This chapter discusses analyzing the economic environments of foreign countries. It outlines key dimensions of international economic analysis including gross national income, economic growth rates, inflation, unemployment, debt, and balance of payments. The chapter also profiles different types of economic systems from command to market economies and discusses the transition from centrally planned to market-based systems. Factors that influence economic transition include privatization, liberalization, and establishing appropriate legal and market frameworks.
Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole and focuses on aggregate economic variables such as national income, output, employment and general price levels. It has four main uses: 1) understanding how the economy works; 2) formulating economic policies; 3) making international comparisons; and 4) informing business decisions. The scope of macroeconomics includes theories related to national income, employment, money, prices, and economic growth. It differs from microeconomics in that macroeconomics examines the large-scale or overall economy rather than individual agents.
The document discusses several macroeconomic problems including capital and labor misallocation, inflation, and business cycles. It defines inflation and its types. Moderate inflation can boost growth but high inflation is harmful. Measures to control inflation include monetary, fiscal and income policies. Business cycles consist of expansion, peak, recession, trough and recovery phases, though their timing and severity vary. No single measure can adequately curb inflation and both monetary and fiscal approaches are needed.
The document discusses different economic goals, theories and policies of Democrats, Republicans and other groups. It covers various types of capitalism and economic systems, as well as the influence of corporations, interest groups and government institutions on policy creation. Key economic indicators and theories around supply and demand, laissez-faire, Keynesian and supply-side economics are also examined.
Economics environment in Business environment and law Mathivanan Mba
The document discusses various aspects of the economic environment in India including definitions of key economic terms, different economic systems, factors that influence the economic environment, and the roles of financial institutions and public sector enterprises. It provides details on capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies as well as monetary policy, fiscal policy, and other government economic policies.
The document discusses key economic factors to consider when evaluating the economic environment of a country for international expansion. It covers different economic systems (market, command, mixed), macroeconomic indicators like GDP, inflation, balance of payments, exchange rates. International monetary systems throughout history are examined, from the gold standard to Bretton Woods to the current nonsystem of managed floating rates. Understanding a country's economic framework, growth trends, and government policies is important for assessing market potential and risks.
PERIYAR UNIVERSITY - B.A. ECONOMICS- IV SEMESTER - INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS - UNIT – V: Evolution, Role and Functions of International Institutions - IMF, IBRD, GATT, WTO and ADB.
The document discusses the economic environment and how it affects businesses. It defines economic environment as the various economic conditions, systems, policies, and factors that influence business operations. Some key points made are:
- Economic environment includes factors like income levels, business cycles, productivity, economic system (capitalism, socialism, mixed), and domestic/international economic policies.
- Government economic policies around monetary, fiscal, trade, investment, and industrial policies all shape the business environment.
- The economic environment is dynamic and influenced by macroeconomic trends like inflation, interest rates, and exchange rates both domestically and globally. Understanding the economic environment is important for businesses to operate effectively.
This document provides biographical and professional details about Dani Rodrik, a prominent political economist. It notes that Rodrik earned his PhD from Princeton University and has held professorships at Columbia University and Harvard University. Some of Rodrik's publications include books on globalization, industrial policy, and structural adjustment. The document also discusses Rodrik's research on the consequences of policy reforms in developing countries during the 1980s, which involved trade liberalization, privatization, and macroeconomic stabilization.
Macroeconomics studies the economy as a whole and focuses on aggregate economic variables such as national income, output, employment and general price levels. It has four main uses: 1) understanding how the economy works; 2) formulating economic policies; 3) making international comparisons; and 4) informing business decisions. The scope of macroeconomics includes theories related to national income, employment, money, prices, and economic growth. It differs from microeconomics in that macroeconomics examines the large-scale or overall economy rather than individual agents.
The document discusses several macroeconomic problems including capital and labor misallocation, inflation, and business cycles. It defines inflation and its types. Moderate inflation can boost growth but high inflation is harmful. Measures to control inflation include monetary, fiscal and income policies. Business cycles consist of expansion, peak, recession, trough and recovery phases, though their timing and severity vary. No single measure can adequately curb inflation and both monetary and fiscal approaches are needed.
The document discusses different economic goals, theories and policies of Democrats, Republicans and other groups. It covers various types of capitalism and economic systems, as well as the influence of corporations, interest groups and government institutions on policy creation. Key economic indicators and theories around supply and demand, laissez-faire, Keynesian and supply-side economics are also examined.
Economics environment in Business environment and law Mathivanan Mba
The document discusses various aspects of the economic environment in India including definitions of key economic terms, different economic systems, factors that influence the economic environment, and the roles of financial institutions and public sector enterprises. It provides details on capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies as well as monetary policy, fiscal policy, and other government economic policies.
The document discusses key economic factors to consider when evaluating the economic environment of a country for international expansion. It covers different economic systems (market, command, mixed), macroeconomic indicators like GDP, inflation, balance of payments, exchange rates. International monetary systems throughout history are examined, from the gold standard to Bretton Woods to the current nonsystem of managed floating rates. Understanding a country's economic framework, growth trends, and government policies is important for assessing market potential and risks.
PERIYAR UNIVERSITY - B.A. ECONOMICS- IV SEMESTER - INTERNATIONAL ECONOMICS - UNIT – V: Evolution, Role and Functions of International Institutions - IMF, IBRD, GATT, WTO and ADB.
The document discusses the economic environment and how it affects businesses. It defines economic environment as the various economic conditions, systems, policies, and factors that influence business operations. Some key points made are:
- Economic environment includes factors like income levels, business cycles, productivity, economic system (capitalism, socialism, mixed), and domestic/international economic policies.
- Government economic policies around monetary, fiscal, trade, investment, and industrial policies all shape the business environment.
- The economic environment is dynamic and influenced by macroeconomic trends like inflation, interest rates, and exchange rates both domestically and globally. Understanding the economic environment is important for businesses to operate effectively.
This document provides biographical and professional details about Dani Rodrik, a prominent political economist. It notes that Rodrik earned his PhD from Princeton University and has held professorships at Columbia University and Harvard University. Some of Rodrik's publications include books on globalization, industrial policy, and structural adjustment. The document also discusses Rodrik's research on the consequences of policy reforms in developing countries during the 1980s, which involved trade liberalization, privatization, and macroeconomic stabilization.
The document discusses reforms to public financial management in India based on recommendations from the Second Administrative Reforms Commission. It outlines weaknesses in budgetary processes, resource allocation, and expenditure management. The reforms aim to strengthen financial management systems through improved revenue collection, debt and cash management, planning processes, oversight, and use of modern practices like accrual accounting. Core principles for reform include ensuring financial management is part of governance reforms and adopting transparency, flexibility, and a focus on results.
Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) are economic reform policies imposed by the IMF and World Bank on developing countries as conditions for receiving loans. SAPs began in the 1980s and involved 187 programs across 64 countries. They aimed to boost exports, reduce government deficits, and improve investment climates. Typical SAP measures included currency devaluation, cutting social spending, privatizing industries, and deregulating markets. While SAPs achieved some economic growth in countries like Ghana, they also had many negative social impacts by reducing education, healthcare and living standards. Critics argue SAPs undermine national sovereignty and prioritize private profits over public welfare. In response to criticisms of SAPs, the IMF and World Bank introduced Poverty
This document discusses several macroeconomic problems including inflation, balance of payments issues, and fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. It defines inflation and discusses how it is measured using price indices. The main causes of inflation are identified as the quantity theory of money, cost-push inflation, and demand-pull inflation. The document also defines the balance of payments and its components, and discusses potential problems like disequilibrium. Fluctuations in foreign exchange rates are covered, including causes like changes in imports/exports and interest rates, and the effects of currency appreciation and depreciation.
Economic environment PPT ON INDIAN BUSINESS ENVIROANMENT MBABabasab Patil
This document discusses economic development and the economic environment in India. It begins by defining key economic terms like economic growth, development, and the three sectors of an economy. It then outlines some of the major issues facing India's development like low per capita income, high poverty rates, unemployment, and economic inequalities. Some of the determinants of development discussed include capital formation, population growth, and building human capital. The document also provides an overview of India's economy as a developing one, looking at the contributions and growth of the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors over time as well as some objectives of India's 11th five-year plan.
The document discusses various topics related to inflation including:
1. Inflation is defined as a rise in general price levels reported as a rate of change which reduces the purchasing power of money.
2. Inflation can be caused by increases in the money supply, reductions in goods available, decreases in demand for money, and increases in demand for goods.
3. Effects of inflation include a reduction in purchasing power of currency, changes to spending habits, speculation, and impacts to income distribution between lenders and borrowers.
This document summarizes the key variables and markets in an open economy macroeconomic model. It discusses how the market for loanable funds and the foreign exchange market interact to determine equilibrium interest rates, exchange rates, saving, investment, and net capital flows. Government budget deficits increase interest rates and cause currency appreciation by reducing the supply of loanable funds. Trade policies like import quotas affect the exchange rate but not overall trade balances. Political instability can trigger capital flight, increasing interest rates and depreciating the currency.
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The document discusses key indicators of a country's macro environment including gross domestic product, GDP deflator, consumer price index, sectoral shares of the economy, savings and investment rates, inflation rates, money supply, foreign trade, foreign exchange reserves, economic infrastructure, and social indicators; it also discusses factors that influence a country's competitiveness globally such as availability of skilled managers, total quality management practices, and treatment of labor.
The document discusses the economic environment for businesses. It defines the economic environment as consisting of macro-level economic factors that impact businesses, including growth strategy, industry, agriculture, infrastructure, money/capital markets, income, population, and economic policy. Some key economic policies mentioned are industrial, fiscal, monetary, foreign investment, and exports/imports policies. The document also outlines several important economic factors that affect businesses, such as income, inflation, recession, interest rates, and exchange rates.
This document provides definitions and concepts related to macroeconomics and the macroeconomic environment of business. It defines macroeconomics as the study of the overall economy and discusses key macroeconomic objectives, indicators, and policies. It also explains concepts like GDP, GNP, inflation, money supply, and how they are measured. National income accounting and different economic systems are also summarized.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
This document discusses key macroeconomic indicators used to measure economic performance at the national level, including Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), and others. It explains how GDP can be calculated using different approaches, such as production, income, and expenditure. It also distinguishes between nominal GDP, which reflects current prices, and real GDP, which is adjusted for inflation to reflect volume changes. Other macroeconomic indicators mentioned include net national product and gross national income.
China and the Global Economic Crisis Forummeijifong
This document discusses China and the global financial crisis from the perspective of Dr. Meiji Fong. It provides an analysis of the triggers and stresses that led to the economic collapse, including the collapse of the subprime mortgage and securitized mortgage loan markets. It discusses the US Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) and stimulus packages, as well as China's role and its own stimulus package. The document also discusses the World Bank, IMF, and their roles in international monetary management and providing loans to governments.
The document discusses the economic environment and its impact on business. It defines the economic environment as factors such as economic conditions, economic system, policies, and international economic factors that influence business operations. It describes the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary stages of economic activity and how environmental factors like economic, social, political, technological, and demographic elements affect businesses.
Tips for writing International economics assignment with perfectionLily Scott
International economics covers all those areas that are influenced by the economic activities going on between different countries with the help of international trade. The vast domain of international economics usually creates a lot of problems for students. Dealing with the terminologies and technicalities is not an easy task until you get assistance from an international economics assignment help experts. So, choose the best among the rest to get your work done within a jiffy!. for more information visit - https://www.myassignmentservices.com/international-economics-assignment-help.html
This document discusses monetary policy responses to the global financial crisis, using Egypt as a case study. It finds that the Central Bank of Egypt's ideal policy tools are the overnight interest rate and legal reserve requirements. Interest rates have a longer-term impact on goals like growth, price stability, and job creation. The study also argues for enhancing central bank independence and transparency in nations with high corruption, to help address chronic inflation and socio-political instability.
This document summarizes research on economic vulnerability and resilience in small island developing states. It defines economic vulnerability as a state's inherent exposure to external shocks due to factors like trade openness and export concentration. It also defines economic resilience as a state's ability to withstand or recover from shocks through policies promoting macroeconomic stability, market efficiency, good governance, and social development. The document discusses how vulnerability and resilience can be measured through indices and categorized into scenarios. Many small island states succeed economically through resilience-building policies that counteract their inherent vulnerability.
International movements-meaning-Export & import of merchandise & services-International investment-International Payments, Rate of exchange, Economic integration
- Macroeconomics deals with aggregate economic indicators such as output, consumption, employment, investment and price levels of an entire economy. It analyzes performance, structure and decision-making of national, regional and global economies.
- Three major macroeconomic concerns are unemployment, inflation and output growth. Unemployment refers to those without work, inflation is a sustained increase in price levels, and output growth is changes in economic activity and development.
- Macroeconomics is important for understanding how the whole economy works, evaluating overall performance through national income, analyzing causes of economic issues, and understanding individual economic unit behavior in context of aggregates.
The chapter discusses the development of the international monetary system from the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Key points:
- Countries realized after WWII that political freedom alone was insufficient and economic cooperation was needed for development.
- The Bretton Woods Conference established the IMF to oversee the new monetary system based on fixed exchange rates and use of the US dollar and gold standard.
