explain that when a non-disabled child saw the relationship as not
requiring a lot of effort, he or she expressed an interest in forming a friendship with a disabled
child. If they saw the relationship as requiring a lot of effort or difficulty, however, then he or
she did not express interest in forming a friendship, even when he or she had a positive attitude
toward disabled students in general (Roberts & Smith, 1999).
Several studies also support gender differences in attitudes toward disabled people. Non-
disabled women are found to hold more favorable attitudes toward disabled people, including
children, whether they are male or female. Similarly, research has shown that girls are more
accepting and positive toward target children labeled as mentally disabled than boys (Siperstein,
10. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 10
Budoff & Bak, 1980; Voeltz, 1982; cited in Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994). Fonosch
and Schwab (1981) studied university faculty members’ attitudes toward disabled students and
inferred that women are more likely to view themselves as being similar to disabled people,
referred to as the “minority model” (as cited in Olkin & Howson, 1994, p. 93). However, Olkin
and Howson (1994) argue that the literature does not support this model, as members of other
minority groups do not necessarily hold more positives attitudes toward disability. Hastings and
Graham (1995) suggest that women are more interpersonal and act on this level when responding
to people. Typically, they choose the socially desirable response, as gender stereotyping
processes have taught them. It is important to note, however, that the nature of these gender
differences has not been studied in depth (Hastings & Graham, 1995).
There also are differences in the ways that different cultures view disability. Salas-
Provance, Erickson and Reed (2002) report that in most attitude studies, participants mostly have
been middle-class Anglo-Saxons from university communities, the education world or parents
(Cooper & Cooper, 1985; Crowe & Walton, 1981; Luckner, 1991; Ruscello, Lass & Brown,
1988; Scheuerle, Guilford & Garcia, 1982; cited in Salas-Provance, Erickson & Reed, 2002).
However, Hispanics represent the “fastest growing racial/ethnic minority group” in the United
States, according to the researchers (Salas-Provance, Erickson & Reed, 2002, p. 152). This
suggests that it is important to understand how this culture views disabilities in order to best
serve disabled children from this culture. In Mexican culture, which is based on Catholicism,
disability often is seen as reparation for mothers’ sins (Rodgers-Adkinson, Ochoa & Delgado,
2003). Another attribution is the placing of “evil eyes” on pregnant women. The researchers
point out that it is important not to generalize these findings to everyone that lives within this
culture, however. In some cases, they found that strongly religious families are accepting of
11. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 11
disabled members, almost to the detriment of the members’ progress in terms of education and
self-determination (Fewell, 1986; Friederich, Wilturner & Cohen, 1985; cited in Rodgers-
Adkinson, Ochoa & Delgado, 2003). Other researchers suggest that because Hispanics view
family as the most important institution, it is easier for members to adapt to their disabilities
(Madsen, 1974; Samora, 1963; Zaldivar, 1994; Alvarez, 1998; cited in Salas-Provance, Erickson
& Reed, 2002). On the other hand, they also report that “machismo (maleness, virility) may
contribute to denial of a disability,” and “aguantar (endure)” contributes to accepting hardship
because of disability (Salas-Provance, Erickson & Reed, 2002, p. 152). Salas-Provance, Erickson
and Reed (2002) report that their findings support the idea that low income, less educated and
older Hispanics attribute disability according to folk beliefs. However, they also report that well-
educated, younger members of this minority often use medical care and attribute disability to
biological causes.
Any attitude study should be regarded critically, as Yuker (1994) states that the general
quality of research surrounding attitudes toward disabilities is not always distinguished.
McConkey (1988) concurs by stating that many studies, “suffer from faults such as inadequate
sampling, the lack of adequate control groups, failure to randomly assign subjects to groups, the
lack of pretests or retrospective pretests, etc.” (as cited in Yuker, 1991, p. 4). Another important
note is the inconsistent use of the word “attitude” in the literature. Many ideas have been given
the imprecise label “attitude,” including acceptance, compassion, friendship, feelings, opinions,
thoughts and behaviors. Also, an array of measurement instruments has been used to measure
these concepts. Some of these instruments include Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned
Action, Siperstein’s Adjective Checklist and Guskin’s Adjective Pairs (Karnilowicz, Sparrow &
Shinkfield, 1994). Karnilowicz, Sparrow and Shinkfield (1994) suggest that if one instrument
12. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 12
was applied in all of the studies concerned with these varied concepts with uniform results, then
it might be possible to make a generalization about attitudes toward disabilities.
