The document discusses the concept of development and underdevelopment, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of development which includes economic and social factors aimed at improving human quality of life. It outlines objectives of development, core values, theories of development, and the dynamics of group behavior within formal and informal groups, highlighting the importance of group dynamics for achieving organizational goals. Additionally, it addresses the significance of national income, economic growth, and various socio-economic indicators that influence and reflect a country's development status.

1. DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS
Diploma and Certificate Programmes
BBB 1207 DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND ETHICS
THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER-
DEVELOPMENT
What is development?
In general, development is the process of improving the quality
of human life.
The economic view of development is that it is the capacity of a
national economy whose initial economic condition has been
more or less static for a long period of time, to generate and
ascertain an annual increase in its Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) at the rate of 5% to 7%.
Development includes: quantity of resources available,
equitable distribution of income, people’s quality of life e.g.
access to education, healthcare, employment opportunities,
security, etc.
· Development is a multi-dimensional process involving major
changes in social structures, personal attributes and national
institutions.
· Development is progressive
· The new economic view of development defines economic
development in terms of its reduction or elimination of poverty,
inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing
economy.
Underdevelopment:
This is a state of inadequate development. It is characterized by
diverse problems including unemployment, low level of

2. technology and skills, under-utilization of resources, low
literacy levels, confusion and ignorance, hopelessness, etc. It
affects more than 3 billion people in the world.
Objectives of development
1. To increase availability and widespread distribution of basic
life-sustaining goods such as food, shelter, security and health.
2. To raise the standards of living with emphasis on higher
income, better education and greater attention to cultural and
human values, all of which serve not only to enhance material
well-being but also to generate individual and national esteem.
3. Expansion of the range of economic and social choices
available to individuals and the nations in order to free them
from servitude and dependency.
Core values of development
(i) Sustenance: This means the ability to meet basic needs. All
people have certain basic needs without which life would be
impossible. These life-sustaining human needs include food,
shelter, health and protection. Their absence implies a condition
of absolute underdevelopment.
· A basic function of all human activity is to provide as many
people as possible with the means of overcoming the
helplessness and misery arising from lack of the above.
· Without sustained and continuous economic progress at the
individual as well as society level, the realization of human
potential would not be possible.
(ii) Self-esteem : This means a sense of worth and self respect
· The nature and form of this self-esteem may vary from society

3. to society, culture to culture.
(iii) Freedom from servitude: This means human freedom i.e.
emancipation from alienating materials e.g. conditions of life
and from social servitude to nature, ignorance, other people,
misery, institutions and dogmatic beliefs.
· Freedom means an expanded range of choices and
minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some
social goals we call development.
OTHER IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN DEVELOPMENT
Economic Growth
This is the increase in a county’s productive capacity or
national income. It is the long-term rise in a country’s capacity
to supply diverse economic goods to its population based on
advanced technology and institutional advancements.
Economic Development
This is the increase in per capita income over a long period of
time, while maintaining or increasing the quality of life of the
people.
National Income or Gross Domestic Product (Gdp)
This is the total value of all finished goods and services
produced annually in an economy
Income Per Capita
If we divide the national income of a county with the county’s
total population we get the per capita income: We can express
per capita income thus:-
Income per capita = National Income
Total Population
The presumption is the higher the per capita income figure; the
higher would be the living standards of the people in that
country, hence higher economic development.
Innovation

4. This is the application of a new idea to existing services or
products i.e. putting an invention to use.
STAGES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
There are several stages of economic development and each of
them is characterized by key factors that indicate the level of
economic development. Walt Rostow suggested that developed
countries have generally passed through the following five
stages to reach their current level of development.
1. Traditional society- (Characterised by):
· Limited potential for economic and population growth, limited
capital
· Out-breaks of disease and droughts
· Countries use pre-Newtonian science and technology (i.e.
before the theories of Isaac Newton)
· Social organization is based on a clan, families etc.
· The societies had their own armies
· Economy is based on subsistence agriculture, just for basic
consumption
· Inflexible government structures due to monarchies and
dictatorship.
2. Pre-condition for take-off.
· Agriculture becomes more mechanized.
· Societies that existed in Europe in 15th and 16th century.
During this period, there was emergence of New World Order,
new religions and reawakening
· Change in structures and values
· Unresponsiveness to authority and faith
· Emergence of merchandise class with great interest in

5. investing in business
3. Economic take off
· Characterized by educated people who are determined to
change their country’s welfare
· Dynamic economic growth caused by new ways of doing
things
· People appreciate that economic development is possible to be
attained and get to appreciate social values e.g. dignity and
integrity
· New entrepreneurs in private and public sectors to improve the
country’s economy by investing
· Institutions mobilise capital that is easily accessible to people,
making it accessible to external commerce. Manufacturing
industry becomes more important.
4. Drive to maturity
· Country is highly modernized e.g. in infrastructure and
technology
· A period of sustained growth for the economy
· New production techniques replace old ones, leading to high
production
· New large sectors are created
· Investment during this period uses a large portion of national
income.
5. Age of High mass consumption
· Output levels grow
· Characterized by automobiles, durable consumer goods and
household gadgets
· Income is given equitably through wealth distribution

6. · Mass consumption of durables. National policy is aimed at
enhancing national growth beyond boundaries. Growth is
sustained by a middle class of consumers.
Socio-Economic Indicators of Development
1. Increased life expectancy
2. Decreased infant mortality rate
3. Improved literacy level e.g. through free education
4. Improved standards of living e.g. adequate food, better
houses
5. A shift towards industrialization e.g. initiatives such as
Vision 2030
6. Increase in employment level
7. Decreased dependency on developed countries
Common Characteristics of LDCs
1. Low standards of living
2. Low levels of productivity in major sectors
3. High population growth rate
4. Dependency burdens
5. Unstable markets for goods and services
6. Dependency on agriculture and primary products
7. High and rising levels of unemployment due to low
industrialisation
8. Dependence and vulnerability in international relations
9. Poor infrastructure and social services
10. High taxes
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE SIZE OF THE