- The system helped sustain trade growth but faced challenges of debt crises and fluctuations caused by moving to floating exchange rates in the 1970s. The balance of payments tracks a country's total economic relations internationally through trade, investment, aid and other flows.
The document discusses reforms to public financial management in India based on recommendations from the Second Administrative Reforms Commission. It outlines weaknesses in budgetary processes, resource allocation, and expenditure management. The reforms aim to strengthen financial management systems through improved revenue collection, debt and cash management, planning processes, oversight, and use of modern practices like accrual accounting. Core principles for reform include ensuring financial management is part of governance reforms and adopting transparency, flexibility, and a focus on results.
Structural adjustment programs (SAPs) are economic reform policies imposed by the IMF and World Bank on developing countries as conditions for receiving loans. SAPs began in the 1980s and involved 187 programs across 64 countries. They aimed to boost exports, reduce government deficits, and improve investment climates. Typical SAP measures included currency devaluation, cutting social spending, privatizing industries, and deregulating markets. While SAPs achieved some economic growth in countries like Ghana, they also had many negative social impacts by reducing education, healthcare and living standards. Critics argue SAPs undermine national sovereignty and prioritize private profits over public welfare. In response to criticisms of SAPs, the IMF and World Bank introduced Poverty
This document discusses several macroeconomic problems including inflation, balance of payments issues, and fluctuations in foreign exchange rates. It defines inflation and discusses how it is measured using price indices. The main causes of inflation are identified as the quantity theory of money, cost-push inflation, and demand-pull inflation. The document also defines the balance of payments and its components, and discusses potential problems like disequilibrium. Fluctuations in foreign exchange rates are covered, including causes like changes in imports/exports and interest rates, and the effects of currency appreciation and depreciation.
Economic environment PPT ON INDIAN BUSINESS ENVIROANMENT MBABabasab Patil
This document discusses economic development and the economic environment in India. It begins by defining key economic terms like economic growth, development, and the three sectors of an economy. It then outlines some of the major issues facing India's development like low per capita income, high poverty rates, unemployment, and economic inequalities. Some of the determinants of development discussed include capital formation, population growth, and building human capital. The document also provides an overview of India's economy as a developing one, looking at the contributions and growth of the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors over time as well as some objectives of India's 11th five-year plan.
The document discusses various topics related to inflation including:
1. Inflation is defined as a rise in general price levels reported as a rate of change which reduces the purchasing power of money.
2. Inflation can be caused by increases in the money supply, reductions in goods available, decreases in demand for money, and increases in demand for goods.
3. Effects of inflation include a reduction in purchasing power of currency, changes to spending habits, speculation, and impacts to income distribution between lenders and borrowers.
This document summarizes the key variables and markets in an open economy macroeconomic model. It discusses how the market for loanable funds and the foreign exchange market interact to determine equilibrium interest rates, exchange rates, saving, investment, and net capital flows. Government budget deficits increase interest rates and cause currency appreciation by reducing the supply of loanable funds. Trade policies like import quotas affect the exchange rate but not overall trade balances. Political instability can trigger capital flight, increasing interest rates and depreciating the currency.
Global marketing - global economic environmentRECONNECT
This is the lecture of course "Global Marketing"
This slideshare network of RECONNECT will provide all the presentation related to case studies, project presentations, educational, motivational slides & much more.
Follow Reconnect on slide share.
Official fb page: facebook.com/reconnectt
Official fb group: facebook.com/groups/reconnecting.tech/
Rights are reserved for this presentation. Please inbox 1st to get permission to use this
The document discusses key indicators of a country's macro environment including gross domestic product, GDP deflator, consumer price index, sectoral shares of the economy, savings and investment rates, inflation rates, money supply, foreign trade, foreign exchange reserves, economic infrastructure, and social indicators; it also discusses factors that influence a country's competitiveness globally such as availability of skilled managers, total quality management practices, and treatment of labor.
The document discusses the economic environment for businesses. It defines the economic environment as consisting of macro-level economic factors that impact businesses, including growth strategy, industry, agriculture, infrastructure, money/capital markets, income, population, and economic policy. Some key economic policies mentioned are industrial, fiscal, monetary, foreign investment, and exports/imports policies. The document also outlines several important economic factors that affect businesses, such as income, inflation, recession, interest rates, and exchange rates.
This document provides definitions and concepts related to macroeconomics and the macroeconomic environment of business. It defines macroeconomics as the study of the overall economy and discusses key macroeconomic objectives, indicators, and policies. It also explains concepts like GDP, GNP, inflation, money supply, and how they are measured. National income accounting and different economic systems are also summarized.
Bsc agri 2 pae u-3.2 introduction to macro economicsRai University
This document provides an introduction to macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of national economies and the policies that governments use to affect economic performance. It discusses key issues macroeconomists address such as economic growth, business cycles, unemployment, inflation, international trade, and macroeconomic policies. It also outlines different macroeconomic theories including classical, Keynesian, and unified approaches.
This document discusses key macroeconomic indicators used to measure economic performance at the national level, including Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), and others. It explains how GDP can be calculated using different approaches, such as production, income, and expenditure. It also distinguishes between nominal GDP, which reflects current prices, and real GDP, which is adjusted for inflation to reflect volume changes. Other macroeconomic indicators mentioned include net national product and gross national income.
China and the Global Economic Crisis Forummeijifong
This document discusses China and the global financial crisis from the perspective of Dr. Meiji Fong. It provides an analysis of the triggers and stresses that led to the economic collapse, including the collapse of the subprime mortgage and securitized mortgage loan markets. It discusses the US Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) and stimulus packages, as well as China's role and its own stimulus package. The document also discusses the World Bank, IMF, and their roles in international monetary management and providing loans to governments.
The document discusses the economic environment and its impact on business. It defines the economic environment as factors such as economic conditions, economic system, policies, and international economic factors that influence business operations. It describes the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary stages of economic activity and how environmental factors like economic, social, political, technological, and demographic elements affect businesses.
Tips for writing International economics assignment with perfectionLily Scott
International economics covers all those areas that are influenced by the economic activities going on between different countries with the help of international trade. The vast domain of international economics usually creates a lot of problems for students. Dealing with the terminologies and technicalities is not an easy task until you get assistance from an international economics assignment help experts. So, choose the best among the rest to get your work done within a jiffy!. for more information visit - https://www.myassignmentservices.com/international-economics-assignment-help.html
This document discusses monetary policy responses to the global financial crisis, using Egypt as a case study. It finds that the Central Bank of Egypt's ideal policy tools are the overnight interest rate and legal reserve requirements. Interest rates have a longer-term impact on goals like growth, price stability, and job creation. The study also argues for enhancing central bank independence and transparency in nations with high corruption, to help address chronic inflation and socio-political instability.