Other concerns with the validity of attitude and disability literature surround the
characteristics associated with the disabled populations used in studies. Though most studies
state whether the target population includes mentally or physically disabled people, as an
example, there is still a wide range of characteristics associated with cerebral palsy and spina
bifida, two of the most common physical disabilities. Finally, Heinemann (1990) suggests that
there is an, “affective-cognitive inconsistency” in attitude studies (as cited in Hastings &
Graham, 1995, para. 36). Although people report positive attitudes, their physiological responses
reflect anxiety in actual situations.
Discrimination and Disabilities
So, how do these attitudes affect behavior? Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) said that attitudes
predict behavior, but only when the concepts are related in terms of time and milieu (as cited in
Yuker, 1991). Several studies have shown that students with learning disabilities are at a higher
risk for victimization by bullies, as well as for other psychosocial difficulties (Martlew &
Hodson, 1991; Nabuzoka & Smith, 1993; Thompson, Whitney & Smith, 1994; Whitney,
Nabuzoka & Smith, 1992; Kavale & Forness, 1996; Lewandowski & Barlow, 2000; Margalit,
1998; Morrison & Cosden, 1997; cited in Mishna, 2003). Additionally, Llewellyn (1995) states
that physically disabled children are at higher risk for being bullied by classmates when included
in regular education classrooms (as cited in Nowicki & Sandieson, 2002).
Discrimination can take many forms. Katz, Hass and Bailey (1988) and Soder (1990)
suggest that sometimes attitudes toward disabled people reflect ambivalence rather than active
prejudice (as cited in Yuker, 1991). Ambivalence, or an indecisiveness of feelings, often can turn
13. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 13
into apathy, especially when there is no immediate need to make a decision. Newcomb (1956)
found that most people prefer to associate with people who are similar to themselves in
characteristics such as age, ethnicity, interests, occupation and socioeconomic status (as cited in
Yuker, 1991). Based on this research, one may infer that non-disabled people prefer to associate
with people who are non-disabled. Additionally, Fichten and Amsel (1986), Fichten, Compton
and Amsel (1985), Robillard and Fichten (1983) and Siller (1976) state that negative attitudes
and expectations about encounters with disabled people contribute to the avoidance of disabled
people (as cited in Scherr, 2000).
Sigelman, Miller and Whitworth (1986) found that in preschool, children start expressing
preferences for non-disabled children as playmates. The researchers suggest that by early
elementary years, children acquire a “schema of normality” (Sigelman, Miller & Whitworth,
(1986, p. 30). Kratzer and Nelson-LeGall (1990) further suggest that children assign other
children to broad categories, such as “like me” and “not like me” on the basis of disability. It is
not surprising then that children seen as dissimilar are avoided as playmates.
In a study conducted by Karnilowicz, Sparrow and Shinkfield (1994), 60 volunteer high
school students were selected to respond to a survey about interactions with disabled students.
The hypothesis was that high school students’ responses toward social behaviors with disabled
peers are influenced by the perceived level of intimacy, or closeness, required in the behavior.
The subjects were predominantly white, and most of them were members of families connected
to a university community.
Twenty-four students were asked to describe scenes of social interactions that could
occur between two hypothetical students, one being disabled and one being non-disabled. The
other 36 students were asked to rate the scenes using an intimacy scale developed for the study.
14. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 14
The researchers found that attitudes with the intention to interact socially with physically
disabled peers were more favorable than attitudes with the intention to interact socially with
mentally disabled peers. Additionally, responses to performing less intimate behaviors, such as
sharing classes, with mentally disabled peers were more favorable than responses to performing
high intimacy behaviors, such as forming ongoing friendships, with mentally disabled peers.
