UNIT - 4: Data Warehousing and Data MiningNandakumar P
UNIT-IV
Cluster Analysis: Types of Data in Cluster Analysis – A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods – Partitioning Methods – Hierarchical methods – Density, Based Methods – Grid, Based Methods – Model, Based Clustering Methods – Clustering High, Dimensional Data – Constraint, Based Cluster Analysis – Outlier Analysis.
Chapter 10. Cluster Analysis Basic Concepts and Methods.pptSubrata Kumer Paul
Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber and Jian Pei
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, 3rd ed.
The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Data Management Systems
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, July 2011. ISBN 978-0123814791
Step by step operations by which we make a group of objects in which attributes
of all the objects are nearly similar, known as clustering. So, a cluster is a collection of
objects that acquire nearly same attribute values. The property of an object in a cluster is
similar to other objects in same cluster but different with objects of other clusters.
Clustering is used in wide range of applications like pattern recognition, image processing,
data analysis, machine learning etc. Nowadays, more attention has been put on categorical
data rather than numerical data. Where, the range of numerical attributes organizes in a
class like small, medium, high, and so on. There is wide range of algorithm that used to
make clusters of given categorical data. Our approach is to enhance the working on well-
known clustering algorithm k-modes to improve accuracy of algorithm. We proposed a new
approach named “High Accuracy Clustering Algorithm for Categorical datasets”.
Techniques to optimize the pagerank algorithm usually fall in two categories. One is to try reducing the work per iteration, and the other is to try reducing the number of iterations. These goals are often at odds with one another. Skipping computation on vertices which have already converged has the potential to save iteration time. Skipping in-identical vertices, with the same in-links, helps reduce duplicate computations and thus could help reduce iteration time. Road networks often have chains which can be short-circuited before pagerank computation to improve performance. Final ranks of chain nodes can be easily calculated. This could reduce both the iteration time, and the number of iterations. If a graph has no dangling nodes, pagerank of each strongly connected component can be computed in topological order. This could help reduce the iteration time, no. of iterations, and also enable multi-iteration concurrency in pagerank computation. The combination of all of the above methods is the STICD algorithm. [sticd] For dynamic graphs, unchanged components whose ranks are unaffected can be skipped altogether.
Opendatabay - Open Data Marketplace.pptxOpendatabay
Opendatabay.com unlocks the power of data for everyone. Open Data Marketplace fosters a collaborative hub for data enthusiasts to explore, share, and contribute to a vast collection of datasets.
First ever open hub for data enthusiasts to collaborate and innovate. A platform to explore, share, and contribute to a vast collection of datasets. Through robust quality control and innovative technologies like blockchain verification, opendatabay ensures the authenticity and reliability of datasets, empowering users to make data-driven decisions with confidence. Leverage cutting-edge AI technologies to enhance the data exploration, analysis, and discovery experience.
From intelligent search and recommendations to automated data productisation and quotation, Opendatabay AI-driven features streamline the data workflow. Finding the data you need shouldn't be a complex. Opendatabay simplifies the data acquisition process with an intuitive interface and robust search tools. Effortlessly explore, discover, and access the data you need, allowing you to focus on extracting valuable insights. Opendatabay breaks new ground with a dedicated, AI-generated, synthetic datasets.
Leverage these privacy-preserving datasets for training and testing AI models without compromising sensitive information. Opendatabay prioritizes transparency by providing detailed metadata, provenance information, and usage guidelines for each dataset, ensuring users have a comprehensive understanding of the data they're working with. By leveraging a powerful combination of distributed ledger technology and rigorous third-party audits Opendatabay ensures the authenticity and reliability of every dataset. Security is at the core of Opendatabay. Marketplace implements stringent security measures, including encryption, access controls, and regular vulnerability assessments, to safeguard your data and protect your privacy.
UNIT - 4: Data Warehousing and Data MiningNandakumar P
UNIT-IV
Cluster Analysis: Types of Data in Cluster Analysis – A Categorization of Major Clustering Methods – Partitioning Methods – Hierarchical methods – Density, Based Methods – Grid, Based Methods – Model, Based Clustering Methods – Clustering High, Dimensional Data – Constraint, Based Cluster Analysis – Outlier Analysis.