This document summarizes research on economic vulnerability and resilience in small island developing states. It defines economic vulnerability as a state's inherent exposure to external shocks due to factors like trade openness and export concentration. It also defines economic resilience as a state's ability to withstand or recover from shocks through policies promoting macroeconomic stability, market efficiency, good governance, and social development. The document discusses how vulnerability and resilience can be measured through indices and categorized into scenarios. Many small island states succeed economically through resilience-building policies that counteract their inherent vulnerability.
International movements-meaning-Export & import of merchandise & services-International investment-International Payments, Rate of exchange, Economic integration
- Macroeconomics deals with aggregate economic indicators such as output, consumption, employment, investment and price levels of an entire economy. It analyzes performance, structure and decision-making of national, regional and global economies.
- Three major macroeconomic concerns are unemployment, inflation and output growth. Unemployment refers to those without work, inflation is a sustained increase in price levels, and output growth is changes in economic activity and development.
- Macroeconomics is important for understanding how the whole economy works, evaluating overall performance through national income, analyzing causes of economic issues, and understanding individual economic unit behavior in context of aggregates.
The chapter discusses the development of the international monetary system from the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. Key points:
- Countries realized after WWII that political freedom alone was insufficient and economic cooperation was needed for development.
- The Bretton Woods Conference established the IMF to oversee the new monetary system based on fixed exchange rates and use of the US dollar and gold standard.
- The system helped sustain trade growth but faced challenges of debt crises and fluctuations caused by moving to floating exchange rates in the 1970s. The balance of payments tracks a country's total economic relations internationally through trade, investment, aid and other flows.
The document discusses measuring economic growth and development. It distinguishes between economic growth, defined as a rise in real per capita income, and economic development, which is a normative concept involving improvements to well-being, health, education, and other factors. Two main measures of economic growth are GDP and GNP. While GDP provides a standard measure, it has limitations and issues with price comparisons across countries can arise. Purchasing power parity aims to address these issues. Overall economic development requires not just growth but also converting income gains into improved human capabilities and living standards.
This document discusses macroeconomic indicators that can be used to compare emerging economies. It defines emerging economies and lists some key characteristics such as undergoing economic reforms and opening markets. The document outlines several important macroeconomic indicators that will be studied, including GDP, unemployment, inflation, interest rates, and their relationships. It presents the objectives of the study as finding countries' economic potential and comparing macroeconomic factors to identify opportunities for investment or business operations.
This document summarizes an economic report analyzing the relationship between economic growth and inequality in 73 countries from 1993-2013. Two regression models were used to examine the impact of various economic variables on the rate of economic growth. The first model found a positive relationship between internal direct investment and growth. The second model found positive relationships between gross capital formation and growth. Both models found negative relationships between the GINI index, government debt, and GDP per capita with economic growth. The analysis aims to better understand how inequality impacts economic growth.
This document provides an introduction and overview of macroeconomics. It defines key concepts in macroeconomics like stocks and flows, equilibrium and disequilibrium. It outlines the development of macroeconomics from classical economists to Keynes and modern macroeconomics. It also discusses the goals of macroeconomic policy like full employment and price stability. The document concludes by discussing tools used in macroeconomic policy including fiscal policy and monetary policy.
World Development Report 2024 (“WDR2024” or “the Report”) will examine the difficulties of economic
growth in middle-income countries and propose practical policy recommendations. Constituting about 75
percent of the world’s population, the 108 middle-income countries today account for about 40 percent of
global economic activity, 50 percent of the world’s extremely poor people, and 60 percent of global carbon
dioxide emissions.1
The Report will summarize the growth record of economies at different income levels. The recent record
suggests that middle-income countries have experienced a sharper slowdown during the last decade (Kose
and Ohnsorge 2023).
2 It will assess the evidence for and against the existence of a “middle-income trap,” a
notion that many countries remain in a narrow income band over long periods of time (Spence 2011) and
their policies and institutions do not adapt to structural characteristics of middle-income economies (Gill
and Kharas 2015). The term “middle-income trap” is popular in policy circles as a mechanism to galvanize
countries into action and recalibrate their growth strategy and economic institutions to make them as
dynamic collectively as their firms and entrepreneurs are individually.
The Report will then analyze the determinants of structural change using the insights of advances in
Schumpeterian growth theory to bear on the problems faced by middle-income countries today. The main insights are related to competition among enterprises, social mobility among households, and the structural transformations needed for steady energy transitions. By itself, each of these insights is not novel; taken together, they have the potential to provide a framework to guide policy makers concerned with boosting economic growth.
Perhaps the most useful part of the Report for policy makers in emerging markets and developing economies
will be the third section, which will present specific remedies based both on development successes and struggles during middle-income transitions. Figure 1 outlines the proposed structure of the Report. Box 1 outlines how this Report builds on previous World Development Reports that have examined various dimensions of economic growth.
WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2024 - Economic Growth in Middle-Income Countries.Christina Parmionova
The Report will summarize the growth record of economies at different income levels. The recent record suggests that middle-income countries have experienced a sharper slowdown during the last decade.
Economic environment & structural changes in economyNirmal PR
The document discusses the economic environment and structural changes in the Indian economy. It defines economic environment as the economic factors that influence business operations, including things like government policies, economic conditions, and resources. It then describes five key elements of India's economic environment: 1) economic conditions like business cycles and living standards, 2) the mixed economic system, 3) fiscal and monetary policies, 4) international trade relationships, and 5) economic legislation. It also outlines four structural changes in India's economy, including a shift from agriculture to industry and services, growth of basic industries, expansion of infrastructure, and progress in the banking and financial sector through nationalization.
The document discusses various economic factors that company managers must consider when analyzing foreign markets, including:
1) Economic indicators such as GDP, inflation rates, and infrastructure that provide insight into a country's economic development and business environment.
2) The country's economic system, whether it is capitalist, command, or mixed, and how free the economy is, which impacts growth.
3) How countries transition to a market economy through reforms and establishing legal frameworks, which varies between countries.
Macroeconomics studies aggregate economic quantities such as growth, inflation, and unemployment across entire markets and national economies. The document outlines several key aspects of macroeconomics including its focus on economy-wide phenomena, its main areas of research, major schools of thought, differences from microeconomics, features such as giving an overall view of the national economy, and examining important macroeconomic issues like employment, inflation, and economic growth.
Macroeconomics deals with the aggregate or total level of key economic variables for an entire economy, such as output, consumption, investment, employment, and prices. It examines unemployment, inflation, and output growth. The document provides definitions and explanations of these macroeconomic concepts as well as the scope and importance of macroeconomics in understanding national economies and formulating policy.