7. NATIONAL INCOME OF A COUNTRY
· All countries aspire to continuously increase the size of their
national income; this is because other things being equal, the
higher the size of national income, the higher would be the
economic welfare (standards of living) of the people.
· There are various factors which determine the size of national
income and they include:-
1. Labour supply
This refers to the quality and quantity of labour in a country.
Where a country has adequate stock of labour which has the
relevant skills needed in various production activities, then such
a country can manage to increase output of goods and services.
2. Capital availability
Capital is one of the costs of production and it is the prime
determinant of the level of investment hence the level of
production in a country. For most developing countries, capital
is a crucial constraint to development and increase in national
income. This is because domestically, savings which is the main
source of investment is relatively low.
3. Entrepreneurial ability
Irrespective of the availability of other factors of production,
the level of output in a country will also depend on how such
factors are utilized and their potential exploitation in
production. This depends on the entrepreneurial capabilities in
the country.
· For some countries, despite being richly endowed with other
factors, people show little inclinations to entrepreneurship
therefore other factors are not used optimally. National output
is therefore not as high as it should be.
4. Land
It is the service rendered by land production that is important –
it is not only the land size that is important, but also the quality
of the land. The size of national income therefore depends on

8. the natural resource endowment in a country.
5. Level of technology
Technology refers to the techniques / methods used in
production. This could vary from the basic (use of primitive
tools of production) to the very advanced where the latest
methods with little human involvement are used. The advent of
the computer and its application has revolutionized technology
in production.
6. Political stability
Political stability is essential if production is to be maintained
at appropriately higher levels. Without political stability,
domestic savings which provide investment finance would be
discouraged. But it is even more crucial, if we are to attract
foreign investments. Most less developed countries (LDCs)
depend largely on foreign capital for development. They will
only channel their funds to those countries where there is the
least risk to their capital.
Reasons for Measuring National Income
1. It is necessary that a country knows the actual performance in
terms of output of goods and services at any given time. This
will enable the country to assess the standard of living of its
people.
2. It is also necessary, that a country evaluates its performance
over time. By measuring the national income , a country is able
to compare its current performance with that of previous periods
in order to determine whether its better off/worse off
3. It is also necessary that a country compares its performance
with that of other countries. National income statistics provides
basis for such comparison. The country can then determine
whether its citizens are better off/worse off than of other
countries in terms of standards of living.
4. A country also needs to assess the performance of specific
sectors and regions for the purpose of planning. Such details are

9. revealed by national income and this facilitates planning
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THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Theories explain how and why development does or does not
take place. Various theories offer valuable insight on the nature
of the development process
Categories of Theories:
1. LINEAR THEORIES (i.e. progressing from one stage to
another-with a starting point and ending point)
· These theories were advanced in the 1950s and 1960s
· According to these theories, development is viewed as a series
of successive stages of economic growth, through which
countries must pass.
Therefore, to attain development the right quantity and mixture
of saving, investment and foreign aid is necessary. Linear
theories include the following:
a) ‘Stages of growth’ model of development :
This theory was developed by Watt Rostow. He states that the
transition from underdevelopment to development can only be
described in terms of series of stages through which all
countries must pass. For development to take off therefore there
must be mobilization of domestic and foreign savings. This will
generate sufficient investment to sustain economic growth i.e.
after resources are mobilized, there will be investment which
will result in economic growth)
b) The Harold Domer Model
· This model insists on savings to sustain growth
· To enhance further growth new investments are necessary

10. · This model advocates for savings and investments. Hence, the
more the savings the faster the growth.
· The major obstacles to development therefore are the
relatively low levels of capital formation in poor countries
· According to this theory, saving and investment is not
sufficient for growth. Together with this. There should also
exist the following:
i) A well-integrated commodity and money market;
ii) A highly developed transport sector;
iii) Well educated and trained work force;
iv) Efficient government bureaucracy
v) Managerial competence
2. THEORIES OF STRUCTURAL CHANGE
- According to these theories, development is portrayed as an
internal structural change that typical developing countries must
undergo to succeed in sustaining and generating a process of
rapid economic growth.
- The theories of structural change focus on the mechanism
through which underdeveloped economies transform their
domestic economic structures. This transformation means a
change from heavy emphasis of traditional subsistence to more
modern industrially diverse economy.
a) The Lewis Theory of development
- According to this theory an underdeveloped economy consists
of two sectors
i). A traditional overpopulated rural subsistence sector –this
sector has surplus labor that can be withdrawn without any loss
of output.