Chapter 10. Cluster Analysis Basic Concepts and Methods.pptSubrata Kumer Paul
Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber and Jian Pei
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques, 3rd ed.
The Morgan Kaufmann Series in Data Management Systems
Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, July 2011. ISBN 978-0123814791
Step by step operations by which we make a group of objects in which attributes
of all the objects are nearly similar, known as clustering. So, a cluster is a collection of
objects that acquire nearly same attribute values. The property of an object in a cluster is
similar to other objects in same cluster but different with objects of other clusters.
Clustering is used in wide range of applications like pattern recognition, image processing,
data analysis, machine learning etc. Nowadays, more attention has been put on categorical
data rather than numerical data. Where, the range of numerical attributes organizes in a
class like small, medium, high, and so on. There is wide range of algorithm that used to
make clusters of given categorical data. Our approach is to enhance the working on well-
known clustering algorithm k-modes to improve accuracy of algorithm. We proposed a new
approach named “High Accuracy Clustering Algorithm for Categorical datasets”.
Techniques to optimize the pagerank algorithm usually fall in two categories. One is to try reducing the work per iteration, and the other is to try reducing the number of iterations. These goals are often at odds with one another. Skipping computation on vertices which have already converged has the potential to save iteration time. Skipping in-identical vertices, with the same in-links, helps reduce duplicate computations and thus could help reduce iteration time. Road networks often have chains which can be short-circuited before pagerank computation to improve performance. Final ranks of chain nodes can be easily calculated. This could reduce both the iteration time, and the number of iterations. If a graph has no dangling nodes, pagerank of each strongly connected component can be computed in topological order. This could help reduce the iteration time, no. of iterations, and also enable multi-iteration concurrency in pagerank computation. The combination of all of the above methods is the STICD algorithm. [sticd] For dynamic graphs, unchanged components whose ranks are unaffected can be skipped altogether.
Opendatabay - Open Data Marketplace.pptxOpendatabay
Opendatabay.com unlocks the power of data for everyone. Open Data Marketplace fosters a collaborative hub for data enthusiasts to explore, share, and contribute to a vast collection of datasets.
First ever open hub for data enthusiasts to collaborate and innovate. A platform to explore, share, and contribute to a vast collection of datasets. Through robust quality control and innovative technologies like blockchain verification, opendatabay ensures the authenticity and reliability of datasets, empowering users to make data-driven decisions with confidence. Leverage cutting-edge AI technologies to enhance the data exploration, analysis, and discovery experience.
From intelligent search and recommendations to automated data productisation and quotation, Opendatabay AI-driven features streamline the data workflow. Finding the data you need shouldn't be a complex. Opendatabay simplifies the data acquisition process with an intuitive interface and robust search tools. Effortlessly explore, discover, and access the data you need, allowing you to focus on extracting valuable insights. Opendatabay breaks new ground with a dedicated, AI-generated, synthetic datasets.
Leverage these privacy-preserving datasets for training and testing AI models without compromising sensitive information. Opendatabay prioritizes transparency by providing detailed metadata, provenance information, and usage guidelines for each dataset, ensuring users have a comprehensive understanding of the data they're working with. By leveraging a powerful combination of distributed ledger technology and rigorous third-party audits Opendatabay ensures the authenticity and reliability of every dataset. Security is at the core of Opendatabay. Marketplace implements stringent security measures, including encryption, access controls, and regular vulnerability assessments, to safeguard your data and protect your privacy.
Data Centers - Striving Within A Narrow Range - Research Report - MCG - May 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) expects to see demand and the changing evolution of supply, facilitated through institutional investment rotation out of offices and into work from home (“WFH”), while the ever-expanding need for data storage as global internet usage expands, with experts predicting 5.3 billion users by 2023. These market factors will be underpinned by technological changes, such as progressing cloud services and edge sites, allowing the industry to see strong expected annual growth of 13% over the next 4 years.
Whilst competitive headwinds remain, represented through the recent second bankruptcy filing of Sungard, which blames “COVID-19 and other macroeconomic trends including delayed customer spending decisions, insourcing and reductions in IT spending, energy inflation and reduction in demand for certain services”, the industry has seen key adjustments, where MCG believes that engineering cost management and technological innovation will be paramount to success.