This document provides an overview of macroeconomics. It defines macroeconomics as the study of aggregate economic quantities, such as national income, output, consumption, investment, unemployment and price indices. It outlines the development of macroeconomics from classical economists to Keynes and modern macroeconomic schools of thought. It describes key macroeconomic concepts like equilibrium, stocks and flows. It also explains important macroeconomic goals like full employment and price stability. Finally, it discusses macroeconomic policies like fiscal and monetary policy and their tools, as well as the circular flow of income in closed, open and two-sector economies.
What Is Global Economy and Its Importance.pdfAiblogtech
What Is Global Economy and Its Importance? A Quick Overview
The term "global economy" is frequently used in discussions, news reports, and political speeches. But what exactly is the global economy, and why is it so crucial to our lives? In this article, we will delve into the global economy's nuts and bolts in simple and understandable language, exploring its various facets and emphasizing its profound significance.
Understanding the Global Economy
Defining the Global Economy
The global economy, at its core, refers to the complex web of interconnected economic activities that take place around the world. It includes the global production, exchange, and consumption of goods and services. Everything from your smartphone to the coffee you drink in the morning has a global footprint. The global economy is analogous to a massive puzzle, with each piece representing a different country or region and all intricately interconnected.
The Building Blocks of the Global Economy
To understand the significance of the global economy, we must first break it down into its basic components:
1. International Trade: The exchange of goods and services between different countries is known as international trade. It provides nations with access to products that they cannot produce locally, promoting economic growth and diversity.
2. Global Finance: The flow of money, investments, and capital across borders is referred to as global finance. It helps businesses, governments, and individuals achieve their economic objectives.
3. Multinational Corporations: These are large corporations that have operations in several countries. They are important players in the global economy because they manufacture products in one country, sell them in another, and invest in various locations around the world.
4. Currency Exchange: Each country has its own currency. Exchange rates have an impact on international trade and financial transactions.
5. International Organizations: Organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) play an important role in regulating and facilitating global economic interactions.
6. Global Supply Chains: Products frequently go through a number of manufacturing and distribution stages in different countries. This linked network is known as a global supply chain.
Let's look at the global economy's significance now that we've dissected it.
The Significance of the Global Economy
Economic Growth and Prosperity
Economic growth is one of the most obvious benefits of a thriving global economy. Countries that engage in international trade have access to a larger consumer base. This leads to increased sales, higher profits, and a more prosperous economy in the long run. A strong global economy promotes job creation, higher living standards, and a higher quality of life for people all over the world.
Access to Diverse Goods and Services
Consider a world in which each country only produced what it required.
International business 2 ECONOMIC SYSTEMNishant Pahad
There are three main types of economic systems - centrally planned, market-based, and mixed. A firm considering international business must analyze the economic environment and indicators of the host country. This includes factors like income levels, inflation rates, consumption patterns, availability of resources and infrastructure, and how these metrics have trended over time. Properly evaluating the economic system and indicators is crucial for understanding demand, costs, competitiveness and ability to profit in the target foreign market.
This document provides an overview of chapter 4 of a Grade 12 Economics textbook. It covers key macroeconomic concepts like national accounts, circular flow of income, and approaches to compiling national accounts using output, expenditure and income. It also defines macroeconomic objectives such as full employment, price stability, economic growth, balance of payments stability, equitable income distribution, and sustainable development. Specific policies and indicators are discussed for each objective.
This document provides an overview of international economics. It defines international economics as the study of economic interactions between countries and the effects of globalization and international issues on economic activity. The document outlines some key concepts in international economics including gains from trade, patterns of trade, balance of payments, and foreign direct investment. It also describes the theoretical and descriptive aspects of international economics, discussing pure and monetary theories as well as the institutional environment for international transactions. Overall, the document introduces the broad field of international economics and some of its fundamental concepts.
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The chapter discusses global supply chain management and manufacturing strategies. It examines how companies can effectively manage supply chain networks to lower costs and increase quality. The chapter covers topics such as global sourcing, supplier relations, inventory management, transportation networks, and how information technology impacts supply chain coordination. Maintaining high quality standards is a key challenge for companies managing global supply chains.
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This chapter examines how firms structure their international organizations to implement strategies and control operations across borders. It discusses traditional structures like functional, divisional, and matrix structures, as well as contemporary structures like network and virtual organizations. The chapter also addresses the tradeoff between centralized and decentralized decision-making and how firms coordinate and integrate different parts of the organization on a global scale.
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This document provides an outline for Chapter 7 of a textbook on international trade. The chapter discusses how governments influence trade through various policies and instruments. It begins with an opening case study on textile trade restrictions between the US, Europe and other countries. The chapter then outlines the economic and noneconomic rationales governments use to intervene in trade, including protecting domestic industries and managing balance of payments. Finally, it examines the major instruments governments use to restrict or regulate trade, such as tariffs, subsidies, quotas and other nontariff barriers that directly or indirectly influence prices and quantities traded.
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This document provides an overview of Chapter 1 from a textbook on international business. It discusses the forces driving globalization, including advances in technology, liberalized trade policies, and increased cooperation between countries. It also examines why companies engage in international business to expand sales, acquire resources, and minimize risk. While globalization offers economic benefits, it also faces criticisms such as threats to national sovereignty and growing income inequality. The chapter concludes by noting how international business differs from domestic business due to varying political, legal, cultural, economic and competitive environments around the world.
1. CHAPTER FOUR
THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
OBJECTIVES
• To appreciate the importance of the economic analysis of foreign markets
• To identify the major dimensions of international economic analysis
• To compare and contrast the economic indicators of countries
• To profile the characteristics of the types of economic systems
• To discuss the idea of economic freedom
• To profile the idea, drivers, and constraints of economic transition
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
When companies source, manufacture, and/or market products in foreign countries, they
encounter fascinating and often challenging economic environments. Chapter Four first
explores the economic environments of countries in which an MNE might want to
operate by discussing the importance of economic analysis and identifying the major
dimensions of that process. It then compares and contrasts key macroeconomic
indicators, such as economic growth, inflation, and the surpluses and deficits reflected in
the balance of payments. Finally, it reviews the characteristics of the major types of
economic systems, explores the principles of economic freedom, and concludes by
examining the idea, the drivers, and the constraints associated with the transition from a
centrally-planned to a market-based economy.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
OPENING CASE: MCDONALD’S AND RUSSIA’S ECONOMIC TRANSITION
[See Map 4.1.]
This case exemplifies the extraordinary challenges of operating in a transition economy.