11. ii) A high productivity modern industrial sector – labor can be
transferred to this sector from the rural economy.
· The primary focus of the model is on both the process of
labour transfer and the growth of output and employment in the
modern sector.
· Structural transformation of the economy will take place with
a balance of economic activity. The speed of expansion
however, will depend on the rate of industrial investment and
capital accommodation in the modern sector.
b) Structural change and patterns of development
In this theory, savings and investments are recommended.
However, in addition to accumulation of capital, a set of
interrelated changes in the economic structure are also required.
These will stimulate the transition from a traditional economic
system to a modern one.
These changes involve the transformation of:
· Production methods of goods and services
· International trade patterns
· Resource use-proper utilisation
· Distribution of a country’s population-to avoid congestion in
major cities
· Urbanization trends e.g. rate at which people move to urban
centers
3): THEORIES OF INTERNATIONAL DEPENDANCE
REVOLUTION
- This theory developed in the 1970s. It is more radical in
orientation.
- According to this theory, underdevelopment resulted from

12. rigidity in international power relationships.
- It examines developing countries caught up in dependence –
dominance relationship with rich countries.
- It laid emphasis on eradication of poverty, reduction of
income inequalilities and provision of diverse employment.
a) Neo-colonial dependency model
- It attributes the existence and continuity of underdevelopment
to the historical evolution of a highly international capitalist
system of rich country – poor country relationship.
- Certain groups in the developing countries e.g. Politicians,
entrepreneurs, military rulers etc, who enjoy high incomes,
social status and political power constitute a small elite of
ruling class. Their principle interest knowingly/unknowingly is
in the perpetuation of international capitalist system of
inequality and conformity by which they are rewarded.
- According to this theory, underdevelopment is an externally
induced problem. There is therefore need to restructure the
world capitalist system so as to free the dependant developing
countries from control of their developed world oppressors.
b.) The False Paradigm Model:
- According to this theory, underdevelopment is attributed to
faulty and inappropriate advice provided by uninformed, biased
international experts from developed countries and
multinational donor organizations.
_ The concepts and models of development that they give often
lead to inappropriate policies.
c) Dualistic development theory;
_dualism represents the existence and persistence of increasing
divergence between rich and poor nations or rich people and
poor people on various levels.

13. · In this, different sets of conditions, superior and inferior co-
exist given space (e.g. modern – vs.- traditional methods of
production; illiterate –vs. – highly educated ; industrialized
nations –vs.- peasant societies,etc).
· According to the theory ,this cannot be rectified with time –
but is on the increase, The interrelations push the inferior
elements further away
4. MARKET – FUNDAMENTALISM THEORY (following the
basic rules strictly)
- According to this theory, underdevelopment results from poor
resource allocation, incorrect pricing policies and too much
state intervention by ambitious governments; therefore
underdevelopment is seen as an internally induced problem.
- To stimulate growth, the government must permit free market,
private state owned enterprise, promote free trade and export
expansion.
- This theory also suggests that underdevelopment is as a result
of the heavy hand of the state, corruption, inefficiency and lack
of economic incentives.
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GROUP DYNAMICS
(This refers to the way in which group members behave and
react towards each other in a particular situation)
Group: It is a collection of two or more individuals who
interact in the context of shared norms and goals i.e. they come
together with a goal or a vision.
Dynamics:
· Is the capacity to change with circumstances therefore Group
Dynamics is the capacity of a group to change itself with the

14. change in circumstances/situations.
· For a group to be called so, its members must display the
following characteristics ;
i) Interact with each other
ii) Be psychologically aware of each other
iii) Perceive themselves to be a group
Groups can be either formal or informal:
Formal Groups:
- These are defined by an organization structure with
designated work assignments and established tasks.
- A person’s behavior in the formal group is stipulated by and
directed towards organizational goals.
Informal Groups
· These are alliances that are neither formally structured nor
determined by the organization
· They are formed to fulfill a need to be social - they naturally
occur in the working environment
Why is there need for Group Membership?
Individual need for group membership:
1. To achieve personal goals e.g. an individual can fulfill a
personal ambition of becoming a singer by joining a band
2. To satisfy social needs e.g. to enjoy the company of others,
to share common ideas and pleasure.
3. To help in a process that requires others e.g. singing in the
choir, playing in a football team
4. To exploit ones talents or skills
5. To establish and display one’s status in the society ,e.g.
joining a political party with the intention of becoming a future

15. candidate in a local election
Organizational need for group membership
1. To carry out tasks which are not easily carried out by an
individual alone e.g. making a successful finance department?
2. To ensure that important aspects of the work are well
managed and controlled.
3. To make decisions and solve problems , by pooling
knowledge and experience of a number of people , we are likely
to generate better quality decisions
4. For arbitration and negotiation process e.g. when conflicts
arise.
5. To seek to involve workers in decision making thereby,
encouraging commitment – if people are allowed to put forward
their own ideas which are then thoroughly discussed there will
be commitment to seek a successful outcome.
6. For gathering, processing and distributing information
TYPES OF GROUPS:
1. Task Groups:
· It has a task to accomplish.
· Tasks are assigned to the group by some external agency or
chosen by the group members
· Its goal is to realize some change in the environment i.e a
change status quo from whatever was to whatever will be.
2. Growth Groups:
· These are aimed at some kind of self- improvement and
personal change

16. · The goal is to have change in individual members
E.g discussion groups, prayer groups, investment groups
· Since there is no common group product which can be pointed
as an indication of what the group has done we can only judge
them by evaluating the knowledge, beliefs and personal
transformation of the members themselves.
3. Friendship groups:
This type does not aim at task accomplishment or individual
growth but rather on personal satisfaction of the members i.e
the members simply have a good time being together.
STAGES IN GROUP DEVELOPMENT ( by TUCK MAN):
There are four basic stages in group development:
Stage 1 – Forming Stage (orientation stage)
· The formation stage brings together a number of individuals
who identify tentatively with the purpose, composition and the
terms of the group.
· At this stage, consideration is given to the patterns of
leadership, individuals’ roles and code of conduct.
· There is likely to be anxiety as members attempt to create an
impression, to test each other and to establish their personal
identity within the group.
Stage 2 – Storming Stage (conflict stage)
· As members of the group get to know each other better, they
will express their views more openly and forcefully.
Disagreements will be expressed.
· Tasks and arrangements made at the earlier stage will be