MCG reports that the more favorable market conditions expected over the next few years, helped by the winding down of pandemic restrictions and a hybrid working environment will be driving market momentum forward. The continuous injection of capital by alternative investment firms, as well as the growing infrastructural investment from cloud service providers and social media companies, whose revenues are expected to grow over 3.6x larger by value in 2026, will likely help propel center provision and innovation. These factors paint a promising picture for the industry players that offset rising input costs and adapt to new technologies.
According to M Capital Group: “Specifically, the long-term cost-saving opportunities available from the rise of remote managing will likely aid value growth for the industry. Through margin optimization and further availability of capital for reinvestment, strong players will maintain their competitive foothold, while weaker players exit the market to balance supply and demand.”
1. What is Cluster Analysis?
• Cluster: a collection of data objects
– Similar to one another within the same cluster
– Dissimilar to the objects in other clusters
• Cluster analysis
– Finding similarities between data according to the
characteristics found in the data and grouping similar
data objects into clusters
• Unsupervised learning: no predefined classes
• Typical applications
– As a stand-alone tool to get insight into data distribution
– As a preprocessing step for other algorithms
2. Clustering: Rich Applications
and Multidisciplinary Efforts
• Pattern Recognition
• Spatial Data Analysis
– Create thematic maps in GIS by clustering feature
spaces
– Detect spatial clusters or for other spatial mining tasks
• Image Processing
• Economic Science (especially market research)
• WWW
– Document classification
– Cluster Weblog data to discover groups of similar
access patterns
3. Examples of Clustering
Applications
• Marketing: Help marketers discover distinct groups in their customer
bases, and then use this knowledge to develop targeted marketing
programs
• Land use: Identification of areas of similar land use in an earth
observation database
• Insurance: Identifying groups of motor insurance policy holders with a
high average claim cost
• City-planning: Identifying groups of houses according to their house
type, value, and geographical location
• Earth-quake studies: Observed earth quake epicenters should be
clustered along continent faults
4. Quality: What Is Good
Clustering?
• A good clustering method will produce high quality clusters with
– high intra-class similarity
– low inter-class similarity
• The quality of a clustering result depends on both the similarity
measure used by the method and its implementation
• The quality of a clustering method is also measured by its ability to
discover some or all of the hidden patterns
5. Measure the Quality of
Clustering
• Dissimilarity/Similarity metric: Similarity is expressed in terms of a
distance function, typically metric: d(i, j)
• There is a separate “quality” function that measures the “goodness” of
a cluster.
• The definitions of distance functions are usually very different for
interval-scaled, boolean, categorical, ordinal ratio, and vector
variables.
• Weights should be associated with different variables based on
applications and data semantics.
• It is hard to define “similar enough” or “good enough”
– the answer is typically highly subjective.
6. Requirements of Clustering in Data
Mining
• Scalability
• Ability to deal with different types of attributes
• Ability to handle dynamic data
• Discovery of clusters with arbitrary shape
• Minimal requirements for domain knowledge to determine input
parameters
• Able to deal with noise and outliers
• Insensitive to order of input records
• High dimensionality
• Incorporation of user-specified constraints
• Interpretability and usability
7. Similarity and Dissimilarity
Between Objects
• Distances are normally used to measure the
similarity or dissimilarity between two data
objects
• Some popular ones include: Minkowski
distance:
where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are
two p-dimensional data objects, and q is a positive
integer
q
q
p
p
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8. Similarity and Dissimilarity
Between Objects (Cont.)