In fascinating detail it explains how, despite enormous start-up costs and difficulties,
McDonald’s has managed to succeed in Russia since finally opening its first Moscow
restaurant in 1991. Currently McDonald’s employs 17,000 people at 127 restaurants
located in 37 Russian cities. In fact, Russia has become its fifth most profitable market in
Europe. Along the way, various transition crises in the Russian economy have presented
major hurdles. However, by freeing prices from government control, introducing major
changes in the Russian ruble, and establishing exchange rate and banking reforms, the
Russian government has slowly replaced an inflexible centralized planning system with a
budding capitalist economy. Further, increasing oil revenues and inflows of foreign
direct investment continue to contribute to Russia’s economic growth and stability.
“McComplex,” the company’s food processing and distribution center located outside of
Moscow, now supplies locally produced food to McDonald’s restaurants across western
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2. Russia and 21 other European countries. Seeing great promise in Russia, McDonald’s
plans to establish an additional 100 restaurants there by the end of 2007.
TEACHING TIPS: Carefully review the PowerPoint slides for Chapter Four.
Also, review the corresponding video clip, “China Inc., IBM Sells PC Division”
[World News Tonight, 2:10]. Finally, note Table 4.3 on text p. 137; it deals with
the US balance of payments.
I. INTRODUCTION
The importance of this chapter follows from the simple fact that all countries differ
in terms of levels of economic development, performance, and potential. A firm’s
managers must understand the economic environments of those countries in which it
operates, as well as those of countries in which it does not, in order to predict how
trends and events the world over will likely affect firm performance. In addition, a
fuller understanding of the process of economic transition and development will help
managers reach decisions that benefit not only their firms, but also the countries in
which those firms operate, and ultimately, the people of the world.
II. INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
There is no universal scheme with which to assess the performance and potential of a
nation’s economy. Not only is it difficult to specify a definitive set of economic
indicators, but it is often difficult to understand the systematic relationship of one
variable to another. However, by reducing the economic environment to its
fundamental components, it is possible to begin to determine (i) how they shape the
market and (ii) how they subsequently interact with one another. Key economic
factors include: the general economic framework of a country, its degree of
economic stability, the existence and role of capital markets, the presence of factor
endowments, market size, and the existence of economic infrastructure. Factor
conditions represent available inputs to the production process, such as human,
physical, knowledge, and capital resources, as well as infrastructure. [See Fig. 4.1.]
III. ELEMENTS OF THE ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT
Economic analysis often begins by examining a country’s gross national income,
(GNI) i.e., the monetary value of the total flow of goods and services within its
economy. Then related measures such as growth rates, income distribution,
inflation, unemployment rates, debt, and the balance of payments are considered.
A. Gross National Income
Gross national income (GNI) measures the income generated both by total
domestic production plus the international production activities of national
firms, i.e., it is the market value of all final goods and services newly produced
by a country’s domestically-owned firms in a given year. Gross domestic
product (GDP) measures the value of production generated by both domestic
and foreign-owned firms within a nation’s borders in a given year.
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3. B. Improving the Power of GNI
Managers improve the usefulness of GNI by adjusting it for the population of a
country, its growth rate, and the local cost of living.
1. Per Capita Conversion. GNI per capita is the value of all goods and
services produced in the economy divided by the population. In 2004 high-income
countries accounted for less than 15 percent of the world’s
population but nearly 80 percent of the world’s GNP. [See Map 4.2.]
2. Rate of Change. Generally, the GNI growth rate provides a broad
indicator of economic potential; if GNI grows at a higher (lower) rate than
the population, standards of living are said to be rising (falling).
3. Purchasing Power Parity. While exchange rates define the number of
units of one currency that are required to purchase one unit of another
currency, they do not determine what a unit of currency can buy in its home
country, i.e., exchange rates do not incorporate differences in the cost of
living. Purchasing power parity (PPP) represents the number of units of a
country’s currency required to buy the same amount of goods and services
in the domestic market that one unit of income would buy in another
country. PPP is estimated by calculating the value of a universal “basket of
goods” that can be purchased with one unit of a country’s currency. [See
Map 4.3.]
4. Degree of Human Development. The Human Development Index
combines indicators of real purchasing power, education, and health in
order to give a more comprehensive measure that incorporates both
economic and social variables. Specifically, the Human Development Index
measures longevity, knowledge (primarily the adult literacy rate), and
standard of living and is designed to capture long-term progress rather than
short-term changes. (Note: the UN also reports a development index that
adjusts for both gender-related inequalities and for poverty.) [See Map 4.4.]
IV. FEATURES OF AN ECONOMY
Managers often study many second-order indicators of economic performance and
potential, including inflation, unemployment, debt, income distribution, poverty, and
the balance of payments.
A. Inflation
Inflation is the pervasive and sustained rise in the aggregate level of prices as
measured by a cost of living index. When aggregate demand grows faster than
aggregate supply, i.e., when prices rise faster than incomes, the effects can be
dramatic. Among other things, high inflation results in governments’ setting
higher interest rates, installing wage and price controls, and imposing
protectionist trade policies and currency controls. (The Consumer Price Index
(CPI) measures the average change in consumer prices over time in a fixed
market basket of goods and services.)
B. Unemployment
The unemployment rate represents the number of unemployed workers divided
by the total civilian labor force in a given country. However, given the wide
differences in social policies and institutional frameworks, the meaning of the
37
4. unemployment rate varies from one country to another. Often, the true degree
of joblessness and the productivity of those who work are distorted. The misery
index represents the sum of a country’s inflation and unemployment rates.
C. Debt
Debt is the sum total of a government’s financial obligations; its measures the
state’s borrowing from its population, from foreign organizations, from foreign
governments, and from international institutions. Internal debt is the portion of
the government debt that is denominated in the country’s own currency and is
held by domestic residents. External debt is the portion of the government debt
that is denominated in foreign currencies and is owed to foreign creditors.
Internal debt results when a government spends more than it collects in
revenues; the subsequent pressure to revise government policies often leads to
economic uncertainty. External debt results when a government borrows money
from foreign lenders. The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries initiative is
designed to alleviate the severe external debt burdens of less developed
countries, much of which was amassed during the oil shocks of the l970s and the
1980s. More recently, transition economies have also seen their rates of
economic development slowed because of high external debt burdens.
D. Income Distribution
Income distribution describes what share of a country’s incomes goes to
various segments of the population. It is a problem for countries rich and poor.
There is a particularly strong relationship in skewed income distributions and
growth in per capita income between those who live in urban settings, where
growth is accelerating, and those who live in rural settings, where growth is
nearly stagnant.
E. Poverty
Poverty is the state of having little or no money, few or no material possessions,
and little or no resources with which to enjoy a reasonable standard of living.
Globally, the world is about 78 percent poor, 11 percent middle income, and 11
percent rich. More pointedly, the richest 1 percent of the world’s population
claims as much income at the bottom 57 percent and the gap is growing. In
poverty-stricken countries, economic infrastructure and progress are minimal.