Karnilowicz, Sparrow and Shinkfield (1994) suggest that social interaction with
physically disabled peers is seen as socially desirable, and they offer the possible reason that
physical disabilities do not indicate lack of competence. On the other hand, mentally disabled
people are perceived to lack competence, both intellectually and socially. Beyond hypothetical
situations, it is suggested that key factors in performing social behaviors with disabled people are
based on non-disabled peoples’ perceptions of the social desirability of such behaviors and the
intellectual and social competence of disabled people. Though the sample size for this study was
small, its findings are supported by research conducted by Sigelman and McGrail (1985, cited in
Karnilowicz, Sparrow & Shinkfield, 1994). It also is supported by several researchers who have
shown that mentally disabled children often experience social neglect or active rejection by non-
disabled peers, as well as receive low evaluations on social skills by their teachers (Bear, Clever
& Proctor, 1991; Elliot & McKinnie, 1994; Haager & Vaughn, 1995; Nabuzoka & Smith, 1993;
Roberts & Zubrick, 1993; Santich & Kavanagh, 1997; cited in Nowicki & Sandieson, 2002).
Perceived competence of disabled people is important as long as it is in an area valued by
the non-disabled people involved in a situation. Hannah (1988) states that in school, academic
competence prompts positive attitudes in both teachers and students (as cited in Yuker, 1999).
Ability in athletic skills is another area valued by children (Geskie & Salasek, 1988; cited in
Yuker, 1999). With these results in mind, one may questions whether elementary schools are
15. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 15
teaching about disabilities to foster awareness and sensitivity. If so, what and how are they
teaching about disabilities?
Education and Disabilities
There has been increased interest in programs that include disabled students in regular
education classrooms. Many of these programs are based on Wolfensberger’s Normalization
Principle, which supports the idea that placing disabled students in regular education classrooms
increases their acceptance by non-disabled peers (Szivos, 1972; cited in Hastings & Graham,
1995). However, as mentioned earlier in this literature review, several studies suggest that the
placement of disabled students in the regular education classroom alone does not guarantee
social acceptance (Hastings & Graham, 1995).
Many researchers argue that the success of inclusion depends on classroom teachers and
their attitudes toward disabled students (Hudson, Reisberg & Wolf, 1983; Moisio, 1994; Stoler,
1992; cited in Andrews, 1998). Hannah (1988) states that teachers’ knowledge of disabilities,
personal experiences with disabilities, or disabled people, and confidence in effectively teaching
disabled students are among the most important factors found to be associated with students’
positive attitudes toward disabled students (as cited in Yuker, 1999). Furthermore, Kelly (1995)
and Stroud (1981) state that teachers need to assist all students in adjusting to the inclusion of
disabled students by providing guidance for positive interactions and creating atmospheres that
facilitate learning by all students (as cited in Andrews, 1998). However, in a study conducted by
Alghazo, Dodeen and Algaryouti (2003), the attitudes of pre-service teachers were found to be
negative in general. Their research is supported by D’Alonzo and Ledon (1992), who found that
most studies conducted on the integration of disabled students into regular education classrooms
concluded that teachers have negative attitudes (as cited in Alghazo, Dodeen & Algaryouti,
16. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 16
2003).
Interestingly, Stoler (1992) found that the more education a teacher has, the more
negative their attitudes are toward disabled students (as cited in Jobe, Rust & Brissie, 1996). On
the other hand, Jobe, Rust and Brissie (1996) studied a randomly selected national sample of 162
classroom teachers and found that attitudes were neutral with regard to the inclusion of disabled
students in the regular education classroom. They suggest that this is a positive result, since it
shows that teachers do not have strong negative feelings. However, they also stated that
unsolicited comments on the surveys indicate that the results may have been different had the
specific disabilities been noted on the survey.