• If q = 2, d is Euclidean distance:
– Properties
• d(i,j) 0
• d(i,i) = 0
• d(i,j) = d(j,i)
• d(i,j) d(i,k) + d(k,j)
• Also, one can use weighted distance,
parametric Pearson product moment
correlation, or other disimilarity measures
)
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9. Major Clustering
Approaches (I)
• Partitioning approach:
– Construct various partitions and then evaluate them by some criterion, e.g.,
minimizing the sum of square errors
– Typical methods: k-means, k-medoids, CLARANS
• Hierarchical approach:
– Create a hierarchical decomposition of the set of data (or objects) using
some criterion
– Typical methods: Diana, Agnes, BIRCH, ROCK, CAMELEON
• Density-based approach:
– Based on connectivity and density functions
– Typical methods: DBSACN, OPTICS, DenClue
10. Major Clustering
Approaches (II)
• Grid-based approach:
– based on a multiple-level granularity structure
– Typical methods: STING, WaveCluster, CLIQUE
• Model-based:
– A model is hypothesized for each of the clusters and tries to find the best fit
of that model to each other
– Typical methods: EM, SOM, COBWEB
• Frequent pattern-based:
– Based on the analysis of frequent patterns
– Typical methods: pCluster
• User-guided or constraint-based:
– Clustering by considering user-specified or application-specific constraints
– Typical methods: COD (obstacles), constrained clustering
11. Typical Alternatives to Calculate the
Distance between Clusters
• Single link: smallest distance between an element in
one cluster and an element in the other, i.e., dis(Ki, Kj) =
min(tip, tjq)
• Complete link: largest distance between an element in
one cluster and an element in the other, i.e., dis(Ki, Kj) =
max(tip, tjq)
• Average: avg distance between an element in one
cluster and an element in the other, i.e., dis(Ki, Kj) =
avg(tip, tjq)
• Centroid: distance between the centroids of two
12. The K-Means Clustering Method
• Given k, the k-means algorithm is
implemented in four steps:
– Partition objects into k nonempty subsets
– Compute seed points as the centroids of the
clusters of the current partition (the centroid is the
center, i.e., mean point, of the cluster)
– Assign each object to the cluster with the nearest
seed point
– Go back to Step 2, stop when no more new
assignment
14. Comments on the K-Means
Method
• Strength: Relatively efficient: O(tkn), where n is # objects, k
is # clusters, and t is # iterations. Normally, k, t << n.
• Comparing: PAM: O(k(n-k)2 ), CLARA: O(ks2 + k(n-k))
• Comment: Often terminates at a local optimum. The global
optimum may be found using techniques such as:
deterministic annealing and genetic algorithms
• Weakness
– Applicable only when mean is defined, then what about categorical
data?
– Need to specify k, the number of clusters, in advance
– Unable to handle noisy data and outliers
– Not suitable to discover clusters with non-convex shapes
15. What Is the Problem of the K-Means
Method?
• The k-means algorithm is sensitive to outliers !
– Since an object with an extremely large value may substantially
distort the distribution of the data.
• K-Medoids: Instead of taking the mean value of the object
in a cluster as a reference point, medoids can be used,
which is the most centrally located object in a cluster.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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16. The K-Medoids Clustering Method
• Find representative objects, called medoids, in clusters
• PAM (Partitioning Around Medoids, 1987)
– starts from an initial set of medoids and iteratively replaces one
of the medoids by one of the non-medoids if it improves the total
distance of the resulting clustering
– PAM works effectively for small data sets, but does not scale
well for large data sets
• CLARA (Kaufmann & Rousseeuw, 1990)
• CLARANS (Ng & Han, 1994): Randomized sampling
• Focusing + spatial data structure (Ester et al., 1995)
17. Hierarchical Clustering
• Use distance matrix as clustering criteria. This
method does not require the number of clusters
k as an input, but needs a termination condition
Step 0 Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
b
d
c
e
a
a b
d e
c d e
a b c d e
Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 Step 0
agglomerative
divisive
18. Dendrogram: Shows How the Clusters are Merged
Decompose data objects into a several levels of nested
partitioning (tree of clusters), called a dendrogram.
A clustering of the data objects is obtained by cutting the
dendrogram at the desired level, then each connected
component forms a cluster.
19. What Is Outlier Discovery?
• What are outliers?
– The set of objects are considerably dissimilar from the
remainder of the data
– Example: Sports: Michael Jordon, Wayne Gretzky, ...
• Problem: Define and find outliers in large data
sets
• Applications:
– Credit card fraud detection
– Telecom fraud detection
– Customer segmentation
– Medical analysis
20. Summary
• Cluster analysis groups objects based on their
similarity and has wide applications
• Clustering algorithms can be categorized into
partitioning methods, hierarchical methods,
density-based methods, grid-based methods,
and model-based methods
• Outlier detection and analysis are very useful for
fraud detection, etc.