F. The Balance of Payments
The balance of payments (BOP), officially known as the Statement of Inter-national
Transactions, records a country’s international transactions among
companies, governments, and/or individuals. It reports the total of all money
flowing into a country less all money flowing out of that country to any other
country during a given period. The two primary accounts are: (a) the current
account, which tracks all trade activity in merchandise and services, and (b) the
capital account, which records transactions in real and/or financial assets
between residents of a given country and the rest of the world. Also included in
the current account are income and compensation receipts and payments as well
as unilateral transfers, which reflect both government and private relief grants
and income transferred abroad. Included in the capital account are changes in
the official reserve assets of a nation, such as gold, special drawing rights, and
foreign currencies. Whereas a trade surplus indicates that the value of exports
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5. exceeds the value of imports, a trade deficit indicates that the value of imports
exceeds the value of exports. The statistical discrepancy reflects the difference
between the sums of the credits and debits. [See Table 4.3.]
POINT—COUNTERPOINT: Trade Deficits—Advantage or Crisis
POINT: Many people believe that a trade deficit is a sign of a strong economy. They
argue that as an economy grows, increases in disposable income lead to increased
demand for imported products. (Some even believe that a trade deficit is an unimportant
bookkeeping record.) The Bush administration claims that the current U.S. trade deficit
is a sign that the U.S. economy is growing faster than the economies of its trading
partners in the triad nations. Accordingly, responsibility for altering this imbalance lies
not with the United States, but rather with its trading partners, who must improve their
rates of economic growth and thus generate the resources with which to buy more.
COUNTERPOINT: Others believe that a trade deficit is the sign of a crisis waiting to
happen. They cite the loss of jobs to overseas competitors, lower wages for many U.S.
workers, and increased economic uncertainty. As its now massive long-term deficit
forces the United States. to increasingly rely upon foreign credit to finance its investment
and consumption patterns, critics fear that the deficit is becoming increasingly
unsustainable. Further, theory suggests that a trade deficit is a positive economic
indicator only when it is due to firms’ importing technology and other capital goods that
can be used to improve their productivity and international competitiveness.
V. INTEGRATING ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
Whereas high-income countries offer high levels of demand for a wide spectrum of
consumer and industrial products, many developing countries exhibit tremendous
potential because of the sheer size of their populations. A nation’s growth potential
can be gauged by analyzing both its current economic system, as well as the
transition process by which it may be moving from one type of system to another.
A. Types of Economic Systems
An economic system is the set of structures and processes that guides the
allocation of scarce resources and shapes the conduct of business activities in a
nation. The spectrum of systems is anchored on one end by centrally planned
economies and on the other by free-market economies. [See Fig. 4.3.]
1. Market Economy. A market economy describes the system where
individuals, rather than government, make the majority of economic
decisions. Free-market (capitalistic) economies are built upon the private
ownership and control of the factors of production. Key factors include
consumer sovereignty, the freedom of market entry and exit, and the
determination of prices according to the laws of supply and demand.
Credited to Adam Smith, the laissez-faire principle, i.e., nonintervention
by government in a country’s economic activity, states that producers are
39
6. driven by the profit motive, while consumers determine the relationship
between price and quantity demanded. Thus, scarce resources are allocated
efficiently and effectively.
2. Command Economy. Also known as centrally-planned economies,
command economies are built upon the government ownership and control
of the factors of production. Central planning authorities determine what
products will be produced in what quantities and the prices at which they
will be sold. Most often, the totalitarian aims of communism gave the
highest priority to industrial investments and military spending at enormous
expense to the consumer sector. Most such economies are currently in the
process of transitioning to more market-based systems.
3. Mixed Economy. Mixed economies fall between the extremes of
market and command economies. While economic decisions are largely
market-driven and ownership is largely private, government nonetheless
intervenes in many economic decisions. The extent and nature of such
intervention may take the form of government ownership of certain factors
of production, the granting of subsidies, the taxation of certain economic
activities, and/or the redistribution of income and wealth.
B. Freedom, Markets, and Transition
The recent emergence of freer markets has been largely powered by the failure
of central planning authorities to deliver economic progress and prosperity.
Given today’s realization that economic growth is a function of economic
freedom, countries across the entire spectrum are moving toward increasingly
freer markets. [See Map 4.5.]
C. Economic Freedom: Idea, Performance, and Trends
Economic freedom is characterized by the absence of government coercion or
constraint on the production distribution, and/or consumption of goods and
services beyond the extent necessary for citizens to protect and maintain liberty
itself. Thus, people are free to work, produce, consume, and invest in the ways
they choose. The Economic Freedom Index approximates the extent to which
a government intervenes in the areas of free choice, free enterprise, and market-driven
prices for reasons that go beyond basic national needs. Presently,
countries are classified as free, mostly free, mostly unfree, and repressed.
Determining factors include: trade policy, the fiscal burden of the government,
the extent and nature of government intervention in the economy, monetary
policy, capital flows and investment, banking and financial activities, wage and
price levels, property rights, other government regulation, and informal market
activities. Over time, more and more countries have moved toward greater
economic freedom. Countries ranking highest on this index tend to enjoy both
the highest standards of living as well as the greatest degree of political freedom.
[See Maps 4.5, 4.6.]
D. Transition to a Market Economy
As market economies outperformed their mixed and command counterparts, it
became apparent that government control and ownership create operational
inefficiencies and strategic ineffectiveness. These limitations, in turn, decrease
40
7. the risk-affinitive behavior of entrepreneurs and firms to pursue the sorts of
innovations that have become the basis of economic growth and prosperity.
E. The Means of Transition
The shift from a command or mixed economy to a freer market economy largely
depends on how well a country’s government can dismantle certain features
such as central planning systems, and create others, such as consumer
sovereignty. Most notably, the success of the transition process appears to be
intricately linked to the government’s ability to liberalize economic activity,
reform business practices, and establish appropriate legal and institutional
frameworks. [See Fig. 4.4.]
1. Privatization. Privatization, i.e., the sale and/or legal transfer of
government-owned resources to private individuals and/or entities, reduces
government debt, on the one hand, and increases market efficiency on the
other. A key factor is that private enterprises must compete in open markets
for materials, labor, and capital; thus, they succeed or fail on their own
merits.
2. Deregulation. Deregulation, i.e., the relaxation or removal of restrictions
on the free operation of markets and business practices, allows businesses to
be more productive and thus make investments in the innovations and
activities that can lead to economic growth.
3. Property Rights. The protection of real (tangible) and intellectual
(intangible) property rights permits individuals and for-profit and nonprofit
business entities, rather than the state, to claim both the present and future
rewards of their ideas, efforts, and risk.