Miller and Cordova (2002) examined the effectiveness of two college-level courses
designed to change the attitudes of non-disabled students toward disabled students. Course
content for each included information about the relationships between recreational activities and
disabilities. They found that students who were enrolled in the course that provided direct
education and opportunities for social interaction with disabled students had more positive
attitudes at the end of the course. Those who were enrolled in a strict sports psychology course
that did not offer direct education or interaction had no significant change of attitude toward
disabled students by the end of the course. The researchers suggest that partnering direct
education with contacts outside of the classroom is effective in changing attitudes toward
disabled students.
Shaver, Curtis, Jesunathadas and Strong (1987) conducted a study on the effects of
messages on attitudes toward disabled people (as cited in Yuker, 1991). They found that
persuasive messages are somewhat effective in changing attitudes, yielding a mean effect size
of .67 for 23 effect sizes. Several researchers have found that although increased and continued
17. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 17
personal contact affects the most change in attitude, brief but intensive programs that provide
information, as well as personal contact, work best (Fichten & Amsel, 1986; Rusalem, 1967;
Anthony, 1972; cited in Scherr, 2000). By itself, information only had a small mean effect of .29,
however. According to Yuker (1991), information may be necessary, but it may not be enough to
affect attitudes and behavior.
Nonetheless, the research conducted by Shaver et al. (1987) provides useful results. The
researchers found that messages about how disabled people interact socially have positive effects
on attitudes, possibly easing discomfort. They also found that messages about the similarities
between disabled people and non-disabled people can have negative effects on the attitudes of
non-disabled people, possibly because they feel vulnerable to becoming disabled themselves.
Weiner (1993) found that messages about the causes of disabilities can influence positive
attitudes (as cited in Yuker, 1991). Conversely, some studies have found that knowledge about
disabilities is either unrelated to or negatively affects attitudes toward disabled people, because it
emphasizes the absence of abilities, rather than the presence of different abilities. Researchers
argue that, in any case, knowledge about the type or severity of a disability does not provide
information about what a person is like on a personal level. Wright (1988) concurs, stating that,
“messages that focus on personal inadequacies and problems in coping lead to negative
attitudes” (as cited in Yuker, 1991, p. 6). Above all, most researchers support the idea that
personalizing information is important because it reduces stereotypes.
The author has found little evidence of formal programs to foster awareness and
sensitivity to disabilities in elementary schools. However, one program, Green Circle, is
designed to influence children’s attitudes toward the diversity in others in an integrated setting
(Houlette, Gaertner, Johnson, Banker, Riek & Dovidio, 2004). Houlette, Gaertner, Johnson,
18. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 18
Banker, Riek and Dovidio studied the program and found that, to some degree, it can affect
children’s attitudes concerning themselves and other groups of children. The researchers suggest
that the program may be effective because the period of life when children are in elementary
school is important for the development of “intergroup orientations” (p. 36). This is supported by
research that prejudices are formed during the early elementary school years and are relied upon
in making social judgments in later years (Aboud, 1988; Hirschfeld, 1995; Killen & Stangor,
2001; cited in Houlette, Gaertner, Johnson, Banker, Riek & Dovidio, 2004). Researchers suggest
that education during these early years can have significant impact on children’s intergroup
orientations later (Gurin, Nagda & Lopez, 2004; Nagda, Kim & Truelove, 2004; cited in
Houlette, Gaertner, Johnson, Banker, Riek & Dovidio, 2004).
Many educators use disability simulations to allow non-disabled students a chance to step
into the shoes of disabled students. However, Twelker (1976) found that the popularity of
simulations is often based on enjoyment rather than its effectiveness as a learning resource (as
cited in Herbert, 2000). French (1992) and Kiger (1992) argue against the use of disability
simulations (as cited in Yuker, 1991). Chard (1997) also states that empirical evidence does not
support the use of simulation (as cited in Herbert, 2000). In fact, many researchers have found
that students have negative reactions to engaging in simulations, such as embarrassment and
frustration, as well as feelings of being fortunate for not having disabilities (Glazzard, 1979;
Pfeiffer, 1989; Wurst & Wolford, 1994; cited in Herbert, 2000).