17. challenged. This may lead to conflict and hostility.
· This stage is important, because if successful, there will be
discussion on reforming the arrangement of the group.
· The group will also agree on more meaningful structures and
procedures.
Stage 3 – Norming Stage (structure development stage)
· As conflict and hostility are controlled, members will
establish guidelines of acceptable behavior.
· This stage is important because, it establishes the need for
members to co-operate in order to plan, agree and fulfill the
purpose of the group.
Stage 4 – Performing Stage:
· When the group has progressed successfully through the
earlier stages, it will have created structures and cohesiveness
to work effectively as a team.
· At this stage, the group can concentrate on the attainment of
its purpose.
· It will perform the common task and is likely to be at its most
effective level
Group Performance:
Why are groups superior to individuals on learning tasks,
problem solving task and often on decision making tasks?
1. It is because these are tasks that require pooling of
information or abilities.
2. Social facilitation i.e. the presence of others will encourage
the weaker individual and make his/her performance better.
3. Whenever the group performs effectively / successfully, the
group members will reward each other.

18. 4. In a group there is exchange of ideas and this stimulates
knowledge.
5. Members check each other’s work, correct errors and suggest
solutions
6. Members will be able to learn new techniques of problem
solving from each other during the group interaction.
Identity the advantages of group decision making
1. Groups help generate more alternatives i.e. decisions made
provide a variety of experience and perspectives which an
individual acting alone cannot.
2. Making decisions in a group will increase the likelihood that
other people will accept that solution. Many individual
decisions may fail, not because the decision was wrong, but
because others failed to accept the solution.
3. It increases the legitimacy of the decision i.e. group
decisions are perceived to be more legitimate because the group
members consulted others.
Factors that influence group behaviour
These factors include the following:
· Size of the group- the larger the group, the more the resources
but the less united the group will be.
· Purpose of the group- the group may be formed to pursue
certain targets or play specific roles.
· Nature of the task- the more difficult or complicated the task
is, the less cohesive a group is likely to be.
· Group leadership-the leader is responsible for the success or
failure of the project
· Group norms (rules)-members are supposed to subscribe to
policies, regulations and procedures in order to fit within the
group
· Homogeneity- are all members the same and are they pursuing

19. similar goals?
· Group cohesiveness-i.e. the closeness of the group members
with each other.
· Roles within groups- what are the particular assignments given
to each individual member of the group?
· External environment- do factors of the external environment
pose a threat to group members?
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LEADERSHIP
· A leader is someone who influences the behavior, opinions or
attitudes of others.
· All groups no matter what their size have a leader although
they may hold no formal position in the group.
· Some people are leaders by their personalities, but leadership
involves much more than this.
Therefore, leadership is the ability to influence a group towards
the achievement of goals.
TYPES OF LEADERS
a) Instrumental / Task Oriented leader:
These leaders try to keep the group moving towards its goal.
They try to keep the group from getting side- tracked reminding
them of what they are trying to accomplish. The strength of this
leader is that he keeps the group on track.
b) Expressive Leader / Socio – Emotional Leader:
· This leader is usually not recognized as a leader, but he/ she
certainly is

20. · This person is likely to crack jokes, offer sympathy or do
other things that help lift group’s morale.
· The strength of such a leader is that he increases harmony and
minimizes conflict.
Other types include charismatic, traditional, legitimate and
visionary leaders.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
Leadership style is the pattern of behavior adapted by a leader
in influencing his followers in the organizational context. This
means the ways of expressing oneself as a leader.
Kurt Lewin identified three leadership styles. Whereas in
practice individuals have one dominant style, a good leader uses
all the three styles. Lewin’s leadership styles include
1. Autocratic leadership- (authoritarian/dictatorial)
It is commonly used in situations with minimal collective
decision making in the organisation, or where the leader is the
most knowledgeable member.
Characteristics:
· The leaders centralize decision making- i.e. the leader decides
and employees just do what they are told.
· Leader assigns tasks and sets goals individually
· Leader sets the working conditions
· Leader praises / condemns the work, giving no explanations
why it was good or bad.
· All activity steps are dictated by leader’s authority so that
future steps are always uncertain.
· clear distinctions between leaders and followers
· deliberate efforts by the leader to retain responsibility
· minimal consultations between the leader and other members

21. Advantages of Autocratic Leadership:
i) Brings strict discipline to some of the employees
ii) It provides strong motivation and reward to the leader
iii) It permits making of quick decisions since most decisions
are made by a single person.
iv) Less competent employees can work effectively under such
leadership
v) The group shares a high degree of internal solidarity.
Disadvantages
i) Most employees dislike strict autocratic leadership
ii) Employees lack motivation and get frustrated, leading to low
morale
iii) Group members become too dependent on their leader.
iv) leaders impose their views on the members
v) stifles group creativity
vi) curtails members’ skills development
vii) portrays the leader as having inadequate leadership skills
viii) overworks the leader
ix) over-reliance on the leader may paralyze the group in his
absence
2. Democratic leadership (participative/consultative)
This leadership style promotes sharing of responsibility,
delegation and continued consultation. Democratic leaders

22. believe members collectively can achieve more and can be
effective if they remain committed.
Characteristics:
· Leader shares decision-making with group members by
practicing social equality.
· Leader leads group discussions
· Leader will outline steps necessary to achieve group goals
· Leader will suggest alternative approaches to achieve group
goals
· Will allow group members to work at their own pace
· Will give facts as a basis for the decisions made.
Advantages of Democratic Leadership:
i) Very effective leadership and highly motivating
ii) Creates high productivity and organizational stability
iii) Friendly interaction among group members
iv) There is greater bonding (group – mindedness) and group
members look to one another for mutual approval.
v) In the absence of the leader, the group still works at a good
pace
Disadvantages
i) Can be used to manipulate e/control and take advantage of
employees