4. Fiscal and Monetary Reform. The adoption of free market principles
requires a government to rely upon market-oriented instruments for
macroeconomic stabilization, set strict budgetary limits, and use market-based
policies to manage the money supply. Although such measures create
economic hardships in the short run, in the long run they lead to economic
stability that can, in turn, help attract the investment needed to finance
economic growth.
5. Antitrust Laws. Because the anticompetitive practices of monopolies
contradict the basic premise of a free market, antitrust laws that are
designed to maintain and promote market competition must be enacted.
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE: The Future of Transition
Countries in transition must determine how to maintain political and macroeconomic
stability, increase economic growth, improve legal and institutional policies, and resolve
a host of social issues, such as health care, security, poverty, and child welfare.
However, critics claim that when fully measured, the costs of transition to a market-based
economy greatly exceed the benefits provided by a strong government in a mixed
economy. They believe that market-based economies impose high social costs and create
inequitable income distribution, i.e., that they foster the development of powerful self-interests
that threaten social liberties and political rights. As social turmoil has made
41
8. governments vulnerable to antiprivatization protests and forced foreign firms to retreat, it
has become obvious that the road to greater economic and political freedom is uncertain.
CLOSING CASE: Meet the BRICs [See Fig. 4.5.]
Over the next 50 years, changes in the relative performance, scale, and scope of the
world’s economies will be dramatic. Most notably, data indicate that the combined
economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China—the so-called BRICs—should surpass
those of the G7 nations by 2050 [see Fig. 4.5]. In fact, of the original G7 nations, only
Japan and the United States will still rank among the world’s largest economies at that
time. Thus, managers need to rethink their traditional views of the economic
environment as they encounter fundamental shifts in investment and spending, increasing
competition for inputs in the world’s commodity markets, and the rapid growth of
consumer markets in many transition economies. Other significant impacts loom as the
leaders of the BRIC nations seek to collectively develop their economies and political
presence through the creation of a multilateral alliance amongst themselves. No matter
what the outcome, the fallout will be momentous as the world’s emerging economies
come into their own.
Questions
1. Debate the relative merits of GNI per capita versus the idea of purchasing power
and human development as indicators of economic potential in Brazil, Russia,
China, and India.
Gross national income per capita (GNI per capita) represents the market value of all
final goods and services newly produced in an economy by a country’s domestically-owned
firms in a given year divided by its population. Thus, GNI per capita serves
as a very useful indicator of current individual wealth and consumption patterns;
those countries with high populations as well as high per capita GNI are most
desirable in terms of total market potential. Purchasing power parity (PPP)
represents the number of units of a country’s currency required to buy the same
amount of goods and services in the domestic market that one unit of income would
buy in another country. PPP is estimated by calculating the value of a universal
“basket of goods” that can be purchased with one unit of a country’s currency and
thus serves as a useful indicator of international differences in prices that are not
reflected by nominal exchange rates. The Human Development Index measures life
expectancy, education (primarily the adult literacy rate), and income per person and
is designed to capture long-term progress rather than short-term changes. Thus, by
combining indicators of real purchasing power, education, and health, the index
provides a comprehensive measure of a country’s standard of living that incorporates
both economic and social variables.
42
9. 2. Map the proposed sequence of the evolution of the BRIC’s economies. What
indicators might companies monitor to guide their investments and organize their
local market operations?
The BRIC’s economies are on the verge of the rapid growth of their consumer
markets. (Experience indicates that consumer demand takes off when GNI per capita
reaches levels between $3,000 and $10,000 per year.) In Russia there is already
significant evidence of the growth of consumerism during the past decade. There are
also early signs of similar trends in China and India, where the growth of their
middle classes is very rapid. It is expected that within a decade or so, each of the
BRICs will show higher returns, increased demand for capital, and stronger national
currencies. Thus, foreign firms will want to monitor major economic indicators such
as GNI, PPP, and the Human Development Index, as well as developments in the
cultural, political, and legal environments of those nations.
3. What are the implications of the emergence of the BRICs to careers and companies
in your country?
Responses will vary according to the level of economic development and the
economic basis of a student’s home country. Those students from industrialized
nations may feel challenged and express the fear of a decline in their standards of
living due to increased pressures in the labor market and the declining cost
competitiveness of their countries’ firms. On the other hand, students from
developing countries may be hopeful that their countries will be able to successfully
generate and/or compete for the investment capital and those business activities that
lead to significant economic growth and the increasing global competitiveness of
their countries’ firms. How-ever, there is ample room for exceptions to these
feelings, given the present and future comparative advantages of particular nations.
WEB CONNECTION
Teaching Tip: Visit www.prenhall.com/daniels for additional information and
links relating to the topics presented in Chapter Four. Be sure to refer your students
to the online study guide, as well as the Internet exercises for Chapter Four.
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10. _________________________
CHAPTER TERMINOLOGY:
factor conditions, p.124
gross national income (GNI), p.125
gross domestic product (GDP),
p.125
GNI per capita, p.126
purchasing power parity (PPP),
p.128
Human Development Index, p.129
inflation, p.131
Consumer Price Index (CPI), p.132
unemployment rate, p.133
misery index, p.134
debt, p.134
internal debt, p.134
external debt, p.134
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
Initiative, p.134
income distribution, p.135
poverty, 136
balance of payments (BOP), p.137
current account, p. 137
capital account, p.137
trade surplus, p.137
trade deficit, p.137
economic system, p.140
market economy, p.141
laissez-faire principle, p.141
command economies, p.141
mixed economies, p.142
Economic Freedom Index, p.143
privatization, p.148
deregulation, p.148
antitrust laws, p.149
BRICs, p.152
_________________________
ADDITIONAL EXERCISES: Economic Factors
Exercise 4.1. Select a triad economy such as Japan, the United Kingdom, France,
or Germany, and select one of the BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India, China). Then ask
students to compare the key elements of those two economic systems. Be sure they
discuss the interaction between politics and economics in the two countries.
Exercise 4.2. In a day of global uncertainty, many wonder if it is necessary or
even desirable to have national economies linked so closely together. Ask the
students to consider what, if anything, a country can do to protect itself from the
impact of negative global economic events. Then ask them to consider whether the
impact of global recession on transition economies is necessarily the same as the
impact on the triad countries. If not, in what ways are they different and why?
Exercise 4.3. Many people believe that as a country’s political system changes
from a more repressive to a more representative form of government, its economic
system will necessarily become freer. Ask students to consider the basic logic of that
idea, as well as the belief that the complete privatization of all state-owned and
controlled assets is necessary for an economic transition to be successful.
Exercise 4.4. Managers often study many second-order indicators of economic
performance and potential, including inflation, unemployment, debt, income
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11. distribution, poverty, and the balance of payments. Ask students to consider which
of these indicators may be more relevant to the assessment of an industrialized
economy as compared to the assessment of an emerging economy.
45