Supporting the arguments of these researchers, several studies have shown that
simulations do not foster positive attitudes and, in fact, do not even reduce negative attitudes
(Fichten, Compton & Amsel, 1985; Wright, 1978; cited in Scherr, 2000). On the other hand,
some researchers recommend engaging in simulations or role playing as an effective way to
19. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 19
change attitudes and behaviors of children toward disabilities (Donaldson, 1980; Evans, 1976;
Wright, 1980; cited in Andrews, 1998). At the least, some researchers suggest that the lack of
empirical evidence for simulations is based more on problems with research methodology,
sampling and statistics than on the simulations themselves (Kosciulek & Szymanski, 1993;
Clark, Foos & Faucher, 1995; Orlansky, 1979; Chard, 1997; Thatcher & Robinson, 1990;
Wiener, 1986; cited in Herbert, 2000)
Another possibly effective technique to foster positive attitudes toward disabled children
is the use of children’s disability literature. Many researchers have found that literature positively
affects attitudes, as well as increases awareness and sensitivity to disabilities (Brown &
Stephens, 1995; Lewis & Johnson, 1982; Stroud, 1981; Fein & Ginsberg, 1978; Heim, 1994;
Kelly, 1995; Radencich, 1986; Umerlik, 1992; cited in Andrews, 1998). Additionally, it has been
found to ease discomfort and lessen the stereotyping of disabled people (Dobo, 1982; Hopkins,
1980; Stroud, 1981; Wagoner, 1984; cited in Andrews, 1998). Monson and Shurtleff (1979)
report that the children who had the most positive changes in their attitudes toward disabled
people in their study had either read books about disabilities or had books about disabilities read
to them.
It is suggested by Reed (1988) that characters in books can help students to study
problems objectively and view a variety of situations from different perspectives, most notably
that of a disabled person (as cited in Andrews, 1998). This, in turn, helps them to identify their
own feelings about disabilities. Researchers see other benefits to reading disability literature,
such as learning how to solve problems and be more sensitive in all situations (Kelly, 1995;
Reed, 1988; cited in Andrews, 1998).
Even though it is more realistic than that published in the past, disability literature can
20. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 20
portray disabled characters unrealistically (Watson, 1982; cited in Andrews, 1998). Bogdan
(1977) concurs, stating that the following nine stereotypes can be found even in contemporary
literature (as cited in Andrews, 1998, p. 422):
1) characters are heroes;
2) characters are pathetic;
3) characters are self-defeating;
4) characters are ridiculous;
5) characters are a burden;
6) characters are objects of violence;
7) characters are sinister;
8) characters are enhancements to the story; and
9) characters are incapable of participating fully in everyday life.
It is important that disabled characters are seen to share the same types of experiences
that non-disabled readers do (Andrews, 1998). Therefore, researchers suggest that teachers use
the same scrutiny when choosing disability literature as they do when choosing any type of
literature for use in the classroom (Umerlik, 1992; Heim, 1992; Radencich, 1986; Stroud, 1981;
cited in Andrews, 1998). Andrews (1998) also states that it is necessary to look for accuracy in
the information presented about disabilities.
Radencich (1986) and Dobo (1982) recommend that the reading of disability literature be
paired with discussion and activities, including simulations that allow students to experience
what it is like to be disabled (as cited in Andrews, 1998). Concurring, Anthony (1972) and Horne
(1979) argue that the most positive effects are seen when a cognitive experience, like reading a
piece of disability literature, is followed with an affective experience, like a simulation (as cited
21. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 21
in Andrews, 1998). Orlansky (1979) also found that what he calls an “active learning approach,”
as opposed to a lecture-based approach, results in more positive attitudes toward disabled
students (as cited in Andrews, 1998). Active learning includes disability simulations, role-
playing, classroom discussions and activities that require problem solving. Other studies support
his findings (Leung, 1979; Westervelt & McKinney, 1980; cited in Andrews, 1998). These
results may lead one to wonder whether direct education about disabilities is more effective than
personal experience with disabled people outside of the classroom in fostering positive attitudes.