23. ii) Some people don’t like much interaction with their superiors
and so the style discourages them.
iii) It is complex and requires understanding of how lower level
employees will make decisions
3. Free Reign Leadership style (Laissez – faire )
It is the least productive leadership style and is characterized
by:
· Leader gives total freedom for the group to do as they wish.
· Leader makes policies and programs and leaves the process of
working out the programs to the employees.
· It can lead to chaos since different groups of employees may
do different things in their own different ways.
· Leader is passive (Detached from members).
· Leader can offer help when asked but will only make few
suggestions.
· decision making is solely done by group members
· poor role definition
· members lack motivation
Possible consequences of laissez-faire
i) Group tends to ask more questions but will make few
decisions
ii) Lack of achievement.
iii) leader lacks direct supervision of members
iv) leader fails to provide regular feedback
v) minimal productivity from members

24. vi) leads to lack of control
Major approaches used to study leadership:
1. Trait Approaches:
· Trait approaches emphasize on personal attributes of leaders.
It states that some people are natural leaders who are endowed
with certain traits not possessed by others.
· Such traits include: ambition, energy, desire to lead, honesty
and integrity, charisma intelligence.
2. Behavioral Approaches:
This approach clarifies behavior that is consistent with the
understanding of leadership.
· It proposes that specific behavior differentiates leaders from
non- leaders.
· It states that leaders can be taught; that people can be trained
to become leaders. This is by designing programs that implant
these behavioral patterns in individuals who desire to be
effective leaders.
3. Power Influence Approach:
· This approach attempts to understand leadership, by
examining the influence process between leaders and followers.
· It states that effectiveness in leadership is in form of amount
and type of power possessed by a leader and how that power is
exerted.
· Power is viewed as important as it influences subordinates,
peers,
4. Situational Approach:

25. · This approach emphasizes the importance of contextual factors
e.g. the nature of work performed by the leaders, nature of
external factors. or the characteristics of the followers.
Different situations require different ways of leadership.
This approach focuses on:
i) Managerial behavior
ii) How managerial behavior is influenced by the situation.
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PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
What is a project?
· A project is an investment activity in which financial
resources are used to create markets that produce benefits over
an extended period of time.
What is project management?
· Involves coordinating resources necessary to complete
projects successfully.
· It is the process and activity of planning, organizing,
motivating and controlling resources to achieve specific goals.
· This means the systems, techniques and people used to control
and monitor activities undertaken within the project.
· Examples of projects may include:-
1) Developing and introducing new products in the market.
2) Hosting a conference
3) Building a shopping mall.

26. Characteristics of a project:
(1) A project has a well defined objective e.g. the objective of a
project might be to introduce to the market a new cooking
appliance in 10 months within a budget of Ksh, 100,000/=
(2) A project is carried out through a series of inter-dependent
tasks i.e. a Number of non- repetitive tasks that need to be
accomplished in a certain sequence in order to achieve the
project objective.
(3) A project utilizes various resources to carry out the tasks.
Such resources include: different people, organizations,
equipment, materials and facilities.
(4) A project has a specific time frame i.e. a start time and the
date by which the objective must be accomplished.
(5) A project may be a unique or a one-time endeavour
(6) A project has a customer – The customer is the entity that
provides the funds necessary to accomplish the project e.g.
when a contractor builds a Tuition Complex II for XYZ Ltd,
XYZ is the customer funding the project
(7) A project involves a degree of uncertainty – when a project
is started a plan is prepared based on certain assumptions and
estimates. It is important to document these assumptions
because they will influence the development of that project
budget, schedule and work scope.
Factors which influence the successful completion of projects
The basic elements of a project include:
1. Resources- i.e. people, equipment, material
2. Time- Task duration, dependences, critical path
3. Cost (Money) - This is the amount that the customer has
agreed to pay for acceptable project deliverables. The project
cost is based on a budget that includes an estimate of the

27. various resources that will be used to accomplish the projects
e.g. salaries, materials, rent, equipment etc
4. Scope- project size, goals, requirements
· The scope of a project refers to all the work that must be done
in order to satisfy the customer e.g. when putting up a building
the work scope might be all the work involved in :-
(i) Clearing the land
(ii) Digging the foundation
(iii) Landscaping
(iv) Building the house
5. Schedule
· This is the timetable that specifies when each activity will
start and finish. The objective of any project is to complete the
scope within the budget by a certain time to the customer’s
satisfaction.
· Once a project is started, unforeseen circumstances may
jeopardize the achievement of the project objective with respect
to scope or schedule. e.g. the cost of materials may go up or the
weather may cause delay or some part of the machine may get
lost.
· The challenges of the project manager, is to present, anticipate
or overcome such circumstances in order to complete the
project.
Project life cycle
The project is born when a need is identified by the customer.
Sometimes the problem is identified quickly while in other
situations it may take months for a customer to clearly identify
a need, gather data for the problem and define certain
requirements.

28. PHASE I- identification of need, problem or opportunity
(Initiating)
This phase requires the customer to identify a need or
opportunity.
PHASE II- development of solution to the need / problem
(Planning)
This can result in the customer requesting for a proposal from
individuals or a project team to address the identified need or
opportunity.
PHASE III- implementation of the proposed solution
(Executing)
This phase begins after the customer decides which of the
proposed solutions will best fulfill the need. Thereafter, an
agreement is reached between the customer and the individual
who submitted the proposal.
This phase, also referred to as performing the project, involves
doing the detailed planning of the project and then
implementing the plan to accomplish the project objectives.
PHASE IV- terminating the project (Closing)
When a project is completed, certain closed-out activities need
to be performed such as:-
a) Confirming that all deliverables have been provided to and
accepted by the customer
b) All payments have been collected
c) That all invoices have been paid.
· An important task during this phase , is evaluating
performance of the project in order to learn what could be
improved if a similar project is to be carried out in future
· This phase should also include obtaining feedback from the

29. customer to determine the level of customer satisfaction and
whether the project met the customer’s expectation.
Importance of planning for projects
1) Planning makes it easy to assess if the project is on schedule
and if any corrective action is required
2) Plans demonstrate a clear understanding of customer
requirements
3) Plans give clear time scales to work with
4) With planning it is easy to control various project elements
5) The people involved in a project need to know exactly their
roles, what they are expected to produce and when it is
required. The project plan communicates all these to all
concerned.
Reasons for failure of projects in Less Developed Countries
1) Delay in government approvals
2) Too much government interference
3) Corruption
4) Poor infrastructure
5) Poor work ethics
6) Pettiness (focusing on minor issues)
7) Failure to manage time e.g. allowing the project to go beyond
the required time scale
8) Poor planning or poor management on the part of project
manager.
9) Political interferences
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30. -----------------------------------------
THREATS TO DEVELOPMENT
1) Migration and Urbanization:
· This is one of the most perplexing dilemmas of the
development process; the phenomenon of massive movement of
people from rural to urban areas. Population growth becomes
more dramatic in urban areas in Kenya. This leads to the growth
of the urban “informal” economy and pressure on available
resources.
· Along with the rapid spread of urbanization has come the
growth of huge slums and shanty towns.
2) Multinational corporations;
Their impact on development is very uneven. In many situations
multinational corporation activities enforce dualistic economic
structures and raise income inequalities. They tend to worsen
the imbalance between rural and urban economic opportunities
by locating primarily in urban areas and contributing to
increased flow of rural-urban migration. (This is a threat to the
vision 2030 that Kenya expects to achieve as it promotes the
interest of small number of well paid modern – sector workers
against the interests of the rest by widening wage differentials).
3) Widening gap between rich and poor
4) Financial instability
5) Poor infrastructure
6) Political instability
7) Low levels of technology
8) Overpopulation, poor sanitation etc.

31. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------OTHER TOPICS RELATED TO
DEVELOPMENTKENYA VISION 2030
Kenya Vision 2030 is the country's development programme
covering the period 2008 to 2030. It was launched on 10 June
2008 by President Mwai Kibaki. Its objective is to help
transform Kenya into a "newly industrializing, middle-income
(income exceeding World's average currently at US$10000)
country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens by
2030 in a clean and secure environment." Developed through
"an all-inclusive and participatory stakeholder consultative
process, involving Kenyans from all parts of the country," the
Vision is based on three "pillars": Economic, Social, and
Political. The Vision's adoption comes after the country’s GDP
growth, from 0.6% in 2002 to 6.1% in 2006 under Kibaki's
Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment
Creation (ERS).
The Kenya Vision 2030 is to be implemented in successive five-
year medium-term plans, with the first such plan covering the
period 2008–2012 (with the next covering the period 2012–
2017, and so on until 2030). Under the Vision, Kenya expected
to meet its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by the
deadline in 2015.
The Vision
The Vision 2030 development process was launched by
President Mwai Kibaki on 30 October 2006 when he instructed
the National Vision Steering Committee to produce a medium-
term plan with full details on the development programmes that
would be implemented in the first five years after the ERS
expires on 31 December 2007. A consultative approach was
undertaken through workshops with stakeholders from all levels
of the public service, the private sector, civil society, the media
and NGOs while in rural areas, provincial consultative forums
were also held throughout the country.

32. The objective of all these consultations was to provide an in-
depth understanding of the country’s development problems and
the necessary strategies to achieve the 2030 goals. Experts used
the input from the above stakeholders and their own economic
analysis to identify sectors with the most promising potential in
driving Kenya’s economic growth up to 2030. This approach
involved an assessment of two critical components:
1. the potential of the different sectors to make a wide economic
impact
2. the feasibility of unlocking that potential for the benefits of
economic growth, employment and poverty – reduction
A similar process and methodology was followed in identifying
projects and priorities in the social and political pillars.
Detailed analysis was carried out under a consultative process
in order to come up with strategies capable of resolving the
social and political problems that Kenyans face today. To arrive
at workable solutions, the team of experts learned as much as
they could from countries that have achieved rapid growth and
also improved the lives of their people greatly in a span of 20–
30 years, with particular reference to the South East Asiannewly
industrialising countries. The standards achieved by those
countries are ones Kenya should aim for, bearing in mind her
own history and culture. The team made extensive use of
information available from the government, Kenya’s private
sector, civil society and universities.
Foundations
The Vision 2030 strategy is specifically tooled to focus on
reforms and development in the following sectors:
· Macroeconomic stability for long-term development
· Continuity in governance reforms

33. · Enhanced equity and wealth creation opportunities for the
poor
· Infrastructure
· Energy
· Science, technology, and innovation (STI)
· Land reform
· Human resources development
· Security
Vision 2030 Pillars
1. Economic
This aims to improve the prosperity of all Kenyans through an
economic development programme, covering all the regions of
Kenya. It aims to achieve an average Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) growth rate of 10% per annum beginning in 2012. The
six key sectors described below are being given priority as the
key growth drivers for achievement of the economic vision:
· Tourism
· Increasing value in agriculture
· A better and more inclusive wholesale and retail trade sector
· Manufacturing for the regional market
· Improved Financial services
2. Social

34. Through this strategy, Kenya aims to build a just and cohesive
society with social equity in a clean and secure environment.
This strategy makes special provisions for Kenyans with various
disabilities (PWDs) and previously marginalized communities.
These policies (and those in the economic pillar) are equally
anchored on an all-round adoption of science, technology and
innovation (STI) as an implementation tool.
Key sectors:
· Education & training
· The health system
· Water and sanitation
· The environment
· Housing and urbanization
· Gender, youth and vulnerable groups
· Equity and poverty elimination
3. Political
This aims to realise a democratic political system founded on
issue-based politics that respects the rule of law, and protects
the rights and freedoms of every individual in Kenyan society.
It hopes to transform Kenya into a state in which equality is
entrenched, irrespective of one’s race, ethnicity, religion,
gender or socio-economic status; a nation that respects and
harnesses the diversity of its peoples’ values, traditions and
aspirations for the benefit of all its citizens.
The political pillar vision for 2030 is “a democratic political
system that is issue-based, people-centered, result-oriented and
accountable to the public”. An issue-based system is one in
which political differences are about means to meet the widest
public interest. “People-centered” goals refer to the system’s

35. responsiveness to the needs and rights of citizens, whose
participation in all public policies and resource allocation
processes is both fully appreciated and facilitated.
Transformation within Kenya’s political governance system
under Vision 2030 is expected to take place across six strategic
initiatives, whose overarching visions, goals and specific
strategies for 2012 are as follows:
· Rule of law
· Electoral & political processes
· Democracy and public service delivery
· Transparency and accountability
· Security, peace building and conflict managementGuiding
Principles of the VisionTo ensure that economic, social and
political governance gains made under the Vision are neither
reversed nor lost as a result of change in ruling parties, the
following eight governance principles will be adhered to:
1. Constitutional supremacy: Supremacy of the constitution
shall be respected at all times. This will guarantee individual
rights as stated in the Bill of Rights and the property rights of
Kenyan and international investors.
2. Sovereignty of the people: This calls for the acknowledgment
of the fact that in a constitutional democracy like Kenya, the
government derives all its just powers from the people it
governs.
3. Equality of citizens: Kenya shall be a nation that treats its
women and men equally. It will not discriminate any citizen on
the basis of gender, race, tribe, religion or ancestral origin.

36. 4. National values, goals and ideology: In the pursuit of
economic, social and political aspirations, Kenyans shall
formulate and adopt a core set of national values, goals and a
political ideology supportive of Vision 2030, these will include
acknowledgement of the significance of God to the Kenyan
people and an affirmation of the religious, cultural and ethnic
diversity of Kenyans. It will also affirm the indivisibility of
Kenya as a nation and her commitment to democracy and the
rule of law.
5. A viable political party system: Kenya aims at a strong and
viable political party system that will be guided by policy and
ideological differences rather than region of ethnicity. Under
Vision 2030, founding of political parties on religious,
linguistic, racial, ethnic, gender, corporate or regional basis will
be prohibited. This is in line with the just enacted Political
Parties Bill. All political parties will be obliged to subscribe to
a legally-binding Code of Conduct. There will be a clear
definition of circumstances under which a party may be de-
registered or reinstated. The delegation of state functions to (or
the use of state resources by) political parties will not be
permitted. Political parties will be required to publish their
manifestos before participating in elections.
6. Public participation in governance: Kenyans shall appreciate
the values of tolerance and respect for differences in opinion in
a competitive society.
7. Separation of powers: The implementation of Vision 2030
depends on the enhancement of the capacity of the three arms of
government (Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary).
These institutions are independently functioning in a manner
that enhances the implementation of Vision 2030.
8. Decentralization: Vision 2030 uses devolved funds to
strengthen decentralization of development projects at the

37. community level. Improved planning and coordination of such
projects at the local level will be accorded priority in realizing
this goal.Implementation
A Semi-Autonomous Government Agency (SAGA) with the
requisite capacity has been established to oversee the
implementation of all the Vision 2030 projects. The agency
works closely in collaboration with government ministries and
departments as well as the private sector, civil society and other
relevant stakeholder groups
Vision Delivery Secretariat
The Kenyan Government has created a Vision Delivery
Secretariat (VDS), which provides strategic leadership and
direction in the realization of the Vision 2030 goals to ensure
the timely implementation of the flagship projects. The
Secretariat is managed by the Director-General leading a team
of four Directors and Secretariat members, under the overall
guidance of the Vision 2030 Delivery Board that plays a policy-
making and advisory role.
MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
There are eight international development goals that were
established by the United Nations in September 2000 during a
world leaders’ summit that was held in New York, the UN
headquarters.
At this summit that marked the beginning of a new millennium,
189 member states were represented. The MDGs were
established on the basis of the fact that although many nations
among the UN members have attained good living standards for
their citizens, there are many others whose people are living in
extreme poverty.
The Millenium Development Goals include:
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve Universal primary education

38. 3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Global partnerships for development.
The year 2015 was set as the target year for achieving these
goals.
· The MDGs cover the most critical areas of human
development. The September 2000 summit agreed that human
development is the key to sustaining social and economic
development. The aim is to provide food, clean water and
sanitation to every citizen.
· The United Nations together with several NGOs have
increased emphasis on investment towards education and health
for women and children.
· The MDGs are important to the following:
· Developing countries
· Developed countries which give development aid to poor
countries
· Institutions that help in implementing the goals such as United
Nations Development Program, United Nations International
Children Education Fund
NB.