21. References (1)
• R. Agrawal, J. Gehrke, D. Gunopulos, and P. Raghavan. Automatic subspace
clustering of high dimensional data for data mining applications. SIGMOD'98
• M. R. Anderberg. Cluster Analysis for Applications. Academic Press, 1973.
• M. Ankerst, M. Breunig, H.-P. Kriegel, and J. Sander. Optics: Ordering points to
identify the clustering structure, SIGMOD’99.
• P. Arabie, L. J. Hubert, and G. De Soete. Clustering and Classification. World
Scientific, 1996
• Beil F., Ester M., Xu X.: "Frequent Term-Based Text Clustering", KDD'02
• M. M. Breunig, H.-P. Kriegel, R. Ng, J. Sander. LOF: Identifying Density-Based Local
Outliers. SIGMOD 2000.
• M. Ester, H.-P. Kriegel, J. Sander, and X. Xu. A density-based algorithm for discovering
clusters in large spatial databases. KDD'96.
• M. Ester, H.-P. Kriegel, and X. Xu. Knowledge discovery in large spatial databases:
Focusing techniques for efficient class identification. SSD'95.
• D. Fisher. Knowledge acquisition via incremental conceptual clustering. Machine
Learning, 2:139-172, 1987.
22. References (2)
• V. Ganti, J. Gehrke, R. Ramakrishan. CACTUS Clustering Categorical Data Using
Summaries. KDD'99.
• D. Gibson, J. Kleinberg, and P. Raghavan. Clustering categorical data: An approach
based on dynamic systems. In Proc. VLDB’98.
• S. Guha, R. Rastogi, and K. Shim. Cure: An efficient clustering algorithm for large
databases. SIGMOD'98.
• S. Guha, R. Rastogi, and K. Shim. ROCK: A robust clustering algorithm for categorical
attributes. In ICDE'99, pp. 512-521, Sydney, Australia, March 1999.
• A. Hinneburg, D.l A. Keim: An Efficient Approach to Clustering in Large Multimedia
Databases with Noise. KDD’98.
• A. K. Jain and R. C. Dubes. Algorithms for Clustering Data. Printice Hall, 1988.
• G. Karypis, E.-H. Han, and V. Kumar. CHAMELEON: A Hierarchical Clustering
Algorithm Using Dynamic Modeling. COMPUTER, 32(8): 68-75, 1999.
• L. Kaufman and P. J. Rousseeuw. Finding Groups in Data: an Introduction to Cluster
Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
• E. Knorr and R. Ng. Algorithms for mining distance-based outliers in large datasets.
VLDB’98.
• G. J. McLachlan and K.E. Bkasford. Mixture Models: Inference and Applications to
Clustering. John Wiley and Sons, 1988.
23. References (3)
• L. Parsons, E. Haque and H. Liu, Subspace Clustering for High Dimensional Data: A
Review , SIGKDD Explorations, 6(1), June 2004
• E. Schikuta. Grid clustering: An efficient hierarchical clustering method for very large
data sets. Proc. 1996 Int. Conf. on Pattern Recognition,.
• G. Sheikholeslami, S. Chatterjee, and A. Zhang. WaveCluster: A multi-resolution
clustering approach for very large spatial databases. VLDB’98.
• A. K. H. Tung, J. Han, L. V. S. Lakshmanan, and R. T. Ng. Constraint-Based
Clustering in Large Databases, ICDT'01.
• A. K. H. Tung, J. Hou, and J. Han. Spatial Clustering in the Presence of Obstacles ,
ICDE'01
• H. Wang, W. Wang, J. Yang, and P.S. Yu. Clustering by pattern similarity in large
data sets, SIGMOD’ 02.
• W. Wang, Yang, R. Muntz, STING: A Statistical Information grid Approach to Spatial
Data Mining, VLDB’97.
• T. Zhang, R. Ramakrishnan, and M. Livny. BIRCH : an efficient data clustering
method for very large databases. SIGMOD'96.