Education versus Experience
How effective is education about disabilities (rather than personal experience with
disabled people alone) at making non-disabled people feel more comfortable interacting with
disabled people? More specifically, how effective is education about disabilities at making non-
disabled elementary school students feel more comfortable interacting with disabled elementary
school students? Shaver, Curtis, Jesunathadas and Strong (1989) have found that the data to date
do not reveal what techniques or materials are most effective in changing attitudes toward
disabled people (as cited in Yuker, 1991). However, Favazza and Odom (1997) studied
kindergarteners’ attitudes toward disabled people after participating in an intervention program
that used children’s literature, guided discussion, home activities and structured opportunities to
play with disabled children (as cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999). Based on the Acceptance Scale
for Kindergartners, they found that this group of children became more positive by the end of the
program.
Scherr (2000) studied the effects of personal experience, with an emphasis on previous
contact, on behavior. Her hypothesis, that previous contact would influence positive behaviors,
was supported by the results of her study. Other researchers support her findings as well. Many
22. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 22
argue that previous contact may decrease stereotyping of disabled people (Emerton & Rothman,
1978; Fichten & Amsel, 1986; Fichten, Compton & Amsel, 1985; Amsel & Fichten, 1988;
Anthony, 1972; Anthony & Carkhuff, 1970; Antonak, 1981; Bender, 1981; English, 1971;
Robillard & Fichten, 1983; Semmel & Dickson, 1966; cited in Scherr, 2000). Additionally,
Amsel and Fichten (1988) suggest that increased personal experience may increase the comfort
of non-disabled people in interactions with disabled people (as cited in Scherr, 2000).
The Social Identity Theory defines stereotypes as, “characteristics that are thought to
apply to all members of a particular social category” (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Tajfel, 1981; cited
in Hastings & Graham, 1995, para. 4). Researchers suggest that if contact between members of
different social categories is made only at the intergroup level, then negative attitudes are not
likely to change, as people still are perceived stereotypically at this level. However, if contact
between members is made at an interpersonal--and more intimate--level, then positive attitudes
may be formed, as stereotypes have more of a chance of breaking down at this level (Brewer &
Miller, 1984; cited in Hastings & Graham, 1995). Concurrently, Fichten and Amsel (1986) state
that uncovering the falsehood of both positive and negative stereotypes of disabled people,
creating opportunities for disabled and non-disabled children to cooperate and focusing on
different abilities, rather than disabilities, may prove useful in changing attitudes toward disabled
children (as cited in Scherr, 2000, p. 28).
Based on Robert Gagne’s types of learning, direct education about disabilities falls under
the category of attitude learning. Cognitive, affective and behavioral components interact to
affect this type of learning (Smith & Ragan, 1999). According to Gagne, an attitude is “a mental
state that predisposes a learner to choose to behave in a certain way” (R. Raysbrook, personal
communication, February 7, 2004).
23. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 23
McGuire (1985) states that when educating non-disabled people about disabilities,
resources that are perceived to be credible, as well as holding a position of power, are more
influential than those that are not (as cited in Yuker, 1991). It can be inferred that information
provided by teachers, family members, friends and others in authoritative positions will be
influential in attitude formation. Supporting this idea, Bailey states that both parents and teachers
influence children’s attitudes toward other children (1997; cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999). In
fact, some researchers state that teachers impart positive beliefs when they are honest in
answering questions and providing direct education about diversity, including disabilities
(Lieber, Capell, Sandall, Wolfberg, Horn & Beckman, 1998; cited in Innes & Diamond, 1999).
Scherr (2000) agrees, stating that the “tendency to comply to authoritative demands and a
desire for social acceptance makes students promising targets for reform with disabled/non-
disabled relationships” (p. 28). This is true not only for the college students she studied, but also
for intermediate elementary school students. Knight and Vallacher (1981) also have found that
the prospect of interacting with a disabled person motivates a non-disabled person to focus on
the disabled person’s positive characteristics (as cited in Scherr, 2000).
Curran (1979) supports the social skills deficit theory (as cited in Scherr, 2000). Curran
explains that researchers have shown that training in social skills assists people in what they
perceive to be angst-ridden situations (as cited in Scherr, 2000). Scherr (2000) states that this
method may work well for people who have never learned how to interact socially with peers or
who have learned inappropriate responses to certain situations. Elementary school students are
prime targets for this type of training, because they are at an age when people learn how to
appropriately respond in social situations, especially with regard to manners, conflict and
friendships.
24. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 24
Fichten and Bourdon (1986) added to the data surrounding social skills deficit theory
with findings that led to a theory dubbed the Response Inhibition Model (Scherr, 2000). Along
with other researchers, they found that anxiety mixed with negative expectations about
encounters with disabled people led to poor interactions between disabled and non-disabled
people (Curran & Wessberg, 1981; Fichten & Bourdon, 1986; Schwartz & Gottman, 1976, cited
in Scherr, 2000). Gross (1988) suggests that basic anxiety surrounding dealing with the
unknown--namely disabilities--may be reduced by increased and continued exposure to
disabilities (as cited in Hastings & Graham, 1995).
Conclusion
Based on this literature review, there does seem to be a discrepancy between the theories
behind the laws mandating inclusion of disabled students into regular education classrooms and
the reality of what happens on a daily basis in those classrooms, both academically and socially.
Academically, because research shows that there still are many teachers who exhibit negative
attitudes toward disabled students in assorted ways, including assessing the social skills of these
students negatively and lacking the techniques to teach effectively in a diverse classroom.
Socially, because studies indicate that, to a degree, there is discrimination shown toward disabled
students by non-disabled students, whether this discrimination takes the form of apathy,
avoidance or active rejection.
Implications for further research include rigorous and high-quality studies on larger and
more diverse sample populations, especially with children, that remove the inconsistencies in
instrumentation, methodologies and use of important terms. Such terms include “attitude” and
“discrimination.” These studies would provide more accurate information on the nature of
attitudes of non-disabled people toward disabled people, as well as on the types of
25. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 25
discrimination, if any, that are faced by the disabled population. Also, increased research with
children hopefully would provide appropriate theoretical bases for continued studies of attitudes
in children.
Additionally, researchers would benefit from more specialized studies that honor the
diversity within the disabled population. Studies suggest that future research should identify
individual disabilities within a sample population, rather than simply state whether the
disabilities are mental or physical. Specific information gained in these studies may be more
effective in guiding practice in changing attitudes toward disabled people.
Educators would profit from more studies that research programs or techniques that effect
a change in attitudes toward disabled people. Implications for future practice include
implementing programs that address the negative attitudes non-disabled students have toward
disabled students. College courses also need to be implemented to address the negative attitudes
pre-service and in-service teachers have toward disabled students.
Much of the literature reviewed agrees that interactions between disabled and non-
disabled students can be problematic. Although there are no clear indications of what techniques
are fail-safe in changing negative attitudes toward disabled people, there seems to be some hope
in a combination of direct education about disabilities and opportunities for social interaction
with disabled students. Also promising is the use of children’s disability literature, as long as it is
of high quality and accurate in its depiction of disabilities and disabled people. Research has
shown that it can be effective in easing discomfort and lessening the stereotyping of disabled
people, especially when paired with affective learning. Affective learning includes disability
simulations and classroom discussions.
Although there were no formal programs found that focused on education about
26. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 26
disabilities at the elementary school level, there is evidence that direct education can be more
effective than personal experience and contact with disabled people in changing negative
expectations about interacting socially with members of this population. Whereas personal
experience leaves the learning to chance, education can provide specific information on how
disabled people respond in social situations and prepare people for those situations. Education
also can provide information on the diversity surrounding disabilities to promote awareness and
understanding of the challenges faced by the disabled community. More personalized
information may help to deconstruct dangerous stereotyping practices.
Many of the researchers discussed in this literature review have suggested that education
during the elementary school years can have significant impacts on children’s intergroup
orientations later in life. Such impacts could include a decrease in stereotyping and an increase in
intention to interact with disabled people. The curriculum in chapter three will address the
identified need for both cognitive and affective educational experiences to change negative
attitudes of non-disabled students toward disabled students.
27. Changing Children’s Attitudes and Behaviors 27
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