Dissonance and Discomfort: Does a Simple Cognitive Inconsistency
Evoke a Negative Affective State?
Nicholas Levy, Cindy Harmon-Jones, and Eddie Harmon-Jones
The University of New South Wales
Festinger (1957) described cognitive dissonance as psychological discomfort that
resulted from a cognitive inconsistency. Discussion of dissonance for the past 60 years
has focused on the classic paradigms and the motivation to reduce dissonance, but some
have noted that this represents a narrow application of Festinger’s ideas (Gawronski &
Brannon, in press). Recent research has suggested, but not demonstrated, that simple
cognitive inconsistencies may also evoke the affective and motivational state of
dissonance (e.g., E. Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, & Levy, 2015). In the current
experiments, participants read sentences that ended with incongruent or congruent final
words. In Study 1, sentences with incongruent endings led to more negative implicit
affect than did sentences with congruent endings. Study 2 replicated this finding, with
the addition of self-report and facial electromyography. These findings indicate that
simple inconsistencies can evoke dissonance.
Keywords: dissonance, consistency, emotion processing, implicit measures, affect
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance the-
ory revolutionized the understanding of the re-
lationships between cognitive, motivational,
and affective processes. According to the orig-
inal theory, “In the presence of an inconsistency
there is psychological discomfort” (Festinger,
1957, p. 2). Inconsistency here refers to “non-
fitting relations between cognitions” (Festinger,
1957, p. 3). Festinger, (1957) speculated that
If a person were standing in the rain and yet could see
no evidence that he was getting wet, these two cogni-
tions would be dissonant with one another because he
knows from experience that getting wet follows from
being out in the rain. (p. 14)
It is interesting to note that Festinger did not
distinguish between dissonance as a relation
between cognitions and dissonance as a moti-
vational state of discomfort: “nonfitting rela-
tions among cognitions [are] a motivating factor
in [their] own right.” (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). In
this light, Festinger’s example suggests even
simple inconsistencies would cause dissonance
discomfort. Although this theory and evidence
(see below) suggest that a simple cognitive in-
consistency should evoke psychological dis-
comfort, no prior research has tested this di-
rectly. Thus, the current research examined
whether a simple cognitive inconsistency could
evoke the psychological discomfort of disso-
nance.
Models of affect recognize that affective
states are characterized by psychophysiological
dimensions (e.g., Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, &
Lang, 1992; Russell, 1980), including, but not
limited to, affective valence (how pleasant or
unpleasant an affective state is; E. Harmon-
Jones, Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Gable, 2011)
and arousal (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2 ...
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful periods like caring for a dying loved one.
- Recent studies support the proposition that positive emotions broaden thinking and behaviors, replenish resources, and are related to better health outcomes independently of negative emotions.
- The revised stress and coping model incorporates positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that can generate positive emotions, even during unresolved stressful periods. This helps address the imbalance of prior research only examining negative emotions and expands understanding of coping and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful events like caring for a dying loved one.
- Further research confirmed positive and negative emotions frequently co-occur during stress. Positive emotions broaden thinking and build resources like social support.
- The author's stress and coping model was revised in 1997 to incorporate positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that generate positive emotions, like benefit finding.
- Subsequent research provides evidence supporting the revised model, showing positive emotions buffer stress responses and help find meaning, contributing to resilience and health.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
This paper explores attribution theory and the importance of individual attribution styles. It discusses how attribution styles can influence one's interpretation of positive and negative events and shape responses to environmental cues. The paper reviews literature showing links between negative attribution styles and poorer academic performance, health outcomes, immune functioning, and mental health. Cultural factors like individualism/collectivism and religious beliefs may help determine one's attribution style. The actor-observer asymmetry also provides insight into positive attribution styles.
Emotion Recognition in Social UnderstandingMehvish Khan
1) The document discusses research on emotion recognition and social understanding in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It notes inconsistencies in past research and suggests alexithymia as a potential explanation.
2) It conducted a study that found significant correlations between autistic traits, empathy, and alexithymia. However, alexithymia did not fully mediate the relationship between autistic traits and empathy.
3) This suggests that co-occurring alexithymia could help explain some emotional deficits in ASD. Clinicians should consider alexithymia in diagnosing and understanding ASD.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
This document provides an overview of theories and research on attitudes, persuasion, and behavior. It discusses how attitudes can change through low-effort processes like classical and operant conditioning, where attitudes are influenced by repeatedly pairing objects with positive or negative stimuli. It also reviews how feelings and subjective experiences can influence attitudes if people rely on their affective responses as a shortcut for evaluation. The document then examines persuasion processes that require more cognitive effort, like dual-process models, before concluding with a discussion of the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful periods like caring for a dying loved one.
- Recent studies support the proposition that positive emotions broaden thinking and behaviors, replenish resources, and are related to better health outcomes independently of negative emotions.
- The revised stress and coping model incorporates positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that can generate positive emotions, even during unresolved stressful periods. This helps address the imbalance of prior research only examining negative emotions and expands understanding of coping and adaptation.
This document summarizes research on the role of positive emotions in the stress process. Some key points:
- Previous stress theories focused only on negative emotions, but research found positive emotions often co-occur with negative during stressful events like caring for a dying loved one.
- Further research confirmed positive and negative emotions frequently co-occur during stress. Positive emotions broaden thinking and build resources like social support.
- The author's stress and coping model was revised in 1997 to incorporate positive emotions and meaning-focused coping processes that generate positive emotions, like benefit finding.
- Subsequent research provides evidence supporting the revised model, showing positive emotions buffer stress responses and help find meaning, contributing to resilience and health.
Affective Context Of Sadness And Physiological Response PatternsHeather Strinden
This study tested how different emotional contexts influence physiological responses to sadness. Participants watched two sad films, one with an additional context of disgust (related to avoidance) and one with tenderness (related to attachment). Both films increased facial expressions of sadness but had opposite effects physiologically. The sad+disgust film increased skin conductance, while the sad+tenderness film decreased heart rate and skin conductance responses, showing emotional contexts can alter arousal levels in response to the same emotion.
This paper explores attribution theory and the importance of individual attribution styles. It discusses how attribution styles can influence one's interpretation of positive and negative events and shape responses to environmental cues. The paper reviews literature showing links between negative attribution styles and poorer academic performance, health outcomes, immune functioning, and mental health. Cultural factors like individualism/collectivism and religious beliefs may help determine one's attribution style. The actor-observer asymmetry also provides insight into positive attribution styles.
Emotion Recognition in Social UnderstandingMehvish Khan
1) The document discusses research on emotion recognition and social understanding in autism spectrum disorder (ASD). It notes inconsistencies in past research and suggests alexithymia as a potential explanation.
2) It conducted a study that found significant correlations between autistic traits, empathy, and alexithymia. However, alexithymia did not fully mediate the relationship between autistic traits and empathy.
3) This suggests that co-occurring alexithymia could help explain some emotional deficits in ASD. Clinicians should consider alexithymia in diagnosing and understanding ASD.
Splitting the affective atom: Divergence of valence and approach-avoidance mo...Maciej Behnke
Valence and approach-avoidance motivation are two distinct but closely related components of affect. However, little is known about how these two processes evolve and covary in a dynamic affective context.We formulated several hypotheses based on the Motivational Dimensional Model of Affect. We expected that anger would be a unique approach-related rather than avoidancerelated negative emotion. We also expected that high-approach positive emotions (e.g., desire) would differ from low-approach positive emotions (e.g., amusement) producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation. We also explored other dynamic properties of discrete emotions such as the difference between approach-avoidance motivation and valence as a marker of balance within affective components. We asked 69 participants to provide continuous ratings of valence and approach-avoidance motivation for eight standardized clips representing different discrete emotions. Using multilevel modeling, we established a significant relationship between valence and approach-avoidance motivation with high-approach emotions producing a stronger link between valence and approach-avoidance motivation compared to neutral states and lowapproach emotions. Contrary to expectations, we observed that individuals exhibited an avoidance response during anger elicitation. Finally, we found that awe was a distinct positive emotion where approach motivation dominated over valence. These findings are relevant to the theory and research on diverging processes within the core structure of affect.
This document provides an overview of theories and research on attitudes, persuasion, and behavior. It discusses how attitudes can change through low-effort processes like classical and operant conditioning, where attitudes are influenced by repeatedly pairing objects with positive or negative stimuli. It also reviews how feelings and subjective experiences can influence attitudes if people rely on their affective responses as a shortcut for evaluation. The document then examines persuasion processes that require more cognitive effort, like dual-process models, before concluding with a discussion of the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
This document introduces a special issue of NeuroImage focused on social cognitive neuroscience. It summarizes several principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition that have been examined by social psychologists for decades. These include: (1) the power of the situation over behavior, (2) blindness to situational influences, and (3) the constructive nature of social and self-perception. It discusses how social cognitive neuroscience can build on this research by identifying the neural correlates of various social cognitive processes. The goal is to provide context for cognitive neuroscience researchers on the complexities of social cognition.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Dyadic Coping and Attachment Dimensions in Young Adult Romantic RelationshipsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Dyadic coping conceives coping as a response in which partners support each other
and cope with stress as a couple rather than individuals, but little is known of the factors that lead to
dyadic coping. The present study aims to explore the relationship between dyadic coping and adult
attachment. That is, to examine whether an individual’s attachment style is a predictor of their own
dyadic coping style and their partner’s dyadic coping style. Online, survey data was collected from 74
childless couples, between the ages of 18 and 31, who had been in their relationships for over 6
months. Overall, analysis showed stronger associations between dyadic coping and attachment for
females, with minimal associations for males. The results of the present study are supportive of the
existing literature, though provide opportunities for further research.
KEYWORDS: dyadic coping, coping, attachment, romantic relationships, APIM
This document provides an overview of Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory. It defines key concepts like cognition, cognitive dissonance, and consistency theories. It explains that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when a person holds two inconsistent cognitions. The theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce dissonance by altering their cognitions. The document also summarizes major phenomena studied, including selective exposure to information and post-decision dissonance. It analyzes cognitive dissonance theory as an objective, nomothetic communication theory that seeks to understand universal laws of human behavior.
Running head EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1Effe.docxtodd271
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger
Boston College
Author Note
This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694
awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,
Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth
Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,
Boston College.
Author Note
arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694
beth A. Kensinger.
ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,
sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth
ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,
Writing the abstract, 2.04
Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the
manuscript for submission, 8.03
Formatting the author name (byline) and
institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1
Double-spaced manuscript,
Times Roman typeface,
1-inch margins, 8.03
Elements of an author note, 2.03
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2
Abstract
Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task.
Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and
neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with
other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional
images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not
display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.
Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered
sections in the Publication Manual.)
Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,
2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to
attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to
select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous
research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young
adults (e.g.,
& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives
to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 200.
This document summarizes a study that investigated gender differences in the expression, interpretation, and stereotyping of emotions using art interpretation. 64 participants rated the emotions portrayed in abstract expressionist and baroque paintings when the perceived gender of the artist was male or female. Based on previous research, it was predicted that paintings believed to be by females would be rated as expressing emotions like love, sadness, fear, awe, and sympathy to a greater degree than those believed to be by males. The study found support for stereotypes that pride, sympathy, and frustration are gender-stereotyped emotions. It also identified depression as a stereotype uniquely held by males. The use of art interpretation provided insights into unconscious emotional stereotypes in a novel way
The document provides a critical analysis of claims made in a 2012 study by Lozano et al regarding the rationale for selecting the subcallosal cingulate gyrus as a target for deep brain stimulation to treat treatment-resistant depression. The analysis finds that the evidence cited by Lozano et al. to support the involvement of the subcallosal cingulate gyrus in processing acute sadness is insufficient. Several of the cited studies do not specifically implicate this brain region or have limitations such as small sample sizes that weaken their conclusions. The analysis concludes the evidence presented is not adequate to definitively support targeting the subcallosal cingulate gyrus with deep brain stimulation.
5Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak).docxstandfordabbot
5
Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak) and Reaction Time
Jenna Lantrip
September 18th, 2022
Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak) and Reaction Time
There are many reasons that can cause depression and a cognitive developmental delay, but this review is going to be looking at depression that comes from a relational breakup (heartbreak) and how this effects their reaction time. When an individual undergoes emotional distress that was caused by heartbreak it can lead the individual to negative effects such as, having an increased risk of physical illness and stress-related diseases (Izzati&Takwin, 2018). Young-adults, according to Erikon’s theory are going thought the developmental stage of intimacy versus isolation (Izzati&Tawkin, 2018; Erikson 1968). This proves that young adults are either developing intimate relationships with other individuals or they are being isolated from society. Naturally when an individual is actively pursuing an intimate relationship with another individual and this fails, heartbreak is expected. One should never underestimate the effects that a heartbreak can cause to an individual. Heartbreak can result into emotional distress and even in grief responses (Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Kaczmarek et al., 1990 in Lepore &Greenber, 2002). There can be different levels of heartbreak, an extreme level can cause emotional distress from a heartbreak that can lead a person to horrid scenes, such as psychopathology or even death (Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Field, 2011). Comment by user: Headings are very important. You would have started by illutrating this is an introduction of your work. Comment by user: I did not understand this point. Did you mean through or thought?
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between depression from heartbreak and the effects of cognitive development, more specifically, reaction time in individuals who range from 14-24 years of age. In addition, the participants gender was also investigated and taken into account when examining the relationship between depression from heartbreak and reaction time. The participants were assessed by using the Beck Depression Inventory Scale (Streiner, 2002), the Everyday Cognitive Instrument (Farias et al., 2008), and a sex assigned at birth questionnaire. Results from this study could be beneficial to mental health professionals and individuals of these ages in understanding why they have a slower or faster reaction time than others.
Background of the Study
When an individual does through a relationship breakup this can cause many different negative experiences to happen. Whenever there is an increase of stress coming from an event, there is an increased risk for developing depression (Verhallen et al., 2019). Conducting research studies on stressful and emotional upsetting events can provide for great insight asa to why there are individual differences when talking about stress-related coping and the .
EmotionAge-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior Evidence.docxchristinemaritza
Emotion
Age-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence
From a 13-Year Longitudinal Study of Long-Term
Married Couples
Alice Verstaen, Claudia M. Haase, Sandy J. Lwi, and Robert W. Levenson
Online First Publication, November 29, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000551
CITATION
Verstaen, A., Haase, C. M., Lwi, S. J., & Levenson, R. W. (2018, November 29). Age-Related
Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence From a 13-Year Longitudinal Study of Long-Term
Married Couples. Emotion. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000551
Age-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence From a 13-Year
Longitudinal Study of Long-Term Married Couples
Alice Verstaen
University of California, Berkeley
Claudia M. Haase
Northwestern University
Sandy J. Lwi and Robert W. Levenson
University of California, Berkeley
We examined age-related changes in emotional behavior in a sample of middle-aged and older
long-term married couples over a 13-year period. Data were collected at 3 waves, each occurring 5
to 6 years apart. For the present study, only couples who participated in all 3 waves were examined
(n � 87). Couples were either in the middle-aged group (40 –50 years old, married at least 15 years)
or the older group (60 –70 years old, married at least 35 years). At each wave, couples engaged in
15-min unrehearsed conversations about an area of disagreement in their marriage. Emotional
behaviors during the conversation were objectively coded using the Specific Affect Coding System.
Latent growth curve analyses revealed that, for both husbands and wives, negative emotional
behavior (primarily belligerence, defensiveness, fear/tension, and whining) decreased and positive
emotional behavior (primarily humor, enthusiasm, and validation) increased with age. Findings
generalized across middle-aged and older cohorts and levels of marital satisfaction. These findings
support theories that suggest that positive emotion increases and negative emotion decreases with
age, expanding upon previous findings by examining objectively coded emotional behaviors longi-
tudinally in an interpersonal context.