39. · Six of these goals relate directly to children since they are
most vulnerable. They also have their own rights. (What effort
has Kenya made towards meeting the MDGs)
· After the 2015 MDGs deadline, the UN formulated the
Sustainable Development Goals which are now being
implemented.
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MORALITY AND ETHICS
Human-Centred Ethics and Place of Morality in the Natural
World
What is Ethics?
Ethics is the system of moral principles that guide human
behaviour. It can also be defined as rules of conduct. It is the
systematic study and knowledge of human actions from the view
point of what is to be done or to be avoided, pursued or
acquired by the light of reason.
What is morality?
Morality is the study of human behavior as a consequence of
beliefs about what is right or wrong, or good or bad, in-so far as
that behavior is useful or effective. In a sense, morals is the
study of what is thought to be right and what is generally done
by a group, society, or a culture. Different societies have
different moral codes and practices.
Ethics and morals both relate to what is right and wrong
conduct. However, ethics refer to the series of rules provided to
an individual by an external source, e.g. their profession or
religion. Morals refer to an individual’s own principles
regarding right and wrong.
Importance of Ethics
i. It makes one distinguish between good and bad.

40. ii. It makes one to know how to live justly with others
iii. It assists the society to achieve common goals.
iv. It limits crime and fosters peace in a country.
Ethics deals with the study of values and acquisition of values
for both individuals and groups.
Acquisition of values
Values are basically acquired through growing up in the family,
impact of peer groups, association with religion, involvement in
society, reading and practicing literature resources, mass media,
watching video and film etc.
The family
Values acquired here include good eating habits, good speech,
respect, obedience etc. The family is the first school for the
child.
Through interaction with parents and other members of the
family the child learns what is wrong and right. Parents should
be good models for the children to learn from. The home
environment (physical) is also an important aspect of the
acquisition of values. Most learning in the family set up is
informal
Peer groups
This is a very dynamic source of learning and acquisition of
values especially for teenage children and youth. The individual
is pressurized by fellow peers to desire what they have, what
they say, what they do and believe in etc. It is through
interaction with others through positive activities that values
are acquired.
Religion
Values are acquired through teachings given during worship

41. services, through religious beliefs / rituals / sacraments e.g.
baptism and Holy Communion/ doctrines/practices e.g. giving,
good relationships etc.
Society
In the growth process the child leaves the home environment
early and joins the society e.g. through the schooling process.
Certain values are acquired through this exposure. Other ways
in which society gives values is through social activities and
gatherings e.g. weddings, parties, funerals etc.
Values are also acquired through involvement in issues such as
leadership, politics etc. and also through the system of
punishment to wrong doers.
Literature
This refers to both oral and written literature as a source of
values. This takes place through the study of literature in
schools, through reading any helpful books /materials on any
aspect of life etc.
Mass media – e.g. Radio, press (printed)
How does each of these pass on values to the listeners / viewers
/readers?
Video and films etc. These sources should be selectively chosen
for any values to be acquired from them.
Significance of social and individual values and ethics
Social values enhance harmony in society. They foster peace
and prosperity, stability etc.
Individual values build personality and character.
The role of humanism in ethics
What is humanism? It is devotion to human interests and
systems that is concerned with ethical standards and will. It

42. involves the study of mankind.
Human interests or rights in general include human rights such
as:
· Right to life
· Right to basic human needs
· Right to education
· Right of work
· Right to marry and raise a family
· Right to own property
· Right to associate with others
· Right to freedom of speech
· Right to religious freedom
Professional Ethics
Professional ethics are the standards of behaviour and
competence expected of people in the particular kind of work
they do. They guide professionals in their relationships with the
people they deal with in their own profession, in the course of
their work and with the community as a whole.
Professional ethics include:-
i) Standards of competence- e.g. there are usually certain set up
qualifications for entry into a particular profession e.g. a
doctor, lawyer, engineer, teacher etc. For one to be allowed
entry into any of these professions there are certain
qualifications that one must have.
ii) Professional integrity

43. There are certain rules and regulations to be observed in each
profession. Professional integrity deals with what a member of a
particular profession is or is not allowed to do e.g. a doctor
must preserve life etc
iii) Standards of behaviour
Every profession has a code of professional ethics which shows
how members of the profession are expected to behave e.g. how
doctors should relate with their patients, teachers and students,
lawyers and clients etc
A code of conduct also helps to maintain and improve the public
image to protect members of the profession against pressures
which might tempt them to do things which they regard as
unethical or immoral e.g. accepting bribes in order to give
certain favours to people seeking services.
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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
IT is a branch of knowledge that deals with the creation, use of
technical terms and their inter-relation with society and the
environment.
Advantages of IT
1) Education- it has made research and the acquisition of
knowledge efficient
2) Business- through IT, a lot of transaction takes place e.g. e-
commerce
3) Globalization-IT has made the whole world to be linked as
one in terms of business and trade.
4) Job creation- IT has created jobs for IT experts and they can
work in many organisations.

44. 5) Entertainment- such as electronic media
6) Communication-IT contributes to efficient transfer of
information
7) Cost effectiveness- Through IT, it is cheap to store and
retrieve information for the purpose of transmitting data.
8) Bridging of culture gap-e.g. through research and learning
other peoples language and way of life and communicating with
them.
Technology and Morality
Modern Science and Technology has come up with many new
situations that are not easy to directly relate to morality and
religious teachings.
Examples of modern inventions related to human life include
the following:-
Use of artificial contraceptives, procuring of abortion, artificial
procreation, foetal manipulation, euthanasia, transplant of
human organs, blood transfusion, and use of drugs for medical
purposes.
There are many arguments and controversies that arise in the
application of these inventions. Some people reason that these
practices are immoral and unethical while others argue that
these are scientific solutions to various aspects of human
suffering.
Modern inventions related to environment include:
Land degradation e.g. soil erosion, nuclear development for
human destruction, dumping of chemical wastes, mining, effects
of urbanization, pollution of water and land etc. There are many
arguments concerning what man should do or not do with regard

45. to these issues.
23