Keywords: aging, emotional behavior, marriage, longitudinal
Early research on emotion and aging was conducted with the
expectation (Jung, 1933; Looft, 1972) that older adults would
show declines in emotion paralleling well-documented declines in
health and cognition (Park & Bischof, 2013; Rowe & Kahn, 1997;
Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997). Challenging this expectation, a
number of cross-sectional studies with healthy community samples
found that many aspects of emotional functioning are preserved in
late life (Mather & Ponzio, 2016; Scheibe & Carstensen, 2010).
However, findings have been mixed as to the patterns of age-
related change in different kinds of emotions. For example, some
research indicates that negative emotion increases with age and
positive emotion decreases (Kurdek, 1998), while other research
supports the opposite trajectory (e.g.
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic ReviewMaciej Behnke
The undoing hypothesis proposes that positive emotions serve to undo sympathetic arousal related to negative emotions and stress. However, a recent qualitative review challenged the undoing effect by presenting conflicting results. To address this issue quantitatively, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 16 studies (N=1,220; 72 effect sizes) measuring sympathetic recovery during elicited positive emotions and neutral conditions. Findings indicated that in most cases, positive emotions did not speed sympathetic recovery compared to neutral conditions. However, when a composite index of cardiovascular reactivity was used, undoing effects were evident. Our findings suggest the need for further work on the functions of positive emotions.
1Running head INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Running head: INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS
Add page number.
Use header. Note the phrase “Running head” is uppercase-lowercase, but the short title is all capital letters. Short title should be different from the main title, no more than 50 letters including spaces. Make sure the font type and size through out the document is the same, this includes headers.
Include an APA-style title page with your submission. This is one example of a title page.
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Jason King
Argosy University
Add the main title in the middle of the page; your name in the second line and the university’s name in the third line.
Add “Author Note”. Observe the word “Note” is singular. Use your name and email address in the note.
Author Note
This research was carried out as partial fulfillment towards the Research Methods course at Argosy University by Jason King.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jason King, Department of Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix 2233 West Dunlap Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85021 Email: [email protected]
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
This is the first summary of your study. Please note that the study reference is now different form M1A3 assignment.
Put main title of the study here.
Emotional responses tell us how an individual is processing her environment, and if it contains negative stimuli, emotions reflect such negativity in behavior. Tamir, Robinson, and Clore (2002) carried out four experiments in this study and investigated reaction time (RT), to positive and negative adjectives. In the first study, 102 participants responded to a RT task and then completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, (1988) to determine their moods, followed by International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales (short form) by Goldberg (1997) to assess their extraversion. The RT task required each participant to respond to a block of words, the participants wanted (e.g., love, happiness etc), or not wanted (failure, pain, etc.,) or neutral (afternoon, definition, etc.,). Extraverts were faster than introverts on positive mood task, and introverts were faster with negative mood tasks. For both type of individuals, RT slowed down if they performed the opposite mood tasks. After the first experiment Tamir et al., (2002) carried out three other experiments manipulating mood conditions and found essentially the same results. This study proposes that traits of introversion and extraversion regulate mood and behavior to pleasant and non-pleasant stimulus material, and would be useful for my proposal, because it suggests that extraverted and introverted individuals may process pleasant and unpleasant affective stimulation from the spouse differently leading to marital bliss or nightmare.
Why is it that extraverts associate with positive moods and introverts w.
Running head INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS1INTR.docxcharisellington63520
Running head: INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS 1
INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS 2
(
Add page number.
) (
Use header. Note the phrase “Running head” is uppercase-lowercase, but the short title is all capital letters. Short title should be different from the main title, no more than 50 letters including spaces. Make sure the font type and size through out the document is the same, this includes headers.
)
(
Include an APA-style title page with your submission. This is one example of a title page.
)
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Jason King
(
Add the main title in the middle of the page
;
your name in the second line and the university’s name in the third line.
)Argosy University
(
Add “Author Note”. Observe the word “Note” is singular. Use your name and email address in the note.
)
Author Note
This research was carried out as partial fulfillment towards the Research Methods course at Argosy University by Jason King.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jason King, Department of Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix 2233 West Dunlap Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85021 Email: [email protected]
(
This is the first summary of your study. Please note that the study reference is now different form M1A3 assignment.
) (
Put main title of the study here.
)Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Emotional responses tell us how an individual is processing her environment, and if it contains negative stimuli, emotions reflect such negativity in behavior. Tamir, Robinson, and Clore (2002) carried out four experiments in this study and investigated reaction time (RT), to positive and negative adjectives. In the first study, 102 participants responded to a RT task and then completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, (1988) to determine their moods, followed by International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales (short form) by Goldberg (1997) to assess their extraversion. The RT task required each participant to respond to a block of words, the participants wanted (e.g., love, happiness etc), or not wanted (failure, pain, etc.,) or neutral (afternoon, definition, etc.,). Extraverts were faster than introverts on positive mood task, and introverts were faster with negative mood tasks. For both type of individuals, RT slowed down if they performed the opposite mood tasks. After the first experiment Tamir et al., (2002) carried out three other experiments manipulating mood conditions and found essentially the same results. This study proposes that traits of introversion and extraversion regulate mood and behavior to pleasant and non-pleasant stimulus material, and would be useful for my proposal, because it suggests that extraverted and introverted individuals may process pleasant and unpleasant affective stimulation from the spouse differently leading to marital bliss or nightmare.
.
Preamble.and abnormal schizoprenia assignment 2008 first term anne percy fina...Anne elizabeth leigh Percy
If madness is as old as humankind is, we might be tempted to assume that schizophrenia, one of today’s best known, most common, and most recognised forms of madness, has been present since the dawn of civilization. (Gottesman... 91. P.1).
Surprisingly to the contrary, it has been argued that to search the centuries for schizophrenia is a valueless task, because schizophrenia is of recent origin. (Howell.91.p.10).
Supporting this Torrey cited in Howell asserts, “There are no descriptions of schizophrenia, as we know it, before the early 19th century when Halsen in England and Pinel in France gave clear descriptions” (93.p.10).
At this juncture, it is pertinent to note as Cromwell, informs, “the term “schizophrenic psychosis” by way of Eugene Bleuler’s writings” is enveloped with all the elements of our language, embedded in our consciousness with all the cultural influences that reflect the times. (93.p3.)
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in 1951 to determine if individuals would conform to an obviously incorrect group answer. Participants were asked to compare line lengths but confederates unanimously chose the wrong answer on some trials. Results showed that over a third of participants conformed at least once by choosing the incorrect answer to fit in with the group, demonstrating the powerful influence of social pressure on individual judgments.
This document summarizes research on oxytocin and vasopressin in treating autism by comparing animal models to human studies. It reviews findings that oxytocin and vasopressin affect social bonding behaviors in animals like prairie voles and rats. Short-term oxytocin injections in animals increase non-specific social behaviors, while long-term injections can impair bonding abilities. Comparing these animal studies to human neuroimaging research helps explain the mechanisms and potential treatments for autism and other social disorders.
How the brain heals emotional wounds the functional neuroanatomy of forgivene...Elsa von Licy
This study used fMRI to examine the brain regions involved in forgiveness. Participants imagined hurtful social scenarios and were instructed to either forgive or harbor a grudge towards the imagined offender. Forgiveness was associated with greater subjective relief and activation in brain regions involved in theory of mind, empathy, and cognitive regulation of emotion, including the precuneus, right inferior parietal lobe, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The results suggest these regions support reappraisal-driven forgiveness by helping to inhibit aggressive reactions and restore emotional balance following an interpersonal offense.
Your new clientsThe Wagner’s – Scott and Ella are a young marri.docxDustiBuckner14
Your new clients:
The Wagner’s – Scott and Ella are a young married couple who just purchased a
townhome in the Heights area of Houston. He works in finance, and she is a Dr. They
prefer clean lines, not a lot of “fluff” but want their home to be comfortable and inviting.
The bedroom and bathroom need to have a relaxing “get away” feel as they both work
long hours. They have no children.
Develop and Prepare (3) Written Design Concepts for a Master Bedroom Suite - You
must use the “What, Why & How” Method presented in class
project will have its own unique Design Concept
You will use your Design Concepts to make selections and provide an overall design
scheme for each client
You will find images of all of your selections and include in your presentation
You will create (3) Schemes and present in a digital format.
Design/Presentation requirements are below:
Bedroom Materials/Finishes: Ceiling/Walls/Floors/Window Treatments
Bedroom Furniture Selections: Bed, Nightstands, Dresser, Art/Accessories, TV
Bedroom Light Fixtures
Bathroom Materials/Finishes: Ceiling/Walls/Floors/Millwork (counter & cabinets)
Bathroom FF&E Selections: Tub, Sinks, Shower & Sink Fittings, Lighting
Remember, you need to think about how you would like the bedroom to function,
and what your “concept” would be. Think about seating areas, sleeping area,
storage, dressing area, etc. This is your opportunity to be creative!
What is your concept statement? What is the programming? (Here are some questions
to ask)
What size bed?
What types of furniture needed? (Headboard, dresser, lounge chair, rug, etc.)
Comfort level and design style (contemporary, traditional, transitional)
Lighting and TV requirements?
Accessories?
You will:
Take the plan that was given to you and research and decide what furnishings
you would like to propose for each client.
Create a Programming slide identifying needs and requirements and your
solutions.
Create a brief Concept Statement slide summarizing your design intent. This
statement should also communicate the mood or feel you are attempting to
evoke.
Create a “working” presentation of your suggestions to review. This will consist of
several slides with your suggestions.
.
Writing Conclusions for Research PapersWhat is the purpose.docxDustiBuckner14
Writing Conclusions for Research Papers
What is the purpose of a conclusion?
A conclusion is supposed to provide the “final verdict,” or the “moral of the story” for the essay.
It is the writer’s last attempt at providing a memorable ending to the paper.
It explains why the topic is important and what the reader should learn from it.
A conclusion is not…
A repetition of the thesis statement and its points
Only a summary of the paper’s main points
A paragraph so detailed is resembles a body paragraph
A paragraph that goes into a new or unrelated topic
Two or three sentences long (i.e. “two sentences plus a catchy quote.”
Example of good conclusions
Making a recommendation or offering a solution to the problem
In conclusion, social media is not only responsible in many cases for ruining a marriage, sometimes it is responsible for ruining the entire family balance. These social platforms affect the stability of the couple creating a detachment in the everyday life; once the stability is broken and the distance starts to increase, most likely a sense of jealousy will generate and possibly lead to infidelity. It is easy for many users to blame social media for the end of their marriage, and because of this, it is important to use social media for a limited time with non-malicious intentions. The responsible use of the platforms may protect marriages from being permanently damaged and give a couple the possibility to live a much happier life together.
Painting a picture of the future if the problem is solved or handled correctly
Modern technology continues to prove its merit within the medical field furthering our understanding of ADHD as well as providing invaluable resources available to the public and educational institutions in which to simplify the management of this troublesome condition. It’s used to aid children throughout their academic endeavors, which, will dictate how they enter society and cope with symptoms that will be with them until future technology can find a cure. Data collection will only grow as technology is further implemented in ADHD treatment and is the key to developing the individual treatment plans that will help future generations thrive. The benefits of modern technology towards adolescents suffering from ADHD are plentiful and may one day eliminate the condition. This future is welcomed and one with great promise.
Painting a picture of the future if the problem is NOT solved or handled correctly
All in all, technology is growing at an extraordinarily exponential pace allowing us to be more connected and in tune than ever before. However, while we grow more connected online, we grow more apart in real life which in turn hurts our social skills, disconnects us from each other, degrades our interpersonal skills, makes it easier to commit crimes, and pulls friends and family apart. With almost everything in life there is undoubtedly an equal number of cons.
More Related Content
Similar to Dissonance and Discomfort Does a Simple Cognitive Inconsisten
This document introduces a special issue of NeuroImage focused on social cognitive neuroscience. It summarizes several principles, processes, and puzzles of social cognition that have been examined by social psychologists for decades. These include: (1) the power of the situation over behavior, (2) blindness to situational influences, and (3) the constructive nature of social and self-perception. It discusses how social cognitive neuroscience can build on this research by identifying the neural correlates of various social cognitive processes. The goal is to provide context for cognitive neuroscience researchers on the complexities of social cognition.
Desires and Decisions - A look into how positive emotions influence decision ...Shiva Kakkar
In the past few years the field of emotions has increasingly attracted the attention of researchers. A major reason for this is the ability of emotions to influence human motivation and actions by influencing the cognitive processes of the brain (Latham, 2007). Research by Kahneman and Tversky (1973) has for long suggested that not all human decisions are rational in nature. A significant part of irrational decision making can be attributed to the play of emotions in human beings. Thus, it is interesting to see how emotions interfere with the thinking process of individuals. The paper specifically attempts to view the effect of positive emotions i.e. feeling of happiness, joy and/or enthusiasm on the decision making process in human beings. In order to achieve this, two opposite scientific views in the form of a critique and a refutation are presented to understand the utility of positive emotions in decision making.
Dyadic Coping and Attachment Dimensions in Young Adult Romantic RelationshipsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Dyadic coping conceives coping as a response in which partners support each other
and cope with stress as a couple rather than individuals, but little is known of the factors that lead to
dyadic coping. The present study aims to explore the relationship between dyadic coping and adult
attachment. That is, to examine whether an individual’s attachment style is a predictor of their own
dyadic coping style and their partner’s dyadic coping style. Online, survey data was collected from 74
childless couples, between the ages of 18 and 31, who had been in their relationships for over 6
months. Overall, analysis showed stronger associations between dyadic coping and attachment for
females, with minimal associations for males. The results of the present study are supportive of the
existing literature, though provide opportunities for further research.
KEYWORDS: dyadic coping, coping, attachment, romantic relationships, APIM
This document provides an overview of Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory. It defines key concepts like cognition, cognitive dissonance, and consistency theories. It explains that cognitive dissonance is an aversive motivational state that occurs when a person holds two inconsistent cognitions. The theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce dissonance by altering their cognitions. The document also summarizes major phenomena studied, including selective exposure to information and post-decision dissonance. It analyzes cognitive dissonance theory as an objective, nomothetic communication theory that seeks to understand universal laws of human behavior.
Running head EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1Effe.docxtodd271
Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger
Boston College
Author Note
This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694
awarded to Elizabeth A. Kensinger.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,
Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth
Avenue, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,
Boston College.
Author Note
arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694
beth A. Kensinger.
ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,
sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth
ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: [email protected]
M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,
Writing the abstract, 2.04
Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the
manuscript for submission, 8.03
Formatting the author name (byline) and
institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1
Double-spaced manuscript,
Times Roman typeface,
1-inch margins, 8.03
Elements of an author note, 2.03
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 2
Abstract
Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task.
Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and
neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with
other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional
images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not
display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.
Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search
Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered
sections in the Publication Manual.)
Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,
2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3
Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information
Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to
attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to
select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous
research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young
adults (e.g.,
& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives
to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 200.
This document summarizes a study that investigated gender differences in the expression, interpretation, and stereotyping of emotions using art interpretation. 64 participants rated the emotions portrayed in abstract expressionist and baroque paintings when the perceived gender of the artist was male or female. Based on previous research, it was predicted that paintings believed to be by females would be rated as expressing emotions like love, sadness, fear, awe, and sympathy to a greater degree than those believed to be by males. The study found support for stereotypes that pride, sympathy, and frustration are gender-stereotyped emotions. It also identified depression as a stereotype uniquely held by males. The use of art interpretation provided insights into unconscious emotional stereotypes in a novel way
The document provides a critical analysis of claims made in a 2012 study by Lozano et al regarding the rationale for selecting the subcallosal cingulate gyrus as a target for deep brain stimulation to treat treatment-resistant depression. The analysis finds that the evidence cited by Lozano et al. to support the involvement of the subcallosal cingulate gyrus in processing acute sadness is insufficient. Several of the cited studies do not specifically implicate this brain region or have limitations such as small sample sizes that weaken their conclusions. The analysis concludes the evidence presented is not adequate to definitively support targeting the subcallosal cingulate gyrus with deep brain stimulation.
5Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak).docxstandfordabbot
5
Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak) and Reaction Time
Jenna Lantrip
September 18th, 2022
Relationship Between Depression (from heartbreak) and Reaction Time
There are many reasons that can cause depression and a cognitive developmental delay, but this review is going to be looking at depression that comes from a relational breakup (heartbreak) and how this effects their reaction time. When an individual undergoes emotional distress that was caused by heartbreak it can lead the individual to negative effects such as, having an increased risk of physical illness and stress-related diseases (Izzati&Takwin, 2018). Young-adults, according to Erikon’s theory are going thought the developmental stage of intimacy versus isolation (Izzati&Tawkin, 2018; Erikson 1968). This proves that young adults are either developing intimate relationships with other individuals or they are being isolated from society. Naturally when an individual is actively pursuing an intimate relationship with another individual and this fails, heartbreak is expected. One should never underestimate the effects that a heartbreak can cause to an individual. Heartbreak can result into emotional distress and even in grief responses (Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Kaczmarek et al., 1990 in Lepore &Greenber, 2002). There can be different levels of heartbreak, an extreme level can cause emotional distress from a heartbreak that can lead a person to horrid scenes, such as psychopathology or even death (Izzati&Takwin, 2018; Field, 2011). Comment by user: Headings are very important. You would have started by illutrating this is an introduction of your work. Comment by user: I did not understand this point. Did you mean through or thought?
The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between depression from heartbreak and the effects of cognitive development, more specifically, reaction time in individuals who range from 14-24 years of age. In addition, the participants gender was also investigated and taken into account when examining the relationship between depression from heartbreak and reaction time. The participants were assessed by using the Beck Depression Inventory Scale (Streiner, 2002), the Everyday Cognitive Instrument (Farias et al., 2008), and a sex assigned at birth questionnaire. Results from this study could be beneficial to mental health professionals and individuals of these ages in understanding why they have a slower or faster reaction time than others.
Background of the Study
When an individual does through a relationship breakup this can cause many different negative experiences to happen. Whenever there is an increase of stress coming from an event, there is an increased risk for developing depression (Verhallen et al., 2019). Conducting research studies on stressful and emotional upsetting events can provide for great insight asa to why there are individual differences when talking about stress-related coping and the .
EmotionAge-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior Evidence.docxchristinemaritza
Emotion
Age-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence
From a 13-Year Longitudinal Study of Long-Term
Married Couples
Alice Verstaen, Claudia M. Haase, Sandy J. Lwi, and Robert W. Levenson
Online First Publication, November 29, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000551
CITATION
Verstaen, A., Haase, C. M., Lwi, S. J., & Levenson, R. W. (2018, November 29). Age-Related
Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence From a 13-Year Longitudinal Study of Long-Term
Married Couples. Emotion. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000551
Age-Related Changes in Emotional Behavior: Evidence From a 13-Year
Longitudinal Study of Long-Term Married Couples
Alice Verstaen
University of California, Berkeley
Claudia M. Haase
Northwestern University
Sandy J. Lwi and Robert W. Levenson
University of California, Berkeley
We examined age-related changes in emotional behavior in a sample of middle-aged and older
long-term married couples over a 13-year period. Data were collected at 3 waves, each occurring 5
to 6 years apart. For the present study, only couples who participated in all 3 waves were examined
(n � 87). Couples were either in the middle-aged group (40 –50 years old, married at least 15 years)
or the older group (60 –70 years old, married at least 35 years). At each wave, couples engaged in
15-min unrehearsed conversations about an area of disagreement in their marriage. Emotional
behaviors during the conversation were objectively coded using the Specific Affect Coding System.
Latent growth curve analyses revealed that, for both husbands and wives, negative emotional
behavior (primarily belligerence, defensiveness, fear/tension, and whining) decreased and positive
emotional behavior (primarily humor, enthusiasm, and validation) increased with age. Findings
generalized across middle-aged and older cohorts and levels of marital satisfaction. These findings
support theories that suggest that positive emotion increases and negative emotion decreases with
age, expanding upon previous findings by examining objectively coded emotional behaviors longi-
tudinally in an interpersonal context.
Keywords: aging, emotional behavior, marriage, longitudinal
Early research on emotion and aging was conducted with the
expectation (Jung, 1933; Looft, 1972) that older adults would
show declines in emotion paralleling well-documented declines in
health and cognition (Park & Bischof, 2013; Rowe & Kahn, 1997;
Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997). Challenging this expectation, a
number of cross-sectional studies with healthy community samples
found that many aspects of emotional functioning are preserved in
late life (Mather & Ponzio, 2016; Scheibe & Carstensen, 2010).
However, findings have been mixed as to the patterns of age-
related change in different kinds of emotions. For example, some
research indicates that negative emotion increases with age and
positive emotion decreases (Kurdek, 1998), while other research
supports the opposite trajectory (e.g.
1. The document explores how social identity processes may play an important role in cognitive appraisal of stress. A survey was administered to 163 students measuring personality, coping strategies, social support, and gender. Students rated scenarios as more stressful if they were student-specific versus general.
2. Females and those reporting higher levels of emotion-focused coping rated scenarios as more stressful, regardless of whether the scenarios were student-specific or general. No other relationships were found between the predictor variables and ratings of stressfulness.
3. The findings suggest that social identity may not impact cognitive appraisal of stress as expected based on self-categorization theory. Gender and emotion-focused coping were the only significant predictors of perceived
The Undoing Effect of Positive Emotions: A Meta-Analytic ReviewMaciej Behnke
The undoing hypothesis proposes that positive emotions serve to undo sympathetic arousal related to negative emotions and stress. However, a recent qualitative review challenged the undoing effect by presenting conflicting results. To address this issue quantitatively, we conducted a meta-analytic review of 16 studies (N=1,220; 72 effect sizes) measuring sympathetic recovery during elicited positive emotions and neutral conditions. Findings indicated that in most cases, positive emotions did not speed sympathetic recovery compared to neutral conditions. However, when a composite index of cardiovascular reactivity was used, undoing effects were evident. Our findings suggest the need for further work on the functions of positive emotions.
1Running head INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Running head: INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS
Add page number.
Use header. Note the phrase “Running head” is uppercase-lowercase, but the short title is all capital letters. Short title should be different from the main title, no more than 50 letters including spaces. Make sure the font type and size through out the document is the same, this includes headers.
Include an APA-style title page with your submission. This is one example of a title page.
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Jason King
Argosy University
Add the main title in the middle of the page; your name in the second line and the university’s name in the third line.
Add “Author Note”. Observe the word “Note” is singular. Use your name and email address in the note.
Author Note
This research was carried out as partial fulfillment towards the Research Methods course at Argosy University by Jason King.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jason King, Department of Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix 2233 West Dunlap Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85021 Email: [email protected]
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
This is the first summary of your study. Please note that the study reference is now different form M1A3 assignment.
Put main title of the study here.
Emotional responses tell us how an individual is processing her environment, and if it contains negative stimuli, emotions reflect such negativity in behavior. Tamir, Robinson, and Clore (2002) carried out four experiments in this study and investigated reaction time (RT), to positive and negative adjectives. In the first study, 102 participants responded to a RT task and then completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, (1988) to determine their moods, followed by International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales (short form) by Goldberg (1997) to assess their extraversion. The RT task required each participant to respond to a block of words, the participants wanted (e.g., love, happiness etc), or not wanted (failure, pain, etc.,) or neutral (afternoon, definition, etc.,). Extraverts were faster than introverts on positive mood task, and introverts were faster with negative mood tasks. For both type of individuals, RT slowed down if they performed the opposite mood tasks. After the first experiment Tamir et al., (2002) carried out three other experiments manipulating mood conditions and found essentially the same results. This study proposes that traits of introversion and extraversion regulate mood and behavior to pleasant and non-pleasant stimulus material, and would be useful for my proposal, because it suggests that extraverted and introverted individuals may process pleasant and unpleasant affective stimulation from the spouse differently leading to marital bliss or nightmare.
Why is it that extraverts associate with positive moods and introverts w.
Running head INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS1INTR.docxcharisellington63520
Running head: INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS 1
INTROVERSION-EXTRAVERSION AND MARRIAGE BLISS 2
(
Add page number.
) (
Use header. Note the phrase “Running head” is uppercase-lowercase, but the short title is all capital letters. Short title should be different from the main title, no more than 50 letters including spaces. Make sure the font type and size through out the document is the same, this includes headers.
)
(
Include an APA-style title page with your submission. This is one example of a title page.
)
Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Jason King
(
Add the main title in the middle of the page
;
your name in the second line and the university’s name in the third line.
)Argosy University
(
Add “Author Note”. Observe the word “Note” is singular. Use your name and email address in the note.
)
Author Note
This research was carried out as partial fulfillment towards the Research Methods course at Argosy University by Jason King.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jason King, Department of Psychology, Argosy University, Phoenix 2233 West Dunlap Avenue, Phoenix, AZ 85021 Email: [email protected]
(
This is the first summary of your study. Please note that the study reference is now different form M1A3 assignment.
) (
Put main title of the study here.
)Introversion and Extraversion Personality Traits and Marital Bliss
Emotional responses tell us how an individual is processing her environment, and if it contains negative stimuli, emotions reflect such negativity in behavior. Tamir, Robinson, and Clore (2002) carried out four experiments in this study and investigated reaction time (RT), to positive and negative adjectives. In the first study, 102 participants responded to a RT task and then completed Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson, Clark, and Tellegen, (1988) to determine their moods, followed by International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) scales (short form) by Goldberg (1997) to assess their extraversion. The RT task required each participant to respond to a block of words, the participants wanted (e.g., love, happiness etc), or not wanted (failure, pain, etc.,) or neutral (afternoon, definition, etc.,). Extraverts were faster than introverts on positive mood task, and introverts were faster with negative mood tasks. For both type of individuals, RT slowed down if they performed the opposite mood tasks. After the first experiment Tamir et al., (2002) carried out three other experiments manipulating mood conditions and found essentially the same results. This study proposes that traits of introversion and extraversion regulate mood and behavior to pleasant and non-pleasant stimulus material, and would be useful for my proposal, because it suggests that extraverted and introverted individuals may process pleasant and unpleasant affective stimulation from the spouse differently leading to marital bliss or nightmare.
.
Preamble.and abnormal schizoprenia assignment 2008 first term anne percy fina...Anne elizabeth leigh Percy
If madness is as old as humankind is, we might be tempted to assume that schizophrenia, one of today’s best known, most common, and most recognised forms of madness, has been present since the dawn of civilization. (Gottesman... 91. P.1).
Surprisingly to the contrary, it has been argued that to search the centuries for schizophrenia is a valueless task, because schizophrenia is of recent origin. (Howell.91.p.10).
Supporting this Torrey cited in Howell asserts, “There are no descriptions of schizophrenia, as we know it, before the early 19th century when Halsen in England and Pinel in France gave clear descriptions” (93.p.10).
At this juncture, it is pertinent to note as Cromwell, informs, “the term “schizophrenic psychosis” by way of Eugene Bleuler’s writings” is enveloped with all the elements of our language, embedded in our consciousness with all the cultural influences that reflect the times. (93.p3.)
Solomon Asch conducted a conformity experiment in 1951 to determine if individuals would conform to an obviously incorrect group answer. Participants were asked to compare line lengths but confederates unanimously chose the wrong answer on some trials. Results showed that over a third of participants conformed at least once by choosing the incorrect answer to fit in with the group, demonstrating the powerful influence of social pressure on individual judgments.
This document summarizes research on oxytocin and vasopressin in treating autism by comparing animal models to human studies. It reviews findings that oxytocin and vasopressin affect social bonding behaviors in animals like prairie voles and rats. Short-term oxytocin injections in animals increase non-specific social behaviors, while long-term injections can impair bonding abilities. Comparing these animal studies to human neuroimaging research helps explain the mechanisms and potential treatments for autism and other social disorders.
How the brain heals emotional wounds the functional neuroanatomy of forgivene...Elsa von Licy
This study used fMRI to examine the brain regions involved in forgiveness. Participants imagined hurtful social scenarios and were instructed to either forgive or harbor a grudge towards the imagined offender. Forgiveness was associated with greater subjective relief and activation in brain regions involved in theory of mind, empathy, and cognitive regulation of emotion, including the precuneus, right inferior parietal lobe, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The results suggest these regions support reappraisal-driven forgiveness by helping to inhibit aggressive reactions and restore emotional balance following an interpersonal offense.
Your new clientsThe Wagner’s – Scott and Ella are a young marri.docxDustiBuckner14
Your new clients:
The Wagner’s – Scott and Ella are a young married couple who just purchased a
townhome in the Heights area of Houston. He works in finance, and she is a Dr. They
prefer clean lines, not a lot of “fluff” but want their home to be comfortable and inviting.
The bedroom and bathroom need to have a relaxing “get away” feel as they both work
long hours. They have no children.
Develop and Prepare (3) Written Design Concepts for a Master Bedroom Suite - You
must use the “What, Why & How” Method presented in class
project will have its own unique Design Concept
You will use your Design Concepts to make selections and provide an overall design
scheme for each client
You will find images of all of your selections and include in your presentation
You will create (3) Schemes and present in a digital format.
Design/Presentation requirements are below:
Bedroom Materials/Finishes: Ceiling/Walls/Floors/Window Treatments
Bedroom Furniture Selections: Bed, Nightstands, Dresser, Art/Accessories, TV
Bedroom Light Fixtures
Bathroom Materials/Finishes: Ceiling/Walls/Floors/Millwork (counter & cabinets)
Bathroom FF&E Selections: Tub, Sinks, Shower & Sink Fittings, Lighting
Remember, you need to think about how you would like the bedroom to function,
and what your “concept” would be. Think about seating areas, sleeping area,
storage, dressing area, etc. This is your opportunity to be creative!
What is your concept statement? What is the programming? (Here are some questions
to ask)
What size bed?
What types of furniture needed? (Headboard, dresser, lounge chair, rug, etc.)
Comfort level and design style (contemporary, traditional, transitional)
Lighting and TV requirements?
Accessories?
You will:
Take the plan that was given to you and research and decide what furnishings
you would like to propose for each client.
Create a Programming slide identifying needs and requirements and your
solutions.
Create a brief Concept Statement slide summarizing your design intent. This
statement should also communicate the mood or feel you are attempting to
evoke.
Create a “working” presentation of your suggestions to review. This will consist of
several slides with your suggestions.
.
Writing Conclusions for Research PapersWhat is the purpose.docxDustiBuckner14
Writing Conclusions for Research Papers
What is the purpose of a conclusion?
A conclusion is supposed to provide the “final verdict,” or the “moral of the story” for the essay.
It is the writer’s last attempt at providing a memorable ending to the paper.
It explains why the topic is important and what the reader should learn from it.
A conclusion is not…
A repetition of the thesis statement and its points
Only a summary of the paper’s main points
A paragraph so detailed is resembles a body paragraph
A paragraph that goes into a new or unrelated topic
Two or three sentences long (i.e. “two sentences plus a catchy quote.”
Example of good conclusions
Making a recommendation or offering a solution to the problem
In conclusion, social media is not only responsible in many cases for ruining a marriage, sometimes it is responsible for ruining the entire family balance. These social platforms affect the stability of the couple creating a detachment in the everyday life; once the stability is broken and the distance starts to increase, most likely a sense of jealousy will generate and possibly lead to infidelity. It is easy for many users to blame social media for the end of their marriage, and because of this, it is important to use social media for a limited time with non-malicious intentions. The responsible use of the platforms may protect marriages from being permanently damaged and give a couple the possibility to live a much happier life together.
Painting a picture of the future if the problem is solved or handled correctly
Modern technology continues to prove its merit within the medical field furthering our understanding of ADHD as well as providing invaluable resources available to the public and educational institutions in which to simplify the management of this troublesome condition. It’s used to aid children throughout their academic endeavors, which, will dictate how they enter society and cope with symptoms that will be with them until future technology can find a cure. Data collection will only grow as technology is further implemented in ADHD treatment and is the key to developing the individual treatment plans that will help future generations thrive. The benefits of modern technology towards adolescents suffering from ADHD are plentiful and may one day eliminate the condition. This future is welcomed and one with great promise.
Painting a picture of the future if the problem is NOT solved or handled correctly
All in all, technology is growing at an extraordinarily exponential pace allowing us to be more connected and in tune than ever before. However, while we grow more connected online, we grow more apart in real life which in turn hurts our social skills, disconnects us from each other, degrades our interpersonal skills, makes it easier to commit crimes, and pulls friends and family apart. With almost everything in life there is undoubtedly an equal number of cons.
What Is Septic TankSeptic or septic typically is used t.docxDustiBuckner14
What Is Septic Tank?
"Septic" or "septic" typically is used to describe the anaerobic bacteria environment that was created in Tank and decomposes to mineralizes domestic wastewater in the tank.
What exactly is septic tank Septic tank? It is a constructed in a scientifically sound underground chamber typically made of rcc, fiberglass, plain concrete, steel, or plastic. the domestic water, wastewater and fecal materials, excretory and toilet products flow into it to treat the primary source of waste material , which decomposes and transform into semi-solid or solid settleable liquid sludge.
In the United States, there are several types of ready-made Septic tanks that are available in the market. They include concrete septic tank plastic septic tank, as well as fibreglass septic tanks. Most well-known and widely used are concrete septic tanks for homes, based on the state and local rules and regulations.
When it comes to "what is a concrete septic tanks?", concrete septic tank is a basic design, water-tight container constructed from RCC or plain concrete typically rectangular or circular in shape and available in one chamber, two chambers, or three chambers that are that are used to treat primary liquid waste.
The typical capacity ranges from 500 to 1250 gallons 500 gallon or 750 gallon tanks are adequate for a two-bedroom home or a 1000 gallon concrete tank is sufficient for a three bedrooms, and a 1250 gallon septic tank is sufficient for a four bedroom house or a family of four.
In this regard, "what is the septic tank?", the septic tank is a single chamber or multi-chamber underground compartment that is composed out of RCC concrete fiberglass, plastic or steel used for the first-class treatment for domestic wastewater and fecal material as well as excretory products and toilets that
Also Read:
Rooftop Design Ideas
What Are Septic Tank?
What is the septic tanks? Septic tank is an submerged sedimentation tanks for the primary treatment of household waste and fecal materials via the process of bioanaerobic digestion, or decomposition, which results in semi-solid or solid sludge that can be settled.
The majority of septic tanks for homes can hold between 4000 and 7500 millilitres or 1,000 - 2000 gals of effluent, or semi-solid sludge.
What Size of Septic Tank Do I Need
?
In this article, we'll be talking about underground septic tanks and the size is a reference to the tank's total capacity for handling. Read our article about above ground septic tanks to get additional information about these tanks and the systems.
The minimum requirements for capacity of a septic tank are based on various variables. The state, county or city guidelines may require approved sizes , as can the material used for tank construction and its installation.
The local geography and soil conditions play a significant role in the effectiveness of the system, which could affect the size of drain fields and the size of the septic tank.
The type of septic .
· You should respond to at least two of your peers by extending, r.docxDustiBuckner14
· You should respond to at least two of your peers by extending, refuting/correcting, or adding additional nuance to their posts. Your reply posts are worth 2 points (1 point per response.)
· All replies must be constructive and use literature where possible.
# 1
Hearing & Eye Age-Related Diseases
Presbycusis, also known as age-related hearing loss, is a debilitating disease with a complicated etiology that affects tens of millions of people worldwide and roughly half of those over 65 in the United States (Say et al., 2021). The loss is usually bilateral, causing difficulty hearing high-pitched tones and conversational speech (Meiner & Yeager, 2019). The causes of age-related hearing loss are thought to be genetic and environmental. Men are more affected by this condition than women. This condition's origin is yet unknown.
Some signs and symptoms that could be seen in patients with this condition are not answering when spoken to, talking loudly, paying attention to the speaker's lips, turning up the radio or TV volume, putting one palm over one ear, and tilting the head to one side when someone is speaking (Meiner & Yeager, 2019). The causes of presbycusis are multifaceted. In addition to physiologic and anatomical alterations brought on by aging-related deterioration, genetic factors are among the additional contributing elements (Cheslock & De Jesus, 2022). It is believed that glutamate signaling, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones all contribute to it. Hearing loss occurs more frequently in postmenopausal women who use progestin and a combination of hormone replacement therapy. Presbycusis has also been linked to exposure to loud noises and ototoxic substances such as salicylates, loop diuretics, aminoglycosides, and some chemotherapeutic drugs. Ototoxicity has also been linked to certain occupational and environmental exposures to toxins such as toluene, styrene, lead, carbon monoxide, mercury, and other toxins (Cheslock & De Jesus, 2022). This problem has also been associated to a history of ear infections and the presence of several systemic disorders.
Studies aimed at establishing a clear association for the cause have not been successful. As a result, the diagnosis entails eliminating other potential causes of hearing loss, such as infections, head trauma, metabolic disorders, vascular diseases, and heart disease (Meiner & Yeager, 2019). It is important for nurses when caring for patients with this condition to speak clearly and use a normal tone of voice. Patients and their families need to be instructed on how to use and where to obtain assistive listening devices (Meiner & Yeager, 2019). Nurses must educate patients and family members that when using hearing aids, they need to perform daily listening and battery checks. These devices must be stored in a hearing aid drying container with batteries removed.
Vision is an important sense that is needed to complete ADLs. Age-related changes and macular or.
You are a medical student working your way throughcollege and ar.docxDustiBuckner14
You are a medical student working your way through
college and are assigned to a hospital given background information on a patient.
You were provided the chief complaint and long-term history of the patient
outlined below. You are asked by the nurse in charge to read the following case,
investigate the topic (Diabetes mellitus and chronic renal failure) and complete a
written report in MLA format including references addressing each of the
questions identified below.
.
[removed]THIS IEP INCLUDES FORMCHECKBOX Transitions.docxDustiBuckner14
[removed]
THIS IEP INCLUDES:
FORMCHECKBOX
Transitions
FORMCHECKBOX
Interim Service Plan
NEW YORK CITY
BOARD OF EDUCATION
INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM
CONFERENCE INFORMATION
CSE Case#
-
Home District:
Service District:
Date:
/
/
Type:
STUDENT INFORMATION
*Age as of the date of the conference
Name:
NYC ID#
- -
Date of Birth
/ /
Gender
FORMDROPDOWN
Address:
Age:
Phone:
( ) -
English LAB
Year
Spanish LAB
Year
Grade
FORMDROPDOWN
Language(s) Spoken/Mode of Communication
FORMDROPDOWN
Primary Agency with whom student is involved
Name of Contact
FORMTEXT
Phone:
( ) -
Agency Case#
PARENT/GUARDIAN INFORMATION
Relationship to Student
Name:
FORMDROPDOWN
Address:
Phone (Home):
( ) -
Phone (Work):
( ) -
Interpreter Required
FORMCHECKBOX
Yes
FORMCHECKBOX
No
Preferred Language/ Mode of Communication
FORMDROPDOWN
SPECIAL MEDICAL/PHYSICAL ALERTS
(Refer to Health & Physical Development Page for additional details.)
The student has
FORMCHECKBOX
medical conditions and/or FORMCHECKBOX
physical limitations which affect his/her FORMCHECKBOX
learning FORMCHECKBOX
behavior and/or FORMCHECKBOX
participation in school activities.
The student requires FORMCHECKBOX
medication and/or FORMCHECKBOX
health care treatment(s) or procedure(s) during the school day.
Other alerts:
SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
Eligibility
FORMCHECKBOX
Yes FORMCHECKBOX
No
Recommended Services
Classification of Disability
FORMDROPDOWN
FORMDROPDOWN
Staffing Ratio
FORMDROPDOWN
Twelve Month School Year
FORMCHECKBOX
Yes FORMCHECKBOX
No
Recommended Services for the Twelve Month School Year
FORMDROPDOWN
Staffing Ratio
FORMDROPDOWN
Other Recommendations (Check all that apply) .
Using the Integrated Model of Work Motivation Figure 12.1 (Latham, 2.docxDustiBuckner14
Using the Integrated Model of Work Motivation Figure 12.1 (Latham, 2011), describe specific practices that may or may not have a positive effect on workplace attitudes, motivation, and job satisfaction. Evaluate the possible future directions and potential of leadership practices for positive workplace attitudes, motivation, and job satisfaction within the current workplace.
.
What We Can Afford” Poem By Shavar X. Seabrooks L.docxDustiBuckner14
“What We Can Afford”
Poem By: Shavar X. Seabrooks
Like the rice fields of Charleston, the wind blows limitlessly.
The slaves give peace to the land that hands they have touch.
In the mist of blood, sweat and tears, still the heartbeat sticks in the sweetgrass of mercy.
Gathered near the Stono River, they earned for freedom press against time which is not a
companion.
Fort Mose just in their reach, still time is not their companion.
Looking back to the Ancient Civilization, were Dark Skin People were King and Queens.
Wear Kenta cloths adorning the skin like silk.
And were the land being harvest for love and not for gain.
The children to grow and not wanting to be enslaved and the lips of the masters impales
the dreams.
Yet, the circle that remains the same, but the horizon is just to come.
The wind shall tell the truth and the African Experiences will be a drum of remembrance.
References
Higginbotham, R. D., Wickwire, F., & Wickwire, M. (1970). Cornwallis: The American
adventure. The Journal of Southern History, 36(4), 591. doi:10.2307/2206317
Morgan, E. S. (1972). Slavery and freedom: The American paradox. The Journal of American
History, 59(1), 5. doi:10.2307/1888384
Video clips on Ancient African Civilizations, Kente Cloth
Miranda Isabella Hurt
20 October 2020
Haiku about Emmett Till
Just a young black boy
Stripped of all his life and dreams
Where is the justice
Cinquain about the Civil Rights Movement
A movement ignited by Parks
A peaceful dream promoted by Dr. King
An education organized by Clark
A call to let freedom ring
The first poem is about the murder of Emmett Till. Till’s tragic tale is described in the Eyes on the Prize:
Awakenings and in the study guide. On August 28, 1955, “Emmett Till, a black boy from Chicago visiting
his uncle Moses Wright in Mississippi, is murdered for inappropriately addressing a white woman (page
14).” Even though Till’s murderers eventually confessed to the crime, they were never charged for his
murder (because of the no double jeopardy clause in the fifth amendment of the Constitution). This is
one of many instances of injustice against African Americans in the south during the Civil Rights
Movement. However, even now in the 21st century, African Americans are still facing prejudices and
being killed by cops, the people who are supposed to protect them.
The second poet highlights three big names of the Civil Rights Movement, Rosa Parks, Dr. Martin Luther
King Jr, and Septima Clark. The Eyes on the Prize videos mention King a lot, because he was quite a
significant man, and The Awakenings and Ready from Within discusses Rosa Parks. Rosa Parks sparked
the Montgomery bus boycott by refusing to give up her seat to a white person. Septima Clark’s impact
on the Civil Rights Movement with her citizenship schools was the main topic of Ready from Within.
Clark played a crucial role in educating many African American.
What are the techniques in handling categorical attributesHow.docxDustiBuckner14
What are the techniques in handling categorical attributes?
How do continuous attributes differ from categorical attributes?
What is a concept hierarchy?
Note the major patterns of data and how they work.
What is K-means from a basic standpoint?
What are the various types of clusters and why is the distinction important?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of K-means?
What is a cluster evaluation?
.
University of the CumberlandsSchool of Computer & Information .docxDustiBuckner14
University of the Cumberlands
School of Computer & Information Sciences
ISOL-536 - Security Architecture & Design
Chapter 8: Business Analytics
Chapter 8: Business Analytics
8.1 Architecture
8.2 Threats
8.3 Attack Surfaces
8.3.1 Attack Surface Enumeration
8.4 Mitigations
8.5 Administrative Controls
8.5.1 Enterprise Identity Systems (Authentication and Authorization)
8.6 Requirements
8.1 Architecture
Data science is a set of fundamental principles that guide the extraction of knowledge from data. Data mining is the extraction of knowledge from data via technologies that incorporate these principles.
Like many enterprises, Digital Diskus has many applications for the various processes that must be executed to run its business, from finance and accounting to sales, marketing, procurement, inventory, supply chain, and so forth. A great deal of data is generated across these systems. But, unfortunately, as a business grows into an enterprise, most of its business systems will be discreet. Getting a holistic view of the health of the business can be stymied by the organic growth of applications and data stores.
8.1 Architecture – Cont.
Figure 8.1 Business analytics logical data flow diagram (DFD).
8.1 Architecture – Cont.
Figure 8.2 Business analytics data interactions.
Figure 8.2 is a drill down view of the data gathering interactions of the business analytics system within the enterprise architecture. Is the visualization in Figure 8.2 perhaps a bit easier to understand? To reiterate, we are looking at the business analysis and intelligence system, which must touch almost every data gathering and transaction-processing system that exists in the internal network. And, as was noted, business analytics listens to the message bus, which includes messages that are sent from less trusted zones.
5
8.2 Treats
Figure 8.3 Business analytics system architecture.
As we move to system specificity, if we have predefined the relevant threats, we can apply the threats’ goals to the system under analysis. This application of goals leads directly on to the “AS” of ATASM: attack surfaces. Understanding your adversaries’ targets and objectives provides insight into possible attack surfaces and perhaps which attack surfaces are most important and should be prioritized.
It’s useful to understand a highly connected system like business analytics in situ, that is, as the system fits into its larger enterprise architectural context. However, we don’t yet have the architecture of the system itself. Figure 8.3 presents the logical components of this business analytics system.
There are five major components of the system:
1. Data Analysis processing
2. Reporting module
3. Data gathering module
4. Agents which are co-located with target data repositories
5. A management console
6
8.3 Attack Surfaces
In this context, where several components share the same host, how would you treat the communications between them? Should.
Theresa and Mike fully support creating a code of conduct for th.docxDustiBuckner14
Theresa and Mike fully support creating a code of conduct for the newly merged JEANSTYLE organization. They have asked you to recommend how they should approach the development of the code of conduct, especially given the need to merge the companies into one team with a shared mission, vision, and values. They are interested in knowing how the code of conduct will help establish the new organizational culture of JEANSTYLE.
Review the
scenario
( https://class.coloradotech.edu/CbFileShareCommon/ctu/INTD670/Assignment_Assets/ProblemB.pdf ) for this course, and address the following questions:
What set of steps should be used to create the
code of conduct
?
What topics should be included in the code of conduct?
What impact does a code of conduct have on an organization's culture?
Access the
assignment template
.
4-6 PAGES NEEDED
.
Unit VII 1. Suppose a firm uses sugar in a product tha.docxDustiBuckner14
Unit VII
1. Suppose a firm uses sugar in a product that you purchase. The firm vertically integrates by purchasing sugar farms that produce the sugar organically and in a way that makes it also sustainable for the environment. How would that influence your demand for that product? What other purpose than profitability might cause the firm to make this decision to vertically integrate in this way? 200 words min
2.
Identify a skill that you learned in this course, and explain how you can apply it to increase success in your career in a real-world scenario. 200 words3.
Instructions
Your assignment is to provide a final report for Ruby Red Movie Theater in which you address the concerns that have been outlined in the previous six units of this class, indicating any outsourcing or vertical integration options Ruby Red Movie Theater may be able to implement.
Be specific regarding the analysis you performed in each area of study. Your recommendations for improvements for the theater should be based on economic theory and your analysis. Your complete analysis of the theater, the industry, and opportunities that may exist are crucial for the future profitability of the theater.
Revise the information from previous assignments as needed and pull everything together to create a cohesive, comprehensive report. What this means is that this final report should be original updated work, though it is based on your previous assignments. Do not just copy and paste your previous assignments into one paper. Also, be sure to incorporate any suggestions your instructor made in your previous assignments.
New information will be added for Unit VII, which will focus on the information provided in this unit. The topics for this section will include why firms exist, the factors that create a situation where vertical integration is desirable, and why firms would use outsourcing, as well as how this information can be applied to the Ruby Red Movie Theatre.
The following is a list of items and sections you should include in your final report. Replace the unit numbers with appropriate titles for the information in each section.
· Title page
· Table of contents
· Introduction
· Unit I
· Results write-up from Unit I, including recommendations
· Unit II
· Results write-up from Unit II, including recommendations
· Unit II Tables
· Unit II Graphs
· Unit III
· Results write-up from Unit III, including recommendations
· Unit IV
· Results write-up from Unit IV, including recommendations
· Unit IV Tables
· Unit V
· Results write-up from Unit V, including recommendations
· Unit V Tables
· Unit VI
· Results write-up from Unit VI, including recommendations
· Unit VII
· Results write-up from Unit VII, including recommendations
· Conclusions and final recommendations
· Reference page
· Insert labeled tables after the reference page
Adhere to APA Style (APA 7th edition) when constructing this assignment, including in-text citations and references for all sources t.
Title If a compensation system works well for one business, that .docxDustiBuckner14
Title:
If a compensation system works well for one business, that same compensation system should not work well for other businesses.”
Company we choose : FEDEX & STARBUCKS
Introduction:
Contextual variables (Firm A and Firm B)
Based on the Title above and the companies provided just provide the overall introduction in the report and the contextual variables where we tell about the companies ( FEDEX & STARBUCKS)
.
Review the Article Below Keller, J. G., Miller, C., LasDulce, C.docxDustiBuckner14
Review the Article Below:
Keller, J. G., Miller, C., LasDulce, C., & Wohrle, R. G. (2021). Using a community-based participatory research model to encourage parental involvement in their children’s schools.
Children & Schools
,
43
(3), 149–158.
https://doi.org/10.1093/cs/cdab015
The article takes a participatory action approach. The text lists 7 criteria for participatory action research. How does the project described in the article you selected meet these 7 criteria?
Social phenomena are influenced by macro-level social influences.
Social structures and dynamics are contextualized by history
Theory and practice are simultaneously engaged.
Dialogue between the subject and the object is transformed into a single subject–subject
Research and action become a single process
Community and researcher produce knowledge together for social transformation
Research results should be immediately applied to a concrete state of affairs.
.
Teachers reach diverse learners by scaffolding instruction in ways t.docxDustiBuckner14
Teachers reach diverse learners by scaffolding instruction in ways that support content literacy and learning.
Think back when you were a student or during your own field experiences in which culturally or linguistically diverse learners were part of a classroom.
1. How did these students participate in the class? How did the teacher respond? Were modifications made for them? If so, describe the nature of those modifications.
2.
Language and culture are inextricably connected
. What are the implications of this statement for classroom practice?
Search entries or author
.
ScenarioThe HIT Innovation Steering Committee of a large.docxDustiBuckner14
Scenario
The
HIT Innovation Steering Committee
of a large, integrated healthcare system is in the process of examining the potential impact for new emerging technologies. The Committee is aware that HIT is rapidly changing and that they need to proactively plan for upcoming changes. As a member of this committee, select an emerging technology discussed in the module readings and lectures. Research how this new technology could affect patients, healthcare delivery and data analytics. Based on your learnings, write a White Paper for the Committee describing your findings and recommendations.
Instructions
Create a WHITE PAPEr that includes:
Discussion on why emerging technology poses a challenge for healthcare organizations
Discussion of the chosen emerging technology including reason(s) for selection
Discussion on the potential impact on patients, healthcare delivery, and healthcare organizations
Provide insight into how extracting and analyzing the potential data (administrative, financial, and clinical) benefits or poses challenges for healthcare organizations
Provide recommendations on how the organization can strategically plan for emerging technology
Reference page of resources utilized
A - 4 - Mastery
Clear and thorough discussion on why emerging technology poses a challenge for healthcare organizations, including multiple examples and supporting details.
A - 4 - Mastery
Clear and thorough discussion of the chosen emerging technology including reason(s) for selection, including multiple examples and supporting details.
A - 4 - Mastery
Clear and thorough discussion on potential impact to patients, healthcare delivery, and healthcare organizations, including multiple examples and supporting details
A - 4 - Mastery
Clear and thorough explanation of how extracting and analyzing the potential data (administrative, financial, and clinical) benefits or poses challenges for healthcare organizations.
A - 4 - Mastery
Clear and thorough recommendations on how the organization can strategically plan for emerging technology, including multiple examples and supporting details.
.
Space ... the final frontier. So, as I am sure everyone knows, .docxDustiBuckner14
Space ... the final frontier. So, as I am sure everyone knows, the National Aeronautical Space Administration (NASA) is located right here in H-town. OK, well, technically in Clear Lake. One rarely thinks of space exploration as an extension of government, but remember, one of President John F. Kennedy's challenges promises to the nation was sending an American to the moon.
Well recently, with the call to put an astronaut on Mars by President George W. Bush, and with the founding of SpaceX by Elon Musk, the discussion about space exploration has re-emerged. I would like you to address the following debate. What extent should the government use tax-payer dollars to fund space exploration? Should we leave space travel up to the private sector, or should the government invest more NASA mission. Perhaps there is a healthy balance between the two? What are your thoughts.
Below are some recent (and old) articles about this subject. In addition, I have also linked a report that NASA contributed to about the benefits of space exploration, and a finding by the Congressional Budget Office suggesting how money could be spent elsewhere.
you must reference at least one article correctly in the body of the post (not simply cutting and pasting the URL after your post), respond respectfully to one-classmate, use college level grammar and sentence structure, and be at least 250 words long.
Selected Articles:
https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2018/06/06/majority-of-americans-believe-it-is-essential-that-the-u-s-remain-a-global-leader-in-space/
https://www.cbo.gov/budget-options/2018/54771
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/science/mars-nasa-science.html
https://abcnews.go.com/Business/spacex-ula-score-multi-million-dollar-military-launch/story?id=72280019
https://www.planetary.org/articles/cost-of-perseverance-in-context
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/Benefits-Stemming-from-Space-Exploration-2013-TAGGED.pdf
https://www.texastribune.org/2017/03/21/trump-signs-nasa-bill-aimed-landing-mars/
https://newrepublic.com/article/60759/case-cutting-nasas-budget
.
The Internal EnvironmentInstitutionStudent’s name.docxDustiBuckner14
The Internal Environment
Institution:
Student’s name:
Date:
Part 1.
In business, "corporate culture" refers to the rules, customs, and beliefs that all employees follow and are taught (Wheelen, Thomas., & Hunger, J. David, 2014). However, in today's world, the CEO, CFO, and other top executives' actions and attitudes have a direct impact on the company's culture. FedEx has a culture that demonstrates to its employees and customers how much they are valued. FedEx prioritizes service, people, honesty, innovation, responsibility, safety, and loyalty (FedEx, 2019). FedEx understands the importance of a positive work environment and a strong corporate culture in order to achieve operational success and provide excellent customer service. As a result, FedEx has implemented a "People-Service-Profit strategy" (P-S-P) and continues to promote a high-performance culture. (FedEx, 2019). Frederick Smith, the company's current CEO and founder, came up with this idea because he believed that investing in employees would result in better work and, as a result, financial success. This philosophy emphasizes the importance of treating employees with respect and dignity, as well as rewarding team members based on how well they perform their duties.
FedEx believes that its employees are the best way to make big decisions, and it attributes its success to its innovative culture. Because service providers' employees are the ones who directly interact with customers, this philosophy is especially important in the service industry. Training, giving employees power, and providing incentives are all critical in a company whose culture is based on this philosophy (Peoplematters, 2019). FedEx Corporation's plan to make more money, in my opinion, is consistent with its core value of putting people first. People who are enthusiastic about their jobs are always more creative and productive. On the review site Glassdoor, current FedEx employees gave CEO Frederick Smith an 84% approval rating, and 73% said they would recommend working there to a friend (Glassdoor, 2019). FedEx is the company most likely to hire these individuals as a result of this. In addition, some FedEx freight drivers chose not to join a union in 2017, indicating a favorable work environment (Dcvelocity, 2017). FedEx Corporation employs approximately 300,000 people in over 250 countries and territories. As a result, there are numerous programs in place to thank employees for their efforts. This demonstrates how much FedEx cares about and values its employees.
There is a list of awards and recognition programs on the main website, including "The Humanitarian Award," "The Five Star," "Bravo Zulu," and "Purple Promise" (FedEx, 2019). A five-star rating is the highest you can achieve at FedEx. The manager gives the staff theater tickets and quick cash bonuses in the form of Bravo Zulu. Pilots, couriers, customer service representatives, and meteorologists are among those who benefit from the "purple promise.
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8100 8Chapter 2 - Literature ReviewTh.docxDustiBuckner14
THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL BUS8100 8
Chapter 2 - Literature Review
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study was to examine whether relationships
exist among job performance, transformational leadership style, and employee turnover intention
in the United States. Interest grew in the past 30 years, combining transformational leadership
and employee turnover intention, based on the assumptions that employees are likely to be
influenced by their leader’s behavior (Gyensare et al., 2016). Gyensare et al. (2016) noted
transformational leadership style was a key variable in lowered employee turnover intention and
enhanced employee well-being. Buil et al. (2019) stated job performance was an organizational
benefit deriving from transformational leadership style.
This literature review was structured to provide key concepts and related factors to the
research variables. In the first section, the researcher defined job performance and measurements
related to this performance. This included the 360-feedback and performance appraisal. The next
section discussed and measured transformational leadership style followed by employee turnover
intention. The fourth section covered contrasting and supporting theories relative to my
theoretical framework. The final section entailed profitability and a discussion of the auto
manufacturing industry.
The existing research in the literature review focused on the relationships between the
variables of employee turnover intention, transformational leadership style, and job performance.
The top journals used include the International Journal of Academic Research in Business and
Social Sciences, International Journal of Productivity and performance management, Journal of
Managerial Psychology, International Journal of Business and Management, Journal of Human
Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, International Journal of Business Administration,
International Journal of Selection & Assessment, SAM advanced management journal, and
Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research.
To locate research for this study, EbscoHosts and Education Resources Information
Center (ERIC) were used. The keywords used in the searches include employee turnover
intention, transformational leadership style, factors of employee turnover intention, job
performance impact, employee turnover and job performance, transformational and
transactional leadership style, the cost of employee turnover intention, LMX theory, measuring
job performance, employee turnover and profit, transformational leadership theory, and
measuring employee turnover intention.
The Automotive Industry
In the early days, the majority of U.S. manufacturing was centered in a small part of the
Northwest and eastern side of the Midwest (Krugman, 1991). The early automotive
manufacturers primarily put together the completed product by components and parts brought
from outside suppliers (Peterson, 1987). Henry Ford established a vision of the automobile by
introducing the Model T .
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
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Dissonance and Discomfort Does a Simple Cognitive Inconsisten
1. Dissonance and Discomfort: Does a Simple Cognitive
Inconsistency
Evoke a Negative Affective State?
Nicholas Levy, Cindy Harmon-Jones, and Eddie Harmon-Jones
The University of New South Wales
Festinger (1957) described cognitive dissonance as
psychological discomfort that
resulted from a cognitive inconsistency. Discussion of
dissonance for the past 60 years
has focused on the classic paradigms and the motivation to
reduce dissonance, but some
have noted that this represents a narrow application of
Festinger’s ideas (Gawronski &
Brannon, in press). Recent research has suggested, but not
demonstrated, that simple
cognitive inconsistencies may also evoke the affective and
motivational state of
dissonance (e.g., E. Harmon-Jones, Harmon-Jones, & Levy,
2015). In the current
experiments, participants read sentences that ended with
incongruent or congruent final
words. In Study 1, sentences with incongruent endings led to
more negative implicit
affect than did sentences with congruent endings. Study 2
replicated this finding, with
the addition of self-report and facial electromyography. These
findings indicate that
simple inconsistencies can evoke dissonance.
Keywords: dissonance, consistency, emotion processing,
2. implicit measures, affect
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance the-
ory revolutionized the understanding of the re-
lationships between cognitive, motivational,
and affective processes. According to the orig-
inal theory, “In the presence of an inconsistency
there is psychological discomfort” (Festinger,
1957, p. 2). Inconsistency here refers to “non-
fitting relations between cognitions” (Festinger,
1957, p. 3). Festinger, (1957) speculated that
If a person were standing in the rain and yet could see
no evidence that he was getting wet, these two cogni-
tions would be dissonant with one another because he
knows from experience that getting wet follows from
being out in the rain. (p. 14)
It is interesting to note that Festinger did not
distinguish between dissonance as a relation
between cognitions and dissonance as a moti-
vational state of discomfort: “nonfitting rela-
tions among cognitions [are] a motivating factor
in [their] own right.” (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). In
this light, Festinger’s example suggests even
simple inconsistencies would cause dissonance
discomfort. Although this theory and evidence
(see below) suggest that a simple cognitive in-
consistency should evoke psychological dis-
comfort, no prior research has tested this di-
rectly. Thus, the current research examined
whether a simple cognitive inconsistency could
evoke the psychological discomfort of disso-
nance.
3. Models of affect recognize that affective
states are characterized by psychophysiological
dimensions (e.g., Bradley, Greenwald, Petry, &
Lang, 1992; Russell, 1980), including, but not
limited to, affective valence (how pleasant or
unpleasant an affective state is; E. Harmon-
Jones, Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Gable, 2011)
and arousal (Gable & Harmon-Jones, 2013). The
present studies measured both affective valence
(Studies 1 and 2) and arousal (Study 2), because
dissonance discomfort is characterized by both
negative valence (Festinger, 1957) and arousal
(Gerard, 1967; for review, see E. Harmon-Jones,
2000b).
Cognitive Dissonance and Affect
The first examination of cognitive dissonance
theory observed dissonance after a violation of
This article was published Online First September 28,
2017.
Nicholas Levy, Cindy Harmon-Jones, and Eddie Harmon-
Jones, School of Psychology, The University of New South
Wales.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed
to Eddie Harmon-Jones, School of Psychology, The University
of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. E-mail:
[email protected]
T
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9. dissonance” (p. 6). Thus, it is possible that the
affective state of dissonance can be evoked but
not reduced by typical dissonance reduction
methods (e.g., attitude change). Moreover, this
may especially be the case when the disso-
nance-evoking event is minimal. That is, with a
minimal evocation of dissonant cognitions, the
affective state of dissonance may dissolve
quickly and almost on its own via homeostatic
or opponent processes. In the present research,
we were interested in investigating the minimal
circumstances that will evoke the affective state
associated with dissonance.
Over the decades, dissonance researchers
have used a variety of methods to investigate
the affective state associated with dissonance.
In the 1960s and 1970s, researchers used per-
formance on simple and complex tasks to in-
vestigate the arousal associated with disso-
nance, with the assumption that arousal would
improve performance on simple tasks and impair
performance on complex tasks (Cottrell & Wack,
1967; Cottrell, Wack, Sekerak, & Rittle, 1968;
Pallak & Pittman, 1972; Waterman, 1969). Then,
in the 1970s to 1990s, researchers used misattri-
bution paradigms to further investigate the
arousal and negative valence associated with
dissonance, based on the assumption that if in-
dividuals were given a different explanation for
their affective state, they would not engage in
dissonance reduction (Fried & Aronson, 1995;
Higgins, Rhodewalt, & Zanna, 1979; Losch &
Cacioppo, 1990; Pittman, 1975; Zanna, Hig-
gins, & Taves, 1976). Also during these years a
few researchers found that dissonance caused
10. increased arousal as measured by skin conduc-
tance (Elkin & Leippe, 1986; Losch & Ca-
cioppo, 1990). However, in all of these studies,
traditional dissonance paradigms were used,
which likely evoked other psychological con-
cerns (e.g., self-worth) in addition to cognitive
inconsistency.
In the 1990s and 2000s, experiments attempted
to present participants with dissonance paradigms
that evoked mere cognitive inconsistency, uncon-
taminated by self-concerns. These experiments
found increased self-reported negative affect (E.
Harmon-Jones, 2000a) and skin conductance (E.
Harmon-Jones, Brehm, Greenberg, Simon, &
Nelson, 1996). In one such experiment, partici-
pants were assigned to write that they liked an
unpleasant drink (low-choice condition), or were
subtly induced to write that they liked it while
believing it was their own choice (high-choice
condition; E. Harmon-Jones, 2000a). Participants
then discarded the statements in the trash. Partic-
ipants reported more negative affect in the high-
choice condition as compared with low-choice
condition (E. Harmon-Jones, 2000a).
However, these inconsistencies required ac-
tion on the part of the participant (i.e., they
wrote a counterattitudinal statement). Would a
simpler inconsistency not involving action by
the individual be sufficient to evoke the nega-
tive affect of dissonance?
Simpler Inconsistencies
11. Proulx, Inzlicht, and Harmon-Jones (2012)
argued that simple inconsistencies could be un-
derstood in the same terms as dissonance. Other
researchers have argued that the definition of
dissonance has become unnecessarily narrow
and as a result lost explanatory power (Gawron-
ski & Brannon, in press). Returning to Festing-
er’s broader definition of dissonance, they ar-
gue, would position cognitive consistency as a
more fundamental part of information process-
ing and provide insights into more phenomena
(Gawronski & Brannon, in press). Proulx et al.
(2012) proposed that negative affective re-
sponses to a variety of inconsistencies could be
understood in the same neurocognitive and mo-
tivational terms, including cognitively complex
inconsistencies like those involved in classic
dissonance paradigms and simpler inconsisten-
cies like incongruous word pairings (Randles,
Proulx, & Heine, 2011). However, these studies
96 LEVY, HARMON-JONES, AND HARMON-JONES
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16. of simple inconsistencies did not measure affec-
tive responses.
Other bodies of research have found discom-
fort in response to simple inconsistencies (Bar-
tholow, Fabiani, Gratton, & Bettencourt, 2001;
Mendes, Blascovich, Hunter, Lickel, & Jost,
2007; Plaks, Grant, & Dweck, 2005). However,
many of these studies included social informa-
tion with positive or negative valence already
attached (e.g., perceptions and expectations
about others’ intelligence, as in Plaks et al.,
2005). Evidence of discomfort after a neutral,
novel expectancy violation would go further in
establishing the central role of inconsistency in
creating discomfort.
Along these lines, Dreisbach and Fischer
(2015) reviewed studies in which they found
negative affect after conflict trials in the Stroop
task (Dreisbach & Fischer, 2012a). The authors
explained this response in the context of Se-
quential Control Adaptation, which is an in-
crease in cognitive control following the detec-
tion of a conflict (see Egner, 2007, for a
review). However, it is important to note that
these studies still required participant action and
effort in encountering these conflicts in tasks
with a goal, and were concerned with “adapting
to changing task demands” (Dreisbach & Fi-
scher, 2012b, p. 1). Evidence of dissonance
discomfort in a task where there is no action on
the part of the participants and no advantage to
an increase in cognitive control would support
the idea that simple inconsistencies can evoke
dissonance.
17. Another body of work that is relevant to the
present work is research on perceptual and pro-
cessing fluency. For example, some research
used sentences that ended with either a strongly
expected word (e.g., The stormy seas tossed the
BOAT) or a word that was not strongly expected
(e.g., He saved up his money and bought a
BOAT; Whittlesea, 1993, Experiment 2). Re-
sults revealed that sentences with strongly ex-
pected endings caused participants to make
judgments suggesting they had an illusory feel-
ing of familiarity. Other work along these lines
has revealed results even more directly relevant
to the present work. For instance, word triads
with a common remote associate (e.g., SALT
DEEP FOAM implying SEA) evoke more pos-
itive affect than word triads without a common
remote associate (e.g., DREAM BALL BOOK;
Topolinski, Likowski, Weyers, & Strack, 2009).
These results from the perceptual and process-
ing fluency literatures suggest that cognitive
processes not too dissimilar from cognitive dis-
sonance may evoke affective responses.
The current studies aimed to look “beyond
attitude– behavior discrepancies . . . uniting . . .
phenomena under the umbrella of dissonance
theory” (Gawronski & Brannon, in press, p. 3)
by testing if a simple inconsistency evoked the
affective state of dissonance. We manipulated
consistency using sentences where the last word
was either congruent with the meaning implied
by the beginning of the sentence or incongruent
with the meaning implied by the beginning of
18. the sentence. We hypothesized that incongruent
sentence endings would evoke more negative
affect than congruent sentence endings.
Study 1
Because self-report measures of affective re-
sponses may be relatively insensitive to slight
changes in affect and associated with problems
of awareness and various biases, we chose to
use an adapted form of the Implicit Positive and
Negative Affect Test (IPANAT; Quirin, Kazén,
& Kuhl, 2009) to measure implicit affective
responses to the dissonance manipulation. Here
we will briefly explain the conceptual and em-
pirical framework of this implicit measure.
Strack and Deutsch (2004) proposed that
people process information with both a reflec-
tive system, based on conceptual propositions
and clarifications, and an associative system,
which works via the spreading activation of
representations. Although self-report measures
tap into the reflective system, implicit measures
can tap into the associative system, circumvent-
ing issues of awareness and biased or erroneous
self-reporting.
Working from a similar theoretical model,
Quirin et al. (2009) developed the IPANAT to
measure implicit affect. In this task, participants
see neutral nonwords. Participants nominate to
what degree these nonwords express each of six
positive and negative emotions. As a demon-
stration of the measure’s sensitivity, the exper-
imenters presented participants with emotion-
19. ally arousing pictures either positive (e.g., cute
animals) or negative (e.g., a crying child) in
valence. After pictures with negative content,
participants rated the nonwords as conveying
more negative emotions. After pictures with
97DISSONANCE AND DISCOMFORT
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positive content, participants rated the non-
words as conveying more positive emotions.
Throughout this article we refer to partici-
pants’ responses to the nonwords that make up
this measure. These responses reflect the affec-
tive valence of participants’ reactions. We pre-
dicted that participants’ ratings of nonwords
would demonstrate more negative affect after
incongruent sentence endings than after congru-
ent sentence endings, suggestive that this min-
imal dissonance manipulation indeed evoked
negative affect.
Method
24. Participants. Participants were recruited
through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (n � 199
[127 females]) and were paid 75 cents for their
time. All participants were residents of the United
States, between 18 and 76 years of age. We de-
termined the sample size given an estimated effect
size from a previous unpublished exploratory
study, by means of an effect size calculator (a
priori dependent samples t test, Cohen’s dav � 0.2,
� � .90, � � .05, one-tailed).
Procedure. Each trial started with fixation
asterisks shown for 1,000 ms, then the first word
of a sentence for 200 ms, then a blank screen for
300 ms, and then the next word for 200 ms and so
on (after Duncan et al., 2009; Thornhill & Van
Petten, 2012). Following the offset of the sen-
tence-final word, a blank screen occupied the dis-
play for a variable interval between 2,300 ms and
2,800 ms.
Participants then saw a nonword in green
(which distinguished these words from the pre-
vious words in black text) for 1,500 ms before it
was replaced on screen by a rating scale. Once
participants made a rating, they saw a blank
screen for 1,000 ms before the next sentence
started.
Design and materials. Of the 50 sentences
seen by each participant, 25 ended with a word
incongruent with the contents of the rest of the
sentence and 25 ended with a word congruent
with the contents of the rest of the sentence (see
below for examples). Sentences were presented
25. in one of eight pseudorandom orders, to control
for order effects.
Block and Baldwin (2010) provided the sen-
tence stimuli. The full set, along with the sen-
tence completion norms, may be downloaded
from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
46095540_Cloze_probability_and_completion_
norms_for_498_sentences_Behavioral_and_
neural_validation_using_event-related_potentials.
From this set, we chose sentences with the highest
cloze probability that also did not have any emo-
tional or arousing content. To create incongruent
versions of the sentences, we swapped final words
with others from the set (after Duncan et al., 2009;
Thornhill & Van Petten, 2012). Sentences that
ended with a congruent word for some partici-
pants ended with an incongruent word for others
to control for effects of particular combinations.
For instance, all participants saw the words, “She
couldn’t start her car without the right . . . .” Some
participants saw the sentence end with the incon-
gruent ending “teeth.” Other participants saw the
congruent ending “keys.”
The IPANAT displayed a single 7-point scale
after each sentence. Participants saw a nonword,
and then saw the question “Do you think this word
expresses . . .” and selected one of the following: 1 �
“Something very bad or unpleasant,” 2 � “Some-
thing fairly bad or unpleasant,” 3 � “Something
slightly bad or unpleasant,” 4 � “Something neu-
tral,” 5 � “Something slightly good or pleasant,”
6 � “Something fairly good or pleasant,” 7 �
“Something very good or pleasant.”
26. Our study involved more trials than Quirin et
al. (2009), so we developed more nonwords in
the same way that they did. To develop our set
of nonwords, 72 participants rated 552 non-
words in an online survey. They rated nonwords
such as “KICAL” and “TOBAL” on valence
(from 1 � very unpleasant to 5 � very pleas-
ant), familiarity (from 1 � not at all familiar to
5 � extremely familiar), and meaning (from
1 � I have no clue what it means to 5 � I’m
sure I know what it means). We first eliminated
words below 2.70 or above 3.30 on the valence
item. We then eliminated words rated any
higher than “not very familiar” on the familiar-
ity item. Of the remaining set, we selected the
50 nonwords rated least meaningful on the
meaning item. Ratings fell between 1.07 and
1.45 on meaning, with a mean of 1.30.
Data analysis. For each participant, we av-
eraged across all responses to nonwords after
incongruent endings and compared this to the
average of all responses to nonwords after con-
gruent endings. We predicted mean ratings of
nonwords after incongruent sentence endings
would be significantly more negative than rat-
ings of nonwords after congruent sentences, as
98 LEVY, HARMON-JONES, AND HARMON-JONES
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32. In support of the hypothesis, participants im-
plicitly expressed more negative affect after in-
congruent sentences than after congruent sen-
tences. This result provides support for the idea
that cognitively simple inconsistencies evoke
discomfort (Proulx et al., 2012).
In the next study, we aimed to replicate the
implicit affect finding in a laboratory setting,
with the addition of self-report and electrophys-
iological measures.
Study 2
To replicate and extend the findings of Study
1, we designed a second study including ratings
of nonwords like Study 1, as well as self-report
items of affective valence and arousal, an elec-
tromyographic (EMG) measure of affective re-
sponse to sentences, and an electroencephalo-
graphic (EEG) measure of responses to the final
word of the sentences. Below we discuss the
rationale for each of these measures.
Self-reported affect is typically measured by
asking participants how they feel directly after a
manipulation (e.g., Greenberg et al., 1990;
Twenge, Catanese, & Baumeister, 2003) and
commonly using the Positive and Negative Af-
fect Schedule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen,
1988). However, research has shown problems
with the validity and sensitivity of this measure
(C. Harmon-Jones, Bastian, & Harmon-Jones,
2016a, 2016b; E. Harmon-Jones, Harmon-
Jones, Abramson, & Peterson, 2009; Pettersson
33. & Turkheimer, 2013). Our affect valence mea-
sure simply asked participants to recall how
positive or negative they felt after incongruent
and congruent sentences. Similarly, our self-
reported arousal measure simply asked them to
recall how aroused they felt after incongruent
and congruent sentences.
These items require participants to recall and
make generalisations about their experience
with these trials, which could also introduce
hindsight bias and demand characteristics.
However recent evidence supports participants’
ability to accurately recall and report their
affective states (C. Harmon-Jones, Bastian, &
Harmon-Jones, 2016a, 2016b). These issues
were why we first used an implicit measure, and
why these self-report items are considered as
supplementary to our other measures.
We examined facial EMG activity after in-
congruent and congruent final words of sen-
tences. In particular, we recorded activity over
the corrugator supercilii muscle, which is lo-
cated on the brow above the inner corner of the
eye. Corrugator EMG activity is a sensitive
measure of negative affective responses to a
variety of stimuli (Allen, Harmon-Jones, &
Cavender, 2001; Cacioppo & Petty, 1979; Dim-
berg, 1982; Larsen, Norris, & Cacioppo, 2003;
Schwartz, Fair, Salt, Mandel, & Klerman 1976;
Topolinsky & Strack, 2015).
We also recorded EEG potentials time-
locked to the onset of the final words of each
34. sentence. Different components of this potential
(known as the event-related potential or ERP)
inform our understanding of the neural pro-
cesses underlying responses to stimuli. The
N400 component of this potential is a negative-
going component that peaks over parietal brain
regions and is studied in relation to responses to
language stimuli (Kutas & Federmeier, 2011).
The sentences used in Studies 1 and 2 come
from literature investigating the N400 compo-
nent of the ERP. Consequently, we investigated
this component and its relationship with affec-
tive responses. The magnitude of the N400 is
associated with the degree of semantic congru-
ity a word has for a particular sentence. Incon-
gruent sentence endings elicit a greater N400. It
is important to note that this is not an affective
measure, but acts as a manipulation check that
the incongruent sentence endings were in fact
perceived as incongruent.
We hypothesized that incongruent sentences
would lead to greater negative affect than con-
gruent sentences, as measured by self-report,
corrugator EMG activity, and nonword ratings
(i.e., IPANAT). We predicted that incongruent
99DISSONANCE AND DISCOMFORT
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sentence endings would cause a larger (i.e.,
more negative) N400 component than congru-
ent sentence endings, by way of a manipulation
check.
Method
Participants. Participants were first-year
psychology students at the University of New
South Wales participating for course credit (n �
96 [54 females]). All participants were right-
handed, between 18 and 30 years old, had normal
or corrected-to-normal vision. The description of
the study invited participants to participate in a
study about words, associations, and emotions.
We determined the sample size given an estimated
effect size from a previous unpublished explor-
atory study by means of an effect size calculator (a
priori dependent samples t test, Cohen’s dav � 0.2,
� � .90, � � .05, one-tailed).
Procedure. Participants were fitted with a
64-electrode EEG array, with two reference
electrodes on the earlobes. Participants were
also fitted with two EMG electrodes over the
corrugator muscle. We recorded 4 min of EEG
data while participants rested. This allows par-
ticipants and their electrode signals to settle.
After receiving instructions, participants began
viewing sentence trials. Trials were presented in
40. the same way as in the online study, but with
two rests of 1 min after 60 and 120 trials were
completed, to prevent fatigue. Once all 180
trials were finished, participants were debriefed.
Design and materials. The design and ma-
terials for this study were similar to the online
study, except that participants saw 180 sen-
tences, of which 90 ended with an incongruent
word and 90 ended with a congruent word. We
used 180 trials to ensure we had sufficient trials
for the EMG and ERP analyses.
Self-report items followed the main body of
the experiment. Participants completed “The
sentences with UNEXPECTED endings made
me feel ____” on 7-point scales for affective
valence (1 � negative to 7 � positive,) and
arousal (1 � unaroused to 7 � aroused). For
both of these items, only the endpoints were
labeled. Participants completed the same two
scales for “sentences with EXPECTED end-
ings.”
Data processing and analysis. The corru-
gator EMG data were processed off-line after
Fridlund and Cacioppo (1986). The continu-
ous raw EMG signal was band-pass filtered
(10 –500 Hz with a 12dB/octave roll-off). The
data were then rectified. We exported the
average values for two 1,000 ms segments
(0 –1,000 ms and 1,000 –2,000 ms) following
the onset of the final word of each sentence
for each participant. The following stimulus
onset appeared between 2,600 ms and 3,100 ms
41. after the onset of the final word of a trial so we
did not examine the period between 2,000 –
3,000 ms. We subtracted the mean activity in
the 200-ms period before the onset of the final
word to adjust for baseline activity. We aver-
aged the mean activity in both 1,000 ms periods
across all incongruent trial values and across all
corrected congruent trial values. We compared
average activity at each time using paired sam-
ples t tests.
To process the EEG data, we used Brain
Vision Analyzer 2.0. EEG signals were refer-
enced to the average signal from the earlobe
electrodes. They were then filtered using a 0.1
Hz hi-pass Butterworth filter with a 48 dB/
octave roll-off and a 30 Hz low-pass filter of the
same family with a 48 dB/octave roll-off (Foti
& Hajcak, 2008; MacNamara, Foti, & Hajcak,
2009).
The program identified artifacts in individual
channels (signals from particular sites on the
scalp) of the EEG data for removal. It removed
trials if there was a step in voltage of 50 �V or
more within a millisecond, if there was differ-
ence of more than 300 �V within 1,000 ms, if
the amplitude of the signal exceeded � 100 �V
at any point, or if the activity within 100 ms was
less than 0.5 �V. Each segment was then base-
line corrected and averaged by trial type. This
process is in line with previous ERP research
(Foti & Hajcak, 2008).
To analyze the N400, the time window for
data export was 300 –500 ms. The exported
42. values for sites Cz, CPz, Pz, CP1, and CP2 were
averaged for each trial type (after Thornhill &
van Petten, 2012) and compared using a paired
samples t test.
Results and Discussion
For the first 10 participants, a programming
error prevented the self-report data being re-
corded. We also excluded 10 participants who
reported levels of English fluency other than
“extremely fluent” on a four-point scale. Our
100 LEVY, HARMON-JONES, AND HARMON-JONES
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manipulation relied on interrupting the fluency
of sentence comprehension, so a high level of
fluency was necessary.
During the debriefing, the experimenter care-
fully probed for participant suspicion and noted
whether the participant was suspicious of the
hypotheses of the experiment. Twenty-five par-
47. ticipants out of the remaining 86 had at least
some suspicion of the experiment’s hypothesis.
Participants were considered suspicious if they
said the aim of the experiment was to examine
emotions. When these participants are excluded
from the analysis, none of the measures differed
in significance. As such, we report tests includ-
ing their data. See Figure 1 for a graphical
representation of normalized means most rele-
vant to our conclusions.
N400. Participants displayed the typical
N400 effect. The N400 component was more
negative in response to incongruent sentence
endings (M � 2.63 �V, SD � 6.13) than to
congruent sentence endings (M � 7.38 �V,
SD � 6.44), t(85) � 12.53, p � .001, dav �
0.89, 95% CI [4.12, 5.38]. Thus, our manipula-
tion was successful in creating incongruent sen-
tence endings.
Corrugator EMG activity. Participants sho-
wed greater corrugator EMG activity after in-
congruent sentence endings (M � 1.03 �V,
SD � 4.37) than after congruent sentence end-
ings (M � �0.41 �V, SD � 5.45), in the period
between 1,000 and 2,000 ms after the onset of
the final word, t(85) � 1.80, p � .04, dav �
0.291, 95% CI [0.11 �V, 2.77 �V]. In the 1,000
ms immediately following the onset of the final
word (which contains responses related to ori-
enting as well; see Dimberg, Thunberg, &
Elmehed, 2000), corrugator EMG activity after
incongruent sentence endings (M � 0.20 �V,
SD � 1.71 �V) was not significantly different
48. to EMG activity after congruent sentence end-
ings (M � �.20 �V, SD � 3.20 �V), t(85) �
1.27, p � .17, dav � 0.16, 95% CI [�0.30 �V,
1.10 �V].
Implicit Positive and Negative Affect Test.
Participants rated nonwords presented after in-
congruent sentence endings as expressing
something more negative (M � 4.02, SD �
Figure 1. Normalized (z score) scores for Study 2 means for
corrugator electromyographic
(EMG) activity (1,000 –2,000 ms), self-reported arousal,
Implicit Positive and Negative
Affect Test ratings (IPANAT), and self-reported affective
valence in response to incongruent
and congruent sentence endings. For corrugator EMG, more
positive scores indicate more
EMG activity; for self-reported arousal, more positive scores
indicate more arousal; for
IPANAT, more positive scores indicate more positive affect;
and for self-reported affect,
more positive scores indicate more positive affect.
101DISSONANCE AND DISCOMFORT
T
hi
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en
53. 0.36) than those presented after congruent end-
ings (M � 4.12, SD � 0.35), t(85) � 3.11, p �
.002, dav � 0.28, 95% CI [0.05, 0.17]. These
results replicate those of Study 1.
Self-report. Participants reported feeling
more negative after incongruent sentence end-
ings (M � 3.92, SD � 1.28) than after congru-
ent sentence endings (M � 4.87, SD � 1.37),
t(75) � 4.11, p � .001, dav � 0.71, 95% CI
[0.56, 1.33]. Participants also reported feeling
more aroused after incongruent sentence end-
ings (M � 3.72, SD � 1.59) than after congru-
ent sentence endings (M � 3.17, SD � 1.27),
t(75) � 2.59, p � .006, dav � 0.471, 95% CI
[0.20, 0.91].
Conclusion
Replicating Study 1, participants expressed
more negative affect on the measure of implicit
affect in response to incongruent endings than
congruent endings. In an extension of Study 1,
Study 2 found that participants displayed more
corrugator EMG activity to incongruent than
congruent endings. However, corrugator EMG
activity only differed significantly in the second
time period of interest. The first time period
showed a difference in the same direction.
Given that the first time period is contaminated
by orienting (see Dimberg et al., 2000), this
weaker difference is understandable. Finally,
participants reported feeling more negative af-
54. fect and arousal to incongruent than congruent
endings.
One concern about Study 2 that should be
noted is that corrugator EMG could reflect other
psychological processes in addition to negative
affect. For instance, past research has found that
corrugator EMG is related to cognitive effort
(de Morree, & Marcora, 2010). However, the
inclusion of other measures of negative affect
(i.e., self-reports, IPANAT) that have high con-
vergent validity mitigates this concern. Future
research would benefit from the inclusion of
additional measures of negative affect.
General Discussion
The current studies found negative affective
responses to simple inconsistencies across im-
plicit (nonword ratings), physiological (corru-
gator EMG responses), and self-report mea-
sures. This is the first demonstration of
dissonance discomfort in response to a simple
inconsistency in the absence of information
with positive or negative valence already at-
tached to it (Plaks et al., 2005) and in the
absence of participant action and effort
(Dreisbach & Fisher, 2015).
Festinger originally conceived dissonance as
concerning inconsistencies between “any
knowledge, opinion, or belief about the envi-
ronment, about oneself, or about one’s behav-
ior” (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). The current findings
support a return to this broader focus of disso-
55. nance research, which would include responses
to simpler inconsistencies (Gawronski & Bran-
non, in press; E. Harmon-Jones et al., 2015).
This return would allow dissonance research to
shed light on a wider variety of phenomena
(Gawronski & Brannon, in press).
Methodological Considerations
Although multiple measures of negative af-
fect were used in the current studies to make
alternative explanations less likely to account
for the results, some readers might question
whether some of the current effects are due to
demand characteristics. We suggest that al-
though demand characteristics might be able to
explain the self-report affect and arousal differ-
ences, demand would not be easily able to ex-
plain the results obtained using the more im-
plicit measures (EMG, IPANAT).
Some readers might suggest that the incon-
sistency found in the incongruent sentences
could better be described as “meaninglessness.”
We concur that inconsistency interferes with
meaning or “making sense.” That is, inconsis-
tency often evokes a perception of meaningless-
ness (Proulx et al., 2012). This link is clear
when one tries to think of examples of mean-
inglessness without some inconsistency. Others
might suggest that participants experienced
frustration at not being able to complete the task
of comprehending the incongruent sentences.
The explicit instructions to participants did not
require them to comprehend the sentences, and
thus they were unlikely to be frustrated by this
56. type of explicit goal. However, they may have
experienced frustration because of the violated
expectations created by the incongruent sen-
tences. Frustration, which is often created by
violated expectations, may also fall under the
umbrella of cognitive inconsistency, particu-
102 LEVY, HARMON-JONES, AND HARMON-JONES
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to
be
di
ss
em
in
at
ed
br
oa
dl
y.
larly in the way Festinger’s original theory de-
fined inconsistency. Cognitive inconsistency
(dissonant cognitions) is a broad theoretical
construct that incorporates expectation viola-
tion, challenges to meaning, and frustration
(Festinger, 1957).
According to Festinger’s original theory, sev-
eral variables should determine the degree of
discomfort dissonant cognitions cause. One of
these is the relevance of the cognitions to each
other (Festinger, 1957). In relation to the current
experimental methods, the cognition (or expec-
tation) created by the sentence stem is relevant
61. to (and [in]consistent with) the cognition cre-
ated by the last word of the sentence. A word in
the final position of a sentence is perceived as
relevant to the beginning of the sentence, be-
cause past experience has indicated that in most
sentences, this connection is meaningful. In
other words, individuals read and hear sen-
tences in which the stem of the sentence and the
final word are both relevant to meaning of that
sentence. Because individuals in our experi-
ments had experience with the language used,
the structure of a sentence imbues the words in
that sentence with relevance to each other, even
if some of those words are not expected. Our
manipulation is effective precisely because
words in a sentence are always expected to be
relevant to each other.
Relation to Other Lines of Research
Our findings complement research on con-
ceptual and perceptual processing fluency. Con-
ceptual fluency research relies on more coherent
information (such as a word triad with a com-
mon remote associate; e.g., SALT DEEP
FOAM implying SEA) being processed more
fluently than other information (such as a word
triad without a common remote associate; e.g.,
DREAM BALL BOOK; Topolinski et al.,
2009). Perceptual fluency research relies on vi-
sually coherent information (such as a picture of
a normal cube) being processed more fluently
than incoherent visual information (such as a
picture of an impossible cube; Topolinski, Erle,
& Reber, 2015). Individuals have more positive
(less negative) affective reactions to informa-
62. tion that is more easily processed, as measured
by facial muscle activity (Topolinski et al.,
2009, 2015; Winkielman & Cacioppo, 2001),
self-reported liking of the stimuli (Mandler, Na-
kamura, & Van Zandt, 1987; Reber, Winkiel-
man, & Schwarz, 1998; Topolinski & Strack,
2009a), and the affective influence of the stim-
uli on subsequent task performance (Reber et
al., 1998, Study 1; Topolinski & Strack, 2009b,
2009c).
In the processing fluency literature, more flu-
ency indicates success in processing, which
causes an increase in positive affect (Topolinksi
et al., 2015). We believe that this processing
fluency research fits with ideas derived from
dissonance theory, even though the processing
fluency research has focused more on fluency
increasing positive affect than on dysfluency
increasing negative affect. The present research
addresses this latter point and it is consistent
with Festinger’s ideas about dissonance theory.
That is, although many researchers considered
dissonance theory to be an ego-defense theory
(Aronson, 1968, 1999), Festinger considered
dissonance theory to involve basic perceptual
and motivational processes. For example, Fest-
inger and colleagues conducted several experi-
ments designed to evoke a dissonance between
two basic perceptions about reality—visual and
tactile (Festinger, Ono, Burnham, & Bam-
ber,1967). In these experiments, participants
wore prism goggles that made the straight edge
of a door appear curved. When the participants
touched the straight edge of the door with their
63. hands, their perceptual system assimilated the
tactile information to create the perception that
the door was in fact curved even though it was
straight. In other words, the perceptual system
had already developed an illusion or a quick-
and-easy way to deal with the dissonance.
Our findings also converge with recent work
on the valence of surprise. Expectancy viola-
tions are often surprising (Meyer, Niepel, Ru-
dolph, & Schützwohl, 1991). The research lit-
erature on the feeling of surprise varies between
positing that surprise feels good (Fontaine,
Scherer, Roesch, & Ellsworth, 2007), bad
(Noordewier & Breugelmans, 2013), or neutral
(Mellers, Fincher, Drummond, & Bigony,
2013). One perspective explains this confusion
as due to different researchers focusing on dif-
ferent time periods during and/or after an unex-
pected event (Noordewier, Topolinski, & Van
Dijk, 2016). These authors argue that surprise is
initially negative, and is very quickly replaced
with other feelings that are influenced by an
understanding of the unexpected event. Partici-
103DISSONANCE AND DISCOMFORT
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68. y.
pants describe their own experience of surprise
as significantly more negative when reporting
how they felt at the moment that the surprise
happens, compared with after a short while
(Noordewier & Breugelmans, 2013, Study 1).
Participants also rate facial expressions of oth-
ers as more negative in the first couple of sec-
onds following a positive unexpected event than
four seconds after (Noordewier & Breugelmans,
2013, Study 3a). Our study found early negative
responses to unexpected events, supporting this
perspective on surprise. Dissonance perspec-
tives such as the action-based model of disso-
nance suggest that surprise may be initially neg-
ative because it prevents one from knowing how
to behave (E. Harmon-Jones, 1999; E. Harmon-
Jones, Amodio, & Harmon-Jones, 2009). Sur-
prise indicates a discrepancy between what was
expected and what happened, making it difficult
to know how to behave. Resolving this discrep-
ancy reduces this negative affect and allows
easier behavioral responses.
Along similar lines, the conflict monitoring
hypothesis describes a system that identifies
cognitive conflict and adjusts effort and atten-
tion in response. The conflict detection system
is mediated by activity in the anterior cingulate
cortex, and cognitive control is then mediated
by activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(Botvinick, Braver, Barch, Carter, & Cohen,
2001). Simple response conflicts (Botvinick,
69. Nystrom, Fissell, Carter, & Cohen 1999) and
conflicts where behavior is inconsistent with the
self-concept (Amodio et al., 2004) both evoke
this conflict-related anterior cingulate activity.
As a result, the conflict monitoring hypothesis
can be understood in the same motivational and
neurocognitive terms as dissonance processes,
as discussed previously (E. Harmon-Jones,
2004; E. Harmon-Jones, Amodio, & Harmon-
Jones, 2009; Proulx, Inzlicht, & Harmon-Jones,
2012). Thus, dissonance theory could provide
predictions for how individuals resolve conflicts
considered in the conflict monitoring literature
(e.g., via attitude change, adding cognitions, see
Festinger, 1957). It would also suggest that the
cognitive conflict monitoring process is intrin-
sically affective and motivational in nature.
Conclusion
Cognitive dissonance theory has gained at-
tention for so many years precisely because the
research vividly demonstrates the power of af-
fective processes to overrule the jurisdiction of
cold reason. Given how frequently we come in
contact with inconsistency in everyday life, its
influence on mental processes is important to
better understand. This line of research has the
potential to contribute to unifying efforts (e.g.,
Proulx et al., 2012) in understanding similarities
and differences between effects of cognitively
simple and cognitively complex conflicts, and
bringing the field of psychology closer to a
comprehensive understanding of the interaction
between affect, motivation, and cognition.
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107DISSONANCE AND DISCOMFORT
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(76)90032-9
Received May 13, 2017
Revision received August 14, 2017
Accepted August 15, 2017 �
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108 LEVY, HARMON-JONES, AND HARMON-JONES
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9Dissonance and Discomfort: Does a Simple Cognitive
Inconsistency Evoke a Negative Affective State?Cognitive
Dissonance and AffectSimpler InconsistenciesStudy
1MethodParticipantsProcedureDesign and materialsData
analysisResults and DiscussionStudy
2MethodParticipantsProcedureDesign and materialsData
processing and analysisResults and DiscussionN400Corrugator
EMG activityImplicit Positive and Negative Affect TestSelf-
reportConclusionGeneral DiscussionMethodological
ConsiderationsRelation to Other Lines of
ResearchConclusionReferences
ATTITUDES ESTABLISHED BY CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING1
ARTHUR W. STAATS AND CAROLYN K. STAATS
Arizona State College at Tempe
O
SGOOD and Tannenbaum have stated,
"... The meaning of a concept is its
location in a space denned by some
number of factors or dimensions, and attitude
toward a concept is its projection onto one of
these dimensions defined as 'evaluative' " (9,
111. p. 42). Thus, attitudes evoked by concepts
are considered part of the total meaning of
the concepts.
A number of psychologists, such as Cofer and
Foley (1), Mowrer (5), and Osgood (6, 7), to
mention a few, view meaning as a response—an
implicit response with cue functions which
may mediate other responses. A very similar
analysis has been made of the concept of
attitudes by Doob, who states, " 'An attitude
is an implicit response . . . which is considered
socially significant in the individual's society' "
(2, p. 144). Doob further emphasizes the
learned character of attitudes and states, "The
learning process, therefore, is crucial to an
understanding of the behavior of attitudes" (2,
p. 138). If attitudes are to be considered
responses, then the learning process should be
the same as for other responses. As an example,
the principles of classical conditioning should
apply to attitudes.
The present authors (12), in three experi-
ments, recently conditioned the evaluative,
potency, and activity components of word
meaning found by Osgood and Suci (8) to
contiguously presented nonsense syllables. The
results supported the conception that meaning
is a response and, further, indicated that word
meaning is composed of components which can
be separately conditioned.
The present study extends the original
experiments by studying the formation of
attitudes (evaluative meaning) to socially
112. significant verbal stimuli through classical con-
ditioning. The socially significant verbal
stimuli were national names and familiar
masculine names. Both of these types of
1 This study is part of a series of studies of verbal
behavior being conducted by the authors at Arizona
State College at Tempe, The project is sponsored by the
Office of Naval Research (Contract Number NONR-
2305 (00)), Arthur W. Staats, principal investigator.
stimuli, unlike nonsense syllables, would be
expected to evoke attitudinal responses on the
basis of the pre-experimental experience of the
5s. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to
test the hypothesis that attitudes already
elicited by socially significant verbal stimuli
can be changed through classical conditioning,
using other words as unconditioned stimuli.
METHOD
Subjects
Ninety-three students in elementary psychology
participated in the experiments as 5s to fulfill a course
requirement.
Procedure
The general procedure employed was the same as in
the previous study of the authors (12).
Experiment I,—The procedures were administered
to the 5s in groups. There were two groups with one half
of the 5s in each group. Two types of stimuli were used:
113. national names which were presented by slide pro-
jection on a screen (CS words) and words which were
presented orally by the E (US words), with 5s required
to repeat the word aloud immediately after E had
pronounced it. Ostensibly, 5s' task was to separately
learn the verbal stimuli simultaneously presented in the
two different ways.
Two tasks were first presented to train the 5s in the
procedure and to orient them properly for the phase of
the experiment where the hypotheses were tested. The
first task was to learn five visually presented national
names, each shown four times, in random order. 5s'
learning was tested by recall. The second task was to
learn 33 auditorily presented words. 5s repeated each
word aloud after E. 5s were tested by presenting 12
pairs of words. One of each pair was a word that had
just been presented, and 5s were to recognize which
one.
The 5s were then told that the primary purpose of
the experiment was to study "how both of these types of
learning take place together—the effect that one has
upon the other, and so on." Six new national names
were used for visual presentation: German, Swedish,
Italian, French, Dutch, and Greek served as the C5s.
These names were presented in random order, with
exposures of five sec. Approximately one sec. after the
CS name appeared on the screen, E pronounced the US
word with which it was paired. The intervals between
exposures were less than one sec. 5s were told they
could learn the visually presented names by just
looking at them but that they should simultaneously
concentrate on pronouncing the auditorily presented
words aloud and to themselves, since there would be
114. many of these words, each presented only once.
37
38 ARTHUR W. STAATS AND CAROLYN K. STAATS
The names were each visually presented 18 times in
random order, though never more than twice in
succession, so that no systematic associations were
formed between them. On each presentation, the CS
name was paired with a different auditorily presented
word, i.e., there were 18 conditioning trials. CS names
were never paired with US words more than once so
that stable associations were not formed between them.
Thus, 108 different US words were used. The CS
names, Swedish and Dutch, were always paired with US
words with evaluative meaning. The other four CS
names were paired with words which had no systematic
meaning, e.g., chair, with, twelve. For Group 1, Dutch
was paired with different words which had positive
evaluative meaning, e.g., gift, sacred, happy; and
Swedish was paired with words which had negative
evaluative meaning, e.g., bitter, ugly, failure,2 For
Group 2, the order of Dutch and Swedish was reversed
so that Dutch was paired with words with negative
evaluative meaning and Swedish with positive meaning
words.
When the conditioning phase was completed, 5s
were told that E first wished to find out how many of
the visually presented words they remembered. At the
same time, they were told, it would be necessary to
find out how they/eW about the words since that might
have affected how the words were learned. Each S was
115. given a small booklet in which there were six pages.
On each page was printed one of the six names and a
semantic differential scale. The scale was the seven-
point scale of Osgood and Suci (8), with the con-
tinuum from pleasant to unpleasant. An example is as
follows:
German
pleasant: : : : : : : .'unpleasant
The 5s were told how to mark the scale and to
indicate at the bottom of the page whether or not the
word was one that had been presented.
The 5s were then tested on the auditorily presented
words. Finally, they were asked to write down anytlu'ng
they had thought about the experiment, especially the
purpose of it, and so on, or anything they had thought
of during the experiment. It was explained that this
might have affected the way they had learned.
Experiment //.—The procedure was exactly re-
peated with another group of 5s except for the CS
names. The names used were Harry, Tom, Jim, Ralph,
Bill, and Bob. Again, half of the 5s were in Group 1 and
half in Group 2. For Group 1, Tom was paired with
positive evaluative words and Bill with negative
words. For Group 2 this was reversed. The semantic
differential booklet was also the same except for the
C5 names.
Design
The data for the two experiments were treated in the
same manner. Three variables were involved in the
2 The complete list of CS-US word pairs is not pre-
116. sented here, but it has been deposited with the American
Documentation Institute. Order Document No. 5463
from ADI Auxiliary Publications Project, Photo-
duplication Service, Library of Congress, Washington
25, D. C., remitting in advance §1.25 for microfilm or
SI.25 for photocopies. Make checks payable to Chief,
Photoduphcation Service, Library of Congress.
design: conditioned meaning (pleasant and unpleasant);
C5 names (Dutch and Swedish, or Tom and Bill); and
groups (1 and 2). The scores on the semantic differential
given to each of the two CS words were analyzed in a
2 x 2 latin square as described by Lindquist (4, p. 278)
for his Type II design.
RESULTS
The 17 5s who indicated they were aware of
either of the systematic name-word relation-
ships were excluded from the analysis. This
was done to prevent the interpretation that
the conditioning of attitudes depended upon
awareness. In order to maintain a counter-
balanced design when these 5s were excluded,
four 5s were randomly eliminated from the
analysis. The resulting Ns were as follows: 24
in Experiment I and 48 in Experiment II.
Table 1 presents the means and SDs of the
meaning scores for Experiments I and II.
The table itself is a representation of the 2 X 2
design for each experiment. The pleasant
TABLE 1
117. MEANS AND SDs OF CONDITIONED ATTITUDE SCORES
Names
Dutchum^u Swedish
Expen-
ment Group Mean SD Mean SD
I 1
2
2.67
2.67
.94
1.31
3.42
1.83
1.50
.90
Tom Bill
ment
II
Group
1
2
Mean
2.71
3.42
118. SD
2.01
2.55
Mean
4.12
1.79
SD
2.04
1.07
Note.—On the scales, pleasant is I, unpleasant 7.
TABLE 2
SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS OF
VARIANCE FOR EACH EXPERIMENT
Source
Between 5s
Groups
Error
Within
Conditioned
attitude
Names
Residual
121. extreme of the evaluative scale was scored 1,
the unpleasant 7.
The analysis of the data for both experi-
ments is presented in Table 2, The results of
the analysis indicate that the conditioning
occurred in both cases. In Experiment I, the
F for the conditioned attitudes was significant
at better than the .05 level. In Experiment II,
the F for the conditioned attitudes was signifi-
cant at better than the .01 level. In both
experiments the F for the groups variable was
significant at the .05 level.
DISCUSSION
It was possible to condition the attitude
component of the total meaning responses of
US words to socially significant verbal stimuli,
without Ss' awareness. This conception is
schematized in Fig. 1, and in so doing, the way
the conditioning in this study was thought to
have taken place is shown more specifically.
The national name Dutch, in this example, is
presented prior to the word pretty. Pretty
elicits a meaning response. This is schematized
in the figure as two component responses; an
evaluative response rpy (in this example, the
words have a positive value), and the other
distinctive responses that characterize the
meaning of the word, Rp. The pairing of
Dutch and pretty results in associations between
Dutch and rpv, and Dutch and Rp. In the fol-
lowing presentations of Dutch and the words
sweet and healthy, the association between
Dutch and rPv is further strengthened. This is
122. not the case with associations RP, Rs, and RH,
CS
DUTCH ^.-=u-_ _ .
"PRETTY.
DUTCH
-HEAI/DHY
FIG. 1. THE CONDITIONING or A POSITIVE ATTITUDE.
THE HEAVINESS OF LINE REPRESENTS STRENGTH
OP ASSOCIATION
since they occur only once and are followed by
other associations which are inhibitory. The
direct associations indicated in the figure
between the name and the individual words
would also in this way be inhibited.
It was not thought that a rating response
was conditioned in this procedure but rather
an implicit attitudinal response which medi-
ated the behavior of scoring the semantic
differential scale. It is possible, with this con-
ception, to interpret two studies by Razran
(10, 11) which concern the conditioning of rat-
ings. Razran found that ratings of ethnically
labeled pictures of girls and sociopolitical slo-
gans could be changed by showing these stimuli
while Ss were consuming a free lunch and, in
the case of the slogans, while the 5s were
presented with unpleasant olfactory stimula-
123. tion. The change in ratings could be thought
to be due to the conditioning of an implicit
evaluative response, an attitude, to the CSs by
means of the lunch or the unpleasant odors.
That is, part of the total response elicited
by the food, for example, was conditioned to
the pictures or slogans and became the
mediation process which in turn elicited the
positive rating.
It should be stated that the results of the
present study do not show directly that Ss'
behavior to the object (e.g., a person of Dutch
nationality) has been changed. The results
pertain to the Ss' attitudinal response to the
signs, the national names themselves. However,
Kapustnik (3) has demonstrated that a re-
sponse generalized to an object when the re-
sponse had previously been conditioned to the
verbal sign of the object. Osgood states,
The aggressive reactions associated with Nazi and Jap
on a verbal level certainly transferred to the social
objects represented under appropriate conditions.
Similarly, prejudicial behaviors established while read-
ing about a member of a social class can transfer to the
class as a whole . . . (7, p. 704).
The results of this study have special rele-
vance for an understanding of attitude forma-
tion and change by means of verbal communi-
cation. Using a conception of meaning as a
mediating response, Mowrer (5) has suggested
that a sentence is a conditioning device and
that communication takes place when the
meaning response which has been elicited by
124. the predicate is conditioned to the subject of
the sentence. The results of the present study
and the previous one of the present authors
40 ARTHUR W. STAATS AND CAROLYN K. STAATS
(12) substantiate Mowrer's approach by sub-
stantiating the basic theory that word meaning
will indeed condition to contiguously pre-
sented verbal stimuli. In the present study,
the meaning component was evaluative, or
attitudinal, and the CSs were socially signifi-
cant verbal stimuli. The results suggest, there-
fore, that attitude formation or change through
communication takes place according to these
principles of conditioning. As an example, the
sentence, "Dutch people are honest," would
condition the positive attitude elicited by
"honest" to "Dutch"—and presumably to any
person called "Dutch," If, in an individual's
history, many words eliciting a positive atti-
tude were paired with "Dutch," then a very
positive attitude toward this nationality would
arise.
The reason for the group differences in each
of the experiments is not clear. These differ-
ences could have arisen because there were
actual differences in the 5"s composing each
group, or in some condition of the procedure
occurring to one of the groups. Nothing the
authors were aware of seem to indicate this
as the explanation, and in the previous experi-
ments of the authors (12) there were no group
125. differences. Since in a 2 x 2 latin square the
interactions are entirely confounded with the
main effects, the group differences could also
have arisen as a result of the interaction of the
other two main effects (i.e., direction of con-
ditioning and names).
SUMMARY
Two experiments were conducted to test
the hypothesis that attitude responses elicited
by a word can be conditioned to a contigu-
ously presented socially significant verbal
stimulus. A name (e.g., Dutch) was presented
18 times, each time paired with the auditory
presentation of a different word. While these
words were different, they all had an identical
evaluative meaning component. In Experi-
ment I, one national name was paired with
positive evaluative meaning and another was
paired with negative evaluative meaning. In
Experiment II, familiar masculine names
were used. In each experiment there was sig-
nificant evidence that meaning responses had
been conditioned to the names without 5s'
awareness